EXPERIMENT No.

1
Study and trial of Rockwell hardness test & hardness conversion number
Aim: - Study and trial of Rockwell hardness test & hardness conversion number.

Objectives:-

1. To understand the principles of hardness testing

2. To select appropriate macro-micro hardness testing techniques for suitable materials-

property analysis.

3. To analyse the obtained hardness values in relevant to the nature of each material to be
measured and use this information as a tool for selecting suitable materials for engineering
applications.

4. To study variations in hardness properties of selected materials such as aluminium, steel,

brass and welded metals and can explain factors that might affects their hardness properties.

Apparatus: - Rockwell Hardness tests machine, specimen of mild steel or other material.

Theory: – Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting,
hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness tests, a define force is mechanically
applied on the piece, varies in size and shape for different tests. Common indenters are made of
hardened steel or diamond.
Rockwell hardness tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the
m/c. principally this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing. It differs only in diameter and material
of the indenter and the applied force. Although there are many scales having different combinations of
load and size of indenter but commonly ‘C’ scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the
indenter has a diamond cone at the tip and applied force is of 150 kgf. Soft materials are often tested in
‘B’ scale with a 1.6mm dia. Steel indenter at 60kgf.

Various scales in Rockwell hardness test are given below:-

There are different scales in Rockwell hardness like A, B, C, D, E, F, G etc. depending upon ctype of
material to be tested with respect to change in load.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Depending upon material to be tested choose proper scale and make arrangement with respect to
indenter and load.
2. Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Make contact between the specimen surface and the indenter by rotating the jack adjusting wheel.
Continue wheel rotation till larger pointer rests at zero and smaller pointer at 3 (red dot) on dial gauge.
4. Apply load by moving lever to ‘load position.’
5. After larger pointer come to rest, release the load by moving lever to ‘unload’ position.
6. Note down the reading at which larger pointer is resting.
7. Repeat the entire operation for 3 times for reliable reding.

FAQ:
1. What do you mean by the term “hardness”?
2. Explain Rockwell hardness test in detail.
3. Give different scales of Rockwell hardness test with type of indenter, load and respective material for
which it is being used.
4. Which scale of Rockwell hardness test shall be chosen for following material –
a. Brass -
b. Low carbon steel -
c. Cast iron -
d. Razor blade -
e. Carburized surface -
f. Bearing metal -
g. Aluminium alloy -
h. Rubber -
i. Bakelite -
j. Nylon –

5. Convert the following hardness numbers in to BHN and VHN.

 EXPERIMENT No.2
Study of Vickers Hardness Test
Aim: - Study of Vickers Hardness Test
Objectives:-
1. To understand the principles of hardness testing
2. To select appropriate macro-micro hardness testing techniques for suitable materials.
3. To analyse the obtained hardness values in relevant to the nature of each material to be
measured and use this information as a tool for selecting suitable materials for engineering
applications.
4. To study variations in hardness properties of selected materials such as aluminium,
steel, brass and welded metals and can explain factors that might affects their hardness
properties.
Apparatus: - Vickers Hardness tests machine, specimen of mild steel or other material.
Principle:

The required load as calculated by P/D2 ratio is applied on the specimen for a standard time of 8-
10 Sec and VHN is calculated by the ratio of load and the area of indentation. The diagonal of the
indentation is measured on the focusing screen of the machine.

Theory:

Very Hard materials (e.g. case hardened steel) can be tested by the Vickers method. If the
moderately hard materials like Brass, Copper and Aluminium are tested in this machine, the indenter
makes a deep impression. Hence, a proper indentation cannot be made on the specimen and a correct
value of the hardness cannot be obtained for these materials by Vickers hardness test.
This test is similar to Brinell hardness test. A regular pyramid having a square base and
smoothened off diamond point is pressed in the material to be tested under a load F. The produced
impression is projected onto a focusing screen and the diagonals of the impression are measured by
means of the measuring equipment. Due to small impressions, it is very suitable for testing polished
and hardened material surfaces. This test is rapid, accurate.

Formula: HV = (2F*sin (136/2))/ d2 = 1.854 (F/d2)

Procedure:
1. Clean the surface at the specimen
2. Fix the indenter in the hardness tester and switch on the power supply.
3. Place the specimen with cleaned surface facing the indenter on the anvil at work table.
4. Focus the work piece surface for clean visibility by rotating the hand wheel at the work table
upwards and downwards.
 5. Select the load specified (P) push button available on the right side at the hardness tester.
6. Actuate the electric push button (Green Button) at the front for loading, the loading lever
starts moving up words and reaches the study position.
7. Now release the loading lever slowly and bring it to the downward position after 10-15 secs.
8. For major reading adjust the display at the indentation made by the indenter to coincide with
the micrometre on the display screen.
9. For major (minor) reading adjust the movable side at the micrometre and note down the total
reading.
10. The measurement is to be made for two opposite corners of the diagonal indentation denoted
as (l).
11. Repeat the above procedure for different material.

Observation: –
Following observation are recorded
Reading No Load (F) Arithmetic mean of d1+ d2
(d)

Results and Conclusion: Vickers hardness number of given specimen is -

Reading No VHN

Questions:

1. Explain principle of Vickers hardness test with specific sketch.

2. Give advantages and limitations of Vickers Hardness test.
3. Derive mathematical expression for Vickers Hardness test.
4. Derive mathematical expression for Vickers Hardness test.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 3
Brinell and Poldi Hardness Test
Aim: To determine hardness value by using Brinell and Poldi hardness tester.
Objectives:
1. To learn principles and different methods of hardness measurement.
2. To learn about the correlations among different types of hardness measurements
3. To acquire experience of using various types of hardness testers
Introduction:
Hardness is resistance of a material to plastic deformation, scratching, surface penetration or
wear. These properties are all related to the resistance against plastic flow in the material. Hardness is
generally considered as resistance to penetration.
There are different approaches and criteria for hardness measurement. Some test methods for
certain material provide convenient correlation of hardness to other mechanical properties. For example,
hardness from indentation testes on steel and copper alloys be used as a rough guide to estimate tensile
strength. Hardness tests in most cases are rapid and repeatable. Therefore, hardness test represents an
important means of quality control.
Hardness is directly related to the mechanical properties of the material. Factors influencing
hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain hardening etc. Generally as hardness increases so
does yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS), thus specifications often require the result of
hardness tests rather than tensile test. The most popular methods are Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell
hardness tests for metals and alloys.
Brinellhardness Test:
In standard Brinell test 10mm diameter hardened steel ball is forced to penetrate the material by
3000kgf for steels and cast iron. The load and ball diameter selection is important depending on the
hardness of materials and 500kgf is used for softer materials with the same ball diameter. The brinell
hardness number is obtained by dividing the applied force P, in kgf: by the curved surface area of the
identification, which is actually a segment of sphere.
The hardness is determined according to the relationship given below,
BHN = 2P / {π*D [D - (D2 - d2)1/2]}
Where D is the diameter of the indenter ball and d is the average diameter of the indentation, both in
mm. For brinell hardness test the sample should be flat and securely supported.
Procedure for Brinell hardness test:
1. Place the specimen on the anvil with its surface normal to the direction of applied load.
2. Select the correct weights.
3. Turn the large side hand wheel in clockwise direction until it stops. Hold it in place with right hand.
4. Using left hand, raise the anvil with the capstan hand wheel tuning in clockwise direction until the
specimen just makes contact with ball indenter. See that ball is at least 5 mm from the edges of the
specimen or existing indentations.
5. Apply load slowly by releasing the lever.
6. Make sure this is done gently.
7. Lower the specimen by tuning the capstan hand wheel counter-clockwise until it clears the indenter.
8. Measure the diameter of the indentation to the nearest 0.1mm using microscope.
9. Calculate the brinell hardness using standard equation.
Observation:
Diameter of Load Diameter of
Sr. No. Specimen BHN
indentation D mm applied kg indenter d mm

Fig 3: Indentation pattern

Poldi Hardness Test:
This hardness test is very simple to conduct and much similar to Brinell hardness test. The principle of
the test is also same as that of Brinell hadness test. It is portable unit and test can be conducted in less
time. Selection of different loads is not required as single blow of hammer is needed. This test is very
much suitable for casting and forgings. The standard bar is required to charge as it gets consume due to
number of impressions on it. The required hardness value can be obtained using the equation,
BHN = {D - [D2 - D12]1/2} / {D - [D2 - d22]1/2} X BHN of standard bar
D = diameter of steel ball
d1 = diameter of impression on standard bar
d2 = diameter of impression on specimen
 Fig. 4 Poldi Hardness tester
Procedure for Poldi hardness test:
1. With the help of smooth grinder, grind the small area where hardness to be measured.
2. By inserting the standard bar in the slot given, the instrument is held vertically over the specimen.
3. One blow of hammer is given on the striking head.
4. With help of low magnifying glass diameter of impression on specimen and standard bar so
measured.
The intensity of blow hammer should be proper i.e. it should not be too heavy, that it may deform the
ball indenter itself or it should not too light that the impression will be too small which may be difficult
to measure. If the instrument is not hold vertically, it may lead to faulty results. It is not as accurate as
brinell hardness test.
Observation Table:
Diameter of
Diameter of
Diameter of indentation
indentation on
Sr. No. Specimen indenter D on the BHN
the specimen
10mm standard
d2 mm
bar d1 mm

Result:
The hardness of different metals / specimens is as follows
Using Brinell and Poldi Hardness methods
FAQ’s:
1. What do you mean by hardness?
2. What are types of hardness measurement?
3. What is indenter, load in Brinell test?
4. Give formula for BHN.
5. Explain procedure for Brinell test
6. Give advantages of Brinell test
7. Give drawbacks of Brinell test
8. What is pilling?
9. Give formula for Poldi test
10. What are advantages of Poldi?
11. Give drawbacks of Poldi.
12. Explain Impact test.
13. Draw specimen for impact test.
 Experiment No. 4
Study of Dye Penetrant Test
AIM: - Study of Dye Penetrant Test

Objectives:-
1. To study the importance of non-destructive testing (NDT).
2. Identify suitability of PT for the material.
3. To study the benefits of PT over other conventional methods.

Apparatus: - Dye, developer spray, cleaner, cotton cloth

Introduction
Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest and simplest NDT methods. This method is used to reveal
surface discontinuities by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw. The technique is
based on the ability of a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface discontinuity by capillary action.
After a period of time called the "dwell time", excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer
applied. This acts as a blotter that draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to reveal its presence. The
advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection offers over an unaided visual inspection is that it makes
defects easier to see for the inspector where that is done in two ways

1. It produces a flaw indication that is much larger and easier for the eye to detect than the flaw
itself. Many flaws are so small or narrow that they are undetectable by the unaided eye (a
person with a perfect vision cannot resolve features smaller than 0.08 mm).
2. It improves the detestability of a flaw due to the high level of contrast between the indication
and the background which helps to make the indication more easily seen (such as a red
indication on a white background for visible penetrant or a penetrant that glows under ultra-
violate light for fluorescent penetrant).

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods. Its popularity can be attributed
to two main factors: its relative ease of use and its flexibility. It can be used to inspect almost any
material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly
inspected using this method include; metals, glass, many ceramic materials, rubber and plastics.
However, liquid penetrant testing can only be used to inspect for flaws that break the surface of the
sample (such as surface cracks, porosity, laps, seams, lack of fusion, etc.).

Procedure
Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing the exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from
case to case depending on several factors such as the penetrant system being used, the size and
material of the component being inspected, the type of discontinuities being expected in the
component and the condition and environment under which the inspection is performed. However,
the general steps can be summarized as follows:
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant testing is the surface
preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may
prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if mechanical
operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other
mechanical operations can smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from
entering.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the penetrant
material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as much
penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total
time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually recommended
by the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary
depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the material
being inspected, and the type of discontinuity being inspected for. Minimum dwell times
typically range from five to 60 minutes.
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate part of the inspection procedure because
the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little
penetrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may
involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the part with an
emulsifier and then rinsing with water.
1. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw
penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety
of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet developers).
2. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of
time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This
development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times may be
necessary for tight cracks.
3. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications from
any flaws which may be present.
 Figure 7- Dye penetrant test (Capillary action)
Advantages
a. High sensitivity (small discontinuities can be detected).
b. Few material limitations (metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic and
conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected).
c. Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
d. Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
e. Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
f. Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
g. Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive)
Disadvantages
a. Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
b. Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
c. Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
d. Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapour blasting must be removed.
e. The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
f. Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
g. Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
h. Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
i. Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
FAQ
1. What do you mean by NDT or NDE?
2. Give principle of dye/liquid penetrant test.
3. Explai procedure of Dye penetrant test.
4. What are limitations of dye penetrant test?
5. What are advantages of dye penetrant test over ultrasonic and radiographic testing methods?
6. Explain which type of material and which type of defects can be detected by dye penetrant test.
 Experiment No. 5
Study and Determination of sample preparation for microscopic examination
Aim: Demonstration of sample preparation techniques (metallic samples)
used in microscopic examination
Objectives:
Ø Study of structural characteristics or constitution of metal or an alloy in relation to its physical
and mechanical properties.
Ø Familiarisation with the procedure for preparation of metallic specimen for microscopic
examination.
Ø Familiarisation with compound optical microscopes and metallography.
Introduction:
The preparation of a metallurgical specimen generally can be divided into series of stages.
1. Sectioning or Sampling
2. Mounting
3. Grinding and polishing (Rough polishing and Fine polishing)
4. Etching

Procedure of specimen preparation is as follows:

1. Sectioning or Sampling
Sampling is the removal of a small representative volume of material from the parent piece. The
specimen should be preferably selected so that it is characteristic of the material and fulfil object of
examination. Eg. For annealed or cold rolled condition the specimen should be taken out from
longitudinal section. For carburised or decarburised condition care should be taken at edges. If
component is not extremely brittle, the sample may be taken out using manual or power hacksawing.
For extremely brittle metal and alloys, component can fractured by hammer blow and suitable sample
can be selected. Specimens of hard materials (fully hardened high carbon steel) which cannot be easily
cut or fractured, can be prepared by cutting the component by abrasive wheel. Specimen should be
preferably of a size that is convenient and comfortable for handling. A specimen size for easy and
comfortable polishing is 1.5 to 2.5 cm.
2. Mounting
This is optional step. Metallographic samples which are too small or too awkward in shape like
chips, wires, sheet metal specimens and thin sections are mounted in suitable plastic for convenient
handling during polishing. Thermoplastic or thermosetting type polymers are used for mounting.
Bakelite powder is available in variety of colours. A special mounting press is available for mounting
with or without pressure and with or without heating assembly.
3. Grinding and polishing (Rough polishing and Fine polishing)
 Top and bottom surfaces of the specimen are made flat and parallel with each other by filing or
machining. Surface to be examined is made plane using motor-driven emery belt. Specimen may get
heated excessively during this operation and hence it should be kept cool by frequently dipping into cold
water. Excessive pressure should not be applied in grinding and polishing operation which may create
deep scratches. It is desirable to remove sharp edges and corners of the specimen. This should be
continued until specimen surface appears flat. Specimen should be washed thoroughly after this step
with running water. Further polishing is done on standard emery papers by dry or wet method.
Dry method: This is done by using emery papers of grade numbers 0, 00, 000 and 0000. First 0 emery
paper is placed on any clean, hard and flat surface like glass. The paper is held with one hand and
specimen is slowly moved back and forth by other hand on the paper with moderate pressure. The
position of the specimen should be such that the scratches introduced during this stage of polishing are
perpendicular to the scratches produced from belt grinder. When new fine scratches are seen in one
direction and no scratches are seen in perpendicular direction, polishing is said to be complete.
Subsequent operations are carried out on number 00, 000 and 0000. At each change of paper specimen
should be washed with running water.
Wet method: In this method, water proof emery papers of numbers 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 are used
in succession. Water is flown continuously on the paper during polishing. All other things are to taken
care same as that of dry polishing.
In fine polishing, scratched introduced by number 0000 paper or 600 paper are completely removed.
This polishing operation is done on polishing wheel or polishing laps. These laps are brass, bronze or SS
discs covered with appropriate grade of polishing cloth. Wheels are rotated with motor. Procedure
consists of pouring abrasive suspension (distilled water + abrasive powder) on the top of the lapping
wheel and rotating the wheel with suitable speed. Success and time required for this in polishing in this
stage depends on the care with which the previous operations are carried out.
4. Etching:
Etching is a process done on the polished surface so that the structural details are revealed by the
microscope. Polished surface is subjected to the action of suitable chemical reagent under controlled
condition. Time is important factor and varied depending upon specimen material and etching reagent.
Etching reagents are applied on a specimen surface either by immersion or swabbing.
In immersion, etchant is taken on small glass container or dish and specimen is dipped into the
reagent. Specimen is agitated moderately. Etching should be stopped as soon as desired degree of
darkness is achieved on the surface. After that specimen is thoroughly washed with running tap water.
Then specimen is rinsed in methyl, ethyl or isopropyl alcohol to remove water droplets and
subsequently dried in warm air.
 In swabbing, polished surface is swabbed with a tuft of soft cotton thoroughly saturated with the
etchant. Etching can observed simultaneously during swabbing. Then specimen is rinsed in methyl,
ethyl or isopropyl alcohol to remove water droplets and subsequently dried in warm air.
Etching reagents -
I. Iron and steel
a. Nital (Nitric acid + methyl or ethyl alcohol)
b. Picral (Picic acid + methyl or ethyl alcohol)
c. Alkaline sodium picrate (Picric acid + Sodium hydroxide + water)
d. Stead's reagent (Cupric chloride + magnesium chloride + hydrochloric acid + water + ethyl alcohol)
II. Stainless steel
a. Murakami's reagent
b. Marbles reagent
c. Aqua regia (Conc. HNO3 + Conc. HCl in proportion 1:3)
III. Aluminium
a. Kellers etch
b. Vilella's reagent

Fig. 1: Mounted samples

Result:
 Correct sample preparation technique only reveals microstructural details like grains, grain
boundaries, different phases etc. Higher pressure during grinding and polishing gives deep scratches.
Excessive etching time does not reveal microstructural details.
FAQ’s:
1. What is microscopy?
2. Why specimen should be washed after etching?
3. What is need of mounting? Is it mandatory?
4. Explain how etching takes place.
5. Explain steps that are involved in specimen preparation for microscopic examination.
6. Give etchants for
7. Steel
8. Copper base alloy
9. Aluminium base alloy
 EXPERIMENT NO: 6
Study and Drawing of microstructure of Cast iron and Steels for various
compositions
Aim: To study microstructure of steels of various compositions with the help
of metallurgical microscope

Objectives:
1. Familiarisation with the different microstructure of steels
2. Familiarisation with different phases present in the steel
3. Familiarisation with different operations of metallurgical microscope

Microstructural details:
1. Specimen - Dead mild steel
Composition - 0.05% C, 0.5% Mg
Mechanical treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Annealing
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Microstructure is almost single phase.
Polygonal equiaxed grains of ferrite are observed.

2. Specimen - Low carbon steel

Composition - 0.2% C, 0.5% Mg
Mechanical Treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Annealing
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - A typical two phase structure is observed.
Ferrite is bright and pearlite is dark in colour. Ferrite
occupies approximately 75% volume and pearlite is balance.

3. Specimen - Medium Carbon steel

Composition - 0.4% C, 0.5% Mg
Mechanical treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Annealing
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Atypical two phase structure is observed.
Ferrite is bright and pearlite is dark. Ferrite occupies
almost 50% the volume while pearlite is rest.

4. Specimen - Medium carbon steel

Composition - 0.6% C, 0.5% Mg
Mechanical Treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Normalising
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - A typical two phase structure is observed.
Ferrite is bright and pearlite is dark in colour. Ferrite
occupies approximately 25% volume and pearlite is
balance. Typical Widmanstatten type structure is observed.

5. Specimen - Inclusion steel

Mechanical Treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 100X
Etchant - Unetched
Description - Steel usually contains non metallic
inclusions such as sulphides, Alumina, Silicate
or oxide type. The observed structure is longitudinal
section in unetched condition. Dark coloured
inclusions are observed in the bright metallic matrix.

6. Specimen - Hardened steel

Composition - 0.4% C, 0.5% Mg
Mechanical Treatment - Hot rolled
Heat treatment - Hardening
Magnification - 400X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Almost single phase martensitic
structure is observed. Randomly oriented
martensitic needles are present. A very
few quantity of retained austenite is also observed.
7. Specimen - Gray cast iron
Composition - 3.5% C, 3% Si
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Microstructure reveals dark flake
type graphite in the metallic matrix of ferrite
and pearlite. Ferrite appears white and is observed
more in vicinity of graphite. Pearlite is well resolved
at many locations showing lamellarstructure.

8. Specimen - White cast iron

Composition - 2.8% C, 1% Si
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Hypoeutectic type white cast iron
structure is observed. Dendrites of original austenite
transformed to pearlite are observed. White
bright phase cementite is observed in the inter-dendritic region.

9. Specimen - Ductile cast iron

Composition - 3.5% C, 3% Si
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Three distinct phases ferrite,
Pearlite and graphite are observed. Nodules
of graphite dark in colour are observed in
the matrix of white ferrite and pearlite.
Pearlite is unresolved and occupies about
70% volume. Ferrite is observed surrounding graphite.

10. Specimen - Mottled cast iron

Composition - 3% C, 1% Si
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nital
Description - Combination of two types of
structures are observed. Dark region is gray
cast iron whereas bright region is white cast
iron. Dark region shows fine graphite flakes
inunresolved pearlite matrix. The bright region
dendritic pattern of pearlite and cementite.

FAQ’s:
1. Explain what is CI?
2. Explain each microstructure of CI in detail.
3. Explain heat treatment used for formation of malleable CI?
4. How nodular CI is formed?
5. Draw microstructure of Hyper eutectoid steel (1% C).
6. How should grain look like in longitudinal and transverse direction when the mild steel specimen is
rolled?
7. Explain effect of C content on microstructure of steels and mechanical properties.
8. Give applications of mild steel, low carbon steel, medium C steel, high carbon steel, tool steel.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 7
Study and drawing of microstructure of Non-Ferrous Metals
Aim: To study microstructure of different non ferrous metals with the help of
metallurgical microscope
Objectives:
• Familiarisation with the different microstructure of non ferrous metals
• Familiarisation with different phases present in non ferrous metals
• Familiarisation with different operations of metallurgical microscope

Microstructural details:
1. Specimen - Cartridge brass
Composition - 70% Cu, 30% Zn
Mechanical treatment - Cold worked
Heat treatment - Annealing
Magnification - 100X
Etchant - Ferric chloride
Description - Single phase alpha structure is
observed. Grains are polygonal and equiaxed.
Grains show different contrast because of
different grain orientations. Mixed grain size
is observed. Annealing twins are present.

2. Specimen - Muntz metal

Composition - 60% Cu, 40% Zn
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 100X
Etchant - Ferric chloride
Description - A typical two phase structure is
observed. Bright phase alpha is present in the
dark matrix of beta phase. Alpha phase is in
dendrite form and is distributed evenly in the matrix.

3. Specimen - Tin Bronze

Composition - 10% Tin, 90% Copper
Mechanical treatment - As cast
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 100X
Etchant - Ferric chloride
Description - In two phase structure, alpha
phase is in dendrite form. Dendrites show
different contrast as effect of different orientation.
Coring is observed in the dendrites. Sigma phase is
present in the inter-dendritic region.

4. Specimen - Anodised Aluminium

Mechanical treatment - Anodising
Heat treatment - Nil
Magnification - 200X
Etchant - Nil
Description - Aluminium components are given
conversion coating (anodising) treatment to
protect it from corrosion and for decorative
purpose. The present structure is the cross section
of the anodised aluminium component. A dull
phase in the surface region is alumina coating on
the base aluminium.

FAQ’s:
1. Draw microstructure of aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, Tin base Babbitt
2. What is difference between ferrous and non ferrous metal
3. Give applications of Cu base alloys, Al base alloys
4. What is Brass? Alpha and beta brass and give Applications
5. What is Bronze? Applications
6. Explain Ni base alloys. Give example and explain.
EXPERIMENT NO: 8
Jominy End Quench Test
Aim: To determine hardenability of a particular steel sample with the help of
Jominy End Quench Test
Objectives:
• To obtain hardenability curve for given steel sample.
• Observe the effects of carbon content and alloying.
• To study phase transformation in steel
Introduction:
The Jominy end-quench test is the standard method for measuring the hardenability of steels.
This describes the ability of the steel to be hardened in depth by quenching. Knowledge about the
hardenability of steels is necessary to select the appropriate combination of alloy steel and heat
treatment to minimize thermal stresses and distortion in manufacturing components of different sizes.
Hardenability depends on the chemical composition of the steel and also be can affected by prior
processing conditions, such as the austenitizing temperature. It is not only necessary to understand the
basic information provided from the test, but also to understand how the information obtained from the
Jominy test can be used to understand the effects of alloying in steels and the steel microstructure.
The dependence of hardness upon quenching rate can be understood from the time-temperature-
transformation characteristics of steel and for a particular steel can be estimated from T-T-T diagram.
Hardening of steels can be understood by considering that on cooling from high temperature, the
austenite phase of the steel can transform to either martensite or a mixture of ferrite and pearlite. The
ferrite/pearlite reaction involves diffusion, which takes time. However, the martensite transformation
does not involve diffusion and essentially is instantaneous. These two reactions are competitive, and
martensite is obtained if the cooling rate is fast enough to avoid the slower formation of ferrite and
pearlite. In alloyed steels, the ferrite/ pearlite reaction is further slowed down, which allows martensite
to be obtained using slower cooling rates. Transformation to another possible phase (bainite) can be
understood in a similar way.
Hardenability refers to capacity of hardening (depth) rather than to maximum attainable
hardness. When a appreciable size of a metal is heated to the austenisation temperature and then
quenched, the cooling rates varies across the surface. The cooling rate at the center and surface are not
the same. The difference in these rates increase with the rise in severity of the quench and decrease with
speed of heat absorption. At center of cross section, the cooling rate is slowest. This may give rise to
formation of pearlite. Martensite may be formed on surface and hence gradient of hardness exist form
the surface to center.
Hardenability depends on,
1. Composition of steel
2. Structure of steel before quenching
3. Austenitic grain size
Apparatus and Procedure:
The specimen is of cylindrical shape with 25.4mm diameter and approximately 102mm in length
and has machined shoulder at one end. The specimen is austenitised at constant temperature for a fixed
time and quickly transferred to fixture. Water is allowed to flow on bottom end through a pipe having
inside diameter of 12.7 mm for about 20 mins. The pressure should be adjusted such that the free height
of the water is approximately 64mm. At this pressure, water forms a complete umbrella over the bottom
surface of the specimen. The temperature of the water should be between 21 to 27°C.
The cooling rate is maximum at the quenched end of the specimen where usually full hardening
occurs and diminishes steadily towards the air cooled end where the structure is nearly equivalent to that
produced by normalizing i.e. all possible rates of cooling from water quenching to air cooling are
obtained on single test piece. The cooling rates along the length of the bar are essentially independent of
the composition of the bar and because of the specimen is of standard size and test procedure is
maintained constant, the cooling rate at the same position on different samples is the same. It is
therefore possible to compare the hardenability of various steels from their microstructure at similar
locations from the quenched end.
After quenching two flat surfaces are ground opposite to each other along the length of the
specimen. The hardness is measured (VPN or Rc) at intervals of 1.6mm distance from quenched end.
Hardness values are plotted as a function of distance from the quenched end and resulting curve is called
as Jominy hardenability curve. The hardenability is considered to be where 50 Rc value is obtained.

Fig.6 Schematic illustration of the Jominy end-quench test

 Fig. 7 Standard test sample
Observation Table:
Sr. No. Distance from quench end Hardness

Result:
Thus after plotting curve of hardness vs distance from the quenched end, hardenability of given steel bar
is

FAQ’s:
1. Define hardenability.
2. How does it differs from hardness?
3. Which type of heat treatment is given to specimen?
4. Explain normalizing, annealing and hardening?
5. Draw TTT diagram for eutectoid steel.
6. Draw CCT diagram for eutectoid steel.
7. What ausforming, patenting, martempering? (similar processes)
8. Hardenability depends upon which factors?
9. How hardness and hardenability gets affected by C content?
10. Is there unit for hardenability?
11. Precaution during Jominy test?
12. Draw specimen for Jominy test.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 7
Study and drawing of microstructure of Non-Ferrous Metals
OBJECTIVE:

To inspect the property of creep in metals (lead in this experiment).

LINK: http://eerc01-
iiith.vlabs.ac.in/exp6/Introduction.html?domain=Civil%20Engineering&lab=Basic%20Engineering%20
Mechanics%20&%20Strength%20of%20Materials%20Lab

APPARATUS:

GUNT -Creep machine: is designed so that students may observe creep phenomena during a normal
laboratory class using specimens.

SPECIMENS:

Three specimens which made of lead

THEORY:

When a material like steel is plastically deformed at ambient temperatures its strength is increased due
to work hardening. This work hardening effectively prevents any further deformation from taking place
if the stress remains approximately constant. Annealing the deformed steel at an elevated temperature
removes the work hardening and restores the steel to its original condition. However, if the steel is
plastically deformed at an elevated temperature, then both work hardening and annealing take place
simultaneously. A consequence of this is that steel under a constant stress at an elevated temperature
will continuously deform with time, that is, it is said to "creep".

Creep in steel is important only at elevated temperatures. In general, creep becomes significant at
temperatures above about 0.4Tm where Tm is the absolute melting temperature. However, materials
having low melting temperatures will exhibit creep at ambient temperatures. Good examples are lead
and various types of plastic. For example, lead has a melting temperature of 326°C (599K) and at 20°C
(293K, or about 0.5Tm) it exhibits similar creep characteristics to those of iron at 650°C.

Creep may occur under: Static tension, Compression, Bending, Torsion and Shear stress. Creep is a
function of: stress, time and temperature. A metal is more likely to creep at higher stress level or after a
long period of time even if the temperature is not elevated. Creep strength is defined as (the highest
stress that a material can stand for specified time without excessive deformation). The creep rupture
strength “Rupture strength" is defined as (The highest stress a material can stand for a specified time
without rupture).

The SM106 Creep Measurement Apparatus is a simple unit designed for demonstrating and
investigating the creep characteristics of lead and polypropylene specimens at room temperature.
A temperature module is provided to enable investigation of the effects of temperature on creep
rate.

Creep in metals:

A creep test is carried out by applying a constant load to a specimen and observing the increase
in strain (or extension) with time. A typical extension - time curve is shown in Fig. 1.
Three regions can be readily identified on the curve:

1 to 2 Primary Creep -creep proceeds at a diminishing rate due to work hardening of the metal.

2 to 3 Secondary Creep - creep proceeds at a constant rate because a balance is achieved between
the work hardening and annealing (thermal softening) processes.

3 to 4 Tertiary Creep - the creep rate increases due to necking of the specimen and the associated
increase in local stress. Failure occurs at point 4
Creep in plastics:

Plastics also creep at ambient temperatures but, compared to lead, they are able to sustain much
greater extensions before failure, the creep curves are similar in shape to those for metals, but the
mechanism of deformation is quite different because of the difference in structure of the
material. A polymer consists of long chain-like molecules in a tangled and coiled arrangement;
creep occurs by chains untangling and slipping relative to one another. The creep rate is still
dependent on stress and temperature but equation 1 can no longer be applied.

The complex processes taking place during creep make it difficult to quote an equation that
describes the creep behavior of all polymers. Many empirical equations have been proposed and
one, which applies to some of the common engineering plastics, has the form

where ε is the tensile creep strain after a time t, σ is the applied creep stress, εο is the
instantaneous or initial strain produced on loading, and Β, m, k are constants for a given
polymer. The elastic component of the initial strain can be calculated by dividing the creep stress
by the tensile modulus of the polymer, which for polypropylene is 1250 N/mm2. In many
polymers this initial strain is very small and can be ignored, so that in these cases

Finally, it should be noted that with polymer materials the primary creep stage, where the creep
rate is decreasing, is largely recovered when the creep load is removed. This behavior is unlike
that observed in most metallic systems, and the effect can be easily demonstrated using the
SM106 apparatus by removing the load after the polymer has been creeping for 20 to 30 minutes
and continuing to take strain readings. It will be found that the elastic strain is removed
instantaneously, but that further recovery of strain takes place over a period of several minutes.
This time dependent effect is due to recovery of the viscoelastic component of the creep strain.
For the stress levels used in the SM106 apparatus (typically 19 N/mm2), approximately 40% of
the creep strain is recovered after 5 minutes.

Equations:

1) Actual deflection: D=D (t) +D0. Where

“D0” is the deflection at zero time
And “D (t)” the reading of the deflection at the time required.
2) Εc (t) = εco + ε'c * t …… εco: is the factious initial value.
3) Strain: ε =D/L0.
Where L0 is the length of the specimen without applying the load.
4) Creep Rate = Δε/Δt = slope at secondary stage