SEMINAR REPORT

ON
SOLAR CARS
Submitted by

MOHD. SAIF SIDDIQUI

(ROLL NO. : 2901016017)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MOHAMMAD SERAJ SIR

S.A.H JAFRI SIR

DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY,
LUCKNOW – 226026
2021 – 2022

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 INDEX

S.NO TITLE PAGE

NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 3-5

2. DRIVER 5-9
CONTROLS &
MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
3. 9-12

4. DRIVE TRAIN 13-14

5. SOLAR 15-16
INSOLATION

6. SOLAR ARRAY 17-22

7. BODY AND 22-24

CHASSIS

8. MATERIAL 24-25
USED

9. FALLING 25
SHORT

10. THE FUTURE 26-27

11. CONCLUSION 28

12. REFRENCES 29

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 1. INTRODUCTION

A solar car is a vehicle, which is powered by sun’s energy. A solar car is a

light weight, low power vehicle designed and built with a single purpose in
mind – racing. They have limited seating (usually one, sometimes two
people), they have very little cargo capacity, and they can only be driven
during the day. It does, however, offer an excellent opportunity to develop
future technologies that can be applied to practical applications.

Figure 1: Energy Flow Diagram of a Solar Car

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The main component of a solar car is its solar array, consisting of
photovoltaic cells, which collect the energy from the sun and converts it
into usable electrical energy. The energy is passed either to the battery for
storage, or to the motor to run the car, though a device called power
tracker, which convert it into the required voltage. The decision on
whether to transfer the power to the motor or battery is made by a small
onboard computer called the motor controller. It is responsible for sending
the electricity smoothly to the motor when the accelerator is depressed,
controlling the torque that goes to the motor such that the car maintains the
desired speed. Some cars also use a process called regenerative braking,
which allows some of the kinetic energy stored in the vehicle’s translating
mass to be stored in the battery when the car is slowing down.

A solar car is made up of many components that have been integrated

together so that they work as a single system. For the ease of explanation it
has been broken down into five primary systems:

 Driver Controls & Mechanical Systems

 Electrical System
 Drive Train
 Solar Array
 Body and Chassis

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A solar car is made up of many components that have been integrated
together so that they work as a single system. For the ease of explanation it
has been broken down into five primary systems:

 Driver Controls & Mechanical Systems

 Electrical System
 Drive Train
 Solar Array
 Body and Chassis

2.DRIVER CONTROLS &

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Solar cars do have some of the standard features found in conventional
cars, such as turn signals (front & rear), brake lights, accelerator, rear view
mirrors, fresh air ventilation, and usually cruise control. The drivers and
passengers are protected safety harnesses and helmets. Drivers and
passengers can look forward to uncomfortable seats, cramped positioning,
and high cockpit temperatures as these cars have very few amenities for
the driver.

2.1 REAR VISION:

Mirrors mounted to a car's exterior greatly increase aerodynamic drag; therefore,

an out-of-the–box thinking is required to find a solution. SUNRUNNER, a solar
car developed by the University of Michigan in 1995, utilized a fibre optic cable

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connecting an eyepiece in the driver's area to a lens located in an aerodynamic
fin mounted on top of the canopy. MAIZE & BLUE, a later model developed by
the University, on the other hand, chose an electronic system consisting of a
miniature camera installed in the car's trailing edge and a pocket television in the
driver's area. Some cars also have externally mounted mirrors of mirrors within a
bubble canopy.

2.2 VENTILATION:

High temperatures are obviously bad for the driver (and passenger), but
they are also bad for electrical and electronic components as high
temperatures will generally reduce the efficiency and shorten the life of
solar cells, batteries, motors, motor controllers and other electronic
equipment.

Figure 2: The comfortable interior temperature and air flow rate as a

function of outside temperature

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Something like 10 kilograms of air would typically have to be provided
every minute to approach passenger car comfort levels. Obviously, that's
seldom feasible in a solar car due to the drag that it might impose on the
vehicle, if such cooling flows are not also required by electrical, electronic
and mechanical components of the vehicle.Vehicle designers usually use
the same airflow several times over as it passes through the vehicle; for
example cooling driver, electronics, electrics and motor sequentially.
Placing a sizeable air inlet at the forward stagnation point of the vehicle
minimises drag due to the opening. 'NACA ducts’ are an alternative for
getting air into the car if there's a reasonably-flat, external surface nearby
that doesn't have significant divergent (or convergent) flow.

The mechanical systems of a solar car are designed to minimize friction

and weight while maintaining the strength needed to handle the various
road conditions. Lightweight metals like titanium and composites are
commonly used to maximize the strength-to-weight ratio. It includes:

2.3 STEERING:

The major design factors for steering are reliability and efficient
performance. The steering system is designed with precise steering
alignment because even small misalignments can cause significant losses
and increase tire wear. Different cars use different steering mechanisms
depending on their budget and other considerations. The SUNRUNNER
utilized a rack and pinion system that was attached to the steering arms by
means of tie rods. TESSERACT, a single-seat high performance solar
racecar, uses a centre mounted handlebars, much like that on bicycles that
connect to a rack-and-pinion steering system.

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2.4 BRAKES:

To maximize efficiency, the brakes are designed to move freely,

eliminating brake drag, which is caused by brake pads rubbing against the
brake surface. Hydraulic disc brakes are commonplace in solar cars
because of their adjustability and good braking power. As a supplemental
system, some teams have regenerative braking which allows some of the
kinetic energy stored in the vehicle’s translating mass to be stored in the
battery when the car is slowing down. Here the car's motor becomes a
generator as regenerative braking is applied and adds energy to the
batteries during deceleration. Both MAIZE& BLUE and SUNRUNNER
had hydraulic disc brakes while only SUNRUNNER used regenerative
braking.

2.5 SUSPENSION:

Of the available front suspension variants, MacPhearson struts or double

A arms are most common in solar cars. A MacPhearson strut requires a
large vertical clearance since it is positioned perpendicular to the ground.
Double A arms require less vertical clearance, but consist of more
components. Depending upon the design a suitable one is chosen. The
most common rear suspension is a trailing arm, similar to that found in
motorcycles. Due to a single degree of motion, the trailing arm suspension
allows for convenient packaging of dampers and the drivetrain.

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2.6 WHEELS:

Wheels, however, are the least efficient part of a solar car due to rolling
resistance. About one third of the energy used by a solar car is lost due to
this factor. Due to this limitation, contact with the ground should be
minimized.Solar cars typically have three or four wheels. The common
three-wheel configuration is two front wheels and one rear wheel (usually
the driven wheel). Four-wheel vehicles are sometimes configured like a
conventional vehicle (with one of the rear wheels being driven). Other
four-wheel vehicles have the two rear wheels close together near the centre
(similar to the common three wheel configuration).Solar car wheel designs
are similar to those of bicycle tires. Generally, the wheel's rims and hubs
are aluminium while the spokes are made of steel. A Mylar film is placed
over the spokes to increase aerodynamic efficiency. Pneumatic tires are
preferred over solid rubber tires because they weigh less and provide a
smoother ride. The best tires currently available are the Bridgestone
Ecopia tires made for solar cars. They are very thin and operate at over one
hundred pounds/inch pressure.

3. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
The heart of a solar car is the electrical system, which is made up of
batteries and power electronics. Power electronics include the peak power
trackers, the motor controller, and the data acquisition system. The primary
function of the power electronics is to monitor and control the electricity
within the system.

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3.1 BATTERIES:

A solar car uses the battery pack to store energy, which will be at a later
time. The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired
together to generate the required system voltage. The types of batteries
used include

 Lead-Acid
 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
 Lithium Ion

The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight
ratio over the more common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to
maintain.The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired
together to generate the required system voltage. Typically, teams use
system voltages between 84 and 108 volts, depending on their electrical
system. For example, Tesseract uses 512 li-ion batteries, broken down into
twelve modules, which are each equivalent to a car battery, but only weigh
5 lbs each. Through an innovative pack design, the batteries are ventilated
with even airflow to minimize temperature differences between the
modules.

3.2 PEAK POWER TRACKERS:

The peak power trackers condition the electricity coming from the solar
array to maximize the power and deliver it either to the batteries for
storage or to the motor controller for propulsion. When the solar array is
charging the batteries, the peak power trackers help to protect the batteries

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from being damaged by overcharging. Peak power trackers can be very
lightweight and commonly reach efficiencies above 95%.A maximum
power point tracker (MPPT) is a DC-DC converter that matches the output
of a PV string to the battery voltage in a way that maximises the power
generated by the PV string.The power generated by a PV string depends on
the operating voltage. PV power increases steadily with operating voltage
to a maximum, and then drops off rapidly as the voltage is increased
further to the open-circuit voltage. A tracker allows the PV string to
always operate at the most efficient point, independently of the battery
voltage. For example, if your battery voltage is 100V and the ideal
operating point for an array string is 2A x 120V = 240W, the tracker
output will be 2.4A x 100V = 240W. In practice, there is always a small
loss of 1-2% due to inefficiencies in the tracker electronics.

MPPTs are of three types:

 down (buck) converters, which convert the PV voltage to a

lower battery voltage;
 up (boost) converters, which convert the PV voltage to a
higher battery voltage; and
 dual (buck-boost) converters, which will convert either way,
though usually with a penalty in efficiency.

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3.2.1 FINDING THE MAXIMUM POWER POINT: There are two
methods to find the maximum power point.

1. Open-circuit voltage tracking: The tracker periodically

measures the open circuit voltage, VOC, of the PV string,
then sets the operating voltage to Vmp = k VOC, where k is a
constant. The method is simple, and reasonably effective. This
method is used by AERL trackers.

2. Power tracking: The tracker measures changes in output

power as it makes small changes to the operating point, and
adjusts the operating point to maximise output power.

3.3 MOTOR CONTROLLERS:

This component performs the complex task of deciding how much current
actually reaches the motor at a given time. This determination of current
by the motor controller allows the car to accelerate, decelerate, or stay at a
constant speed. The better motor controllers are up to 90% efficient.

3.4 TELEMETRY:

A team's telemetry system is used for data acquisition. A commercial or

custom system monitors conditions such as speed, battery voltage, power
collection and consumption, and motor temperature. The system then
relays that information to the driver and team strategists. Most telemetry
systems allow for two-way data transmissions and are based on
microcontrollers and radio modems.

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 4. DRIVE TRAIN
The drive train will consist of the electric motor and the means by which
the motor's power is transmitted to the wheel causing the vehicle to move.
Due to the low amount of power generated (less than 5 hp) usually only
one wheel in the rear of the car is driven by the electric motor. The motor
types that have been used in solar cars include:

 brushed DC motors
 DC brushless motors
 induction motors

DC brushless motors are commonplace in solar car racing. Rare-earth,

permanent magnets mounted on the rotor, reacts to magnetic fields
produced by the motor's windings. Three-phase windings allow the rotor
remain at constant torque. A motor controller sends signals to the
windings, regulating the magnetic field around the rotor. The most
common type of motor used in solar cars is the dual-winding DC
brushless. It is fairly lightweight and can reach efficiencies of 98% at their
rated rpm.

The dual-winding motor is sometimes used as an electronic transmission.

Switching between the dual windings changes the speed rating of the
motor. The low speed windings provide high torque for starting and
passing, while the high speed windings have higher efficiencies and are
best for cruising.

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There are several variations of two basic types of transmissions used in
solar cars.

1. single reduction direct drive

2. variable ratio belt drive
3. hub motor

In the past, the most common type was the direct drive transmission where
the motor is connected to the wheel through a chain or belt with a single
gear reduction. This is a reliable and easily maintained transmission if
special care is taken when aligning the components. Efficiencies above
75% can be achieved when designed properly.

For a variable ratio belt drive, gear ratio changes as the speed of the motor
increases. This gives the motor more starting torque at lower speeds, but
still allows the car to run efficiently at higher speeds. Variable belt drives
require precise alignment and careful setup to work efficiently.

A hub motor eliminates the need for any external transmission because the
motor shaft is connected directly to the wheel hub. This greatly increases
the efficiency of the drive train and reduces the number of moving parts
necessary to drive the wheel. A hub motor uses low rpm to account for the
lack of gear reduction, which tends to drop their efficiency slightly, but
they still can achieve efficiencies in excess of 95%.

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 5. SOLAR INSOLATION
The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day.
However, the amount of energy changes due to the time of day, weather
conditions and geographic location. The amount of available solar energy
is known as the solar insolation or irradiance and is most commonly
measured in watts per meter squared or W / m 2.

Figure 3: Typical solar insolation for a sunny day.

Solar irradiance is generally modelled as having three components:

 direct beam irradiance,

 diffuse irradiance, from the sky, and
 reflected irradiance, from the ground.

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The sum of these components is called global irradiance. The irradiance
that will fall on a surface depends on the many factors, including:

 the day of the year

 the position of the sun in the sky
 the inclination of the surface
 cloud cover.

These factors should be taken into account while designing the solar
array.

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 6. SOLAR ARRAY
Solar cells or photovoltaics collect the energy from the sun and converts it
into usable electrical energy. They are made from silicon by joining an n-
type and a p-type silicon semiconductor, creating an electron rich and an
electron poor layer. When sunlight strikes the cell, photons cause atoms of
the semiconductor to free electrons, leaving behind positive charges. The
flow of electrons thus created constitutes an electromotive force that drives
the current to charge a battery or power a motor.

The cell's positive contact is on the bottom while the negative contact, or
bus bar, is located on the top of the cell. Each cell produces
approximately .5 volts and 3 amps of current. Connecting the cells in
series, i.e., positive to negative, increases voltage. Parallel connections,
i.e., negative to negative and positive to positive, increase current.
Therefore, connecting the cells in various series and parallel configurations
produces modules of different voltages and currents.

Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of a Solar

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 Figure 5: Solar Cell Diagram

Cells can be grouped into space grade and terrestrial grade categories:

 Space grade cells are up to 29% efficient, and are used mainly
in satellite production due to their high cost. These high
efficiency cells cost in excess of $500 per square inch.
 Terrestrial grade cells having a efficiency of 14%, are much
cheaper causing them to be the cells of choice for solar cars.
Each cell measures 10cm x 10cm, costs approximately $6.00,
and produces 1.5 watts of power.

A large number of solar cells are wired together to form a solar array. The
entire solar cells together form the solar array. Solar cells should also be
divided into several zones. For example, if you have 750 solar cells, you
might want to wire 3 sets of 250 cells, each zone producing about 125
volts. If one zone fails, two other zones are still producing power.
SUNRUNNER'S array consisted of 14,057 razor blade sized, 16% efficient
space grade cells.

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The cells are extremely fragile. So many engineers put them through a
process called encapsulation. Doing so strengthens solar cell durability,
but decreases the efficiency. Encapsulation is the process of coating the
cells with a tougher material like resins or sandwiching it between two
sheets of fibre glass,

which prevents the cells from being damaged. For cells 14% efficient,
encapsulation would reduce the overall efficiency to12.5%.

6.1 PRACTICALPROBLEMS WITH USING SOLAR CELLS

6.1. 1 I-V CURVES AND SERIES MISMATCH:

All silicon solar cells put out a voltage of about 0.5V. This is because
they're a kind of diode, and this is analogous to the forward break over
voltage of the diode. Now, if you have several cells in series and they're all
the same they'll all give the same current, and the voltage from all the cells
will add up neatly. But they're not all the same. The silicon is doped very
subtly differently from cell to cell, or the purity of the silicon varies, or
different cells are at different temperatures. Ss some cells will give more
current than others. In a series string, they can't because all the cells are
constrained to give exactly the same current. This will cause many of our
cells to run sub-optimally. So after the cells are tabbed, they are measured,
and grouped like with like.

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6.1. 2 CURVED ARRAYS:

The next hazard is curves on the array. Many arrays are not perfectly flat,
which means that not all cells are receiving the same amount of sunlight.
They have to be arranged in such a way that all the cells in the strings
receive approximately the same illumination. A common way to achieve
this would be to run each string parallel to the long axis of the car, so that
all the cells in a string are pointing in approximately the same direction.
Several strings are often wired together to form a section or panel that has
a voltage close to the nominal battery voltage.

6.1. 3 SHADOWS AND BROKEN CELLS:

Sometimes there will be shadows on the array. This could be caused by the
driver bubble, or by trees or other obstructions near the road, or by passing
traffic. When a cell in a string is shaded, its output goes down. Since the
other cells continue to force current through it, this cell actually dissipates
power instead of generating, and it gets dissipated as heat. Now that this
cell is warmer, it's less efficient than the others, and so even when the light
comes back, it'll want to generate less current, which means it'll wind up
dissipating some power as heat. This is called Thermal runaway. This is
prevented in the following way:

Every cell (or, more often, every small group of cells) has a diode across
it. When a cell in that group is shaded, current flows through the diode. If
you have 60 cells in your string, and they're in groups of 6, then when a
single cell is shaded, your output voltage will drop by 10%, as the bypass

20
diode for that group comes into play, and your current output will drop not
at all. This is better than having your voltage drop 0.6V for the dark cell,
and having your current output drop by some large amount, as current is
forced through the dark cell.

The other time that the bypass diodes come in handy is when a cell gets
damaged. This may be due to a stone being flicked up from the road, a
camera falling out of someone's pocket or a small child running up the
array. The damaged cell may go open-circuit, meaning that without the
bypass diode, output from the string would drop to zero. With the bypass,
output drops only proportionately to the percentage of cells bypassed.

6.2 LIMITATIONS:

To put the limitations of a solar car in perspective, a simple calculation

will suffice. Only 1000 W/m2 of energy reaches the earth’s surface in an
hour of “peak sun”. This term can be thought of as the amount of sunlight
that reaches a sunny area on cloudless, summer day around noon. An
average solar array configuration span 8m, meaning the total amount of
energy hitting the solar car during peak sun is 8KWh/m2. Of this energy,
average solar cells are only able to convert 12.5% to electricity. As a
result, the total amount of converted energy available to a car consists of 1
KW/h, approximately the same amount of energy used to run a hairdryer.

With cars running on 700-1500 Watts, efficiency is hypercritical.

Therefore, advances in all aspects of engineering, from mechanical to
electrical to materials and computer science are the key. The three primary
areas of energy loss consist of aerodynamic drag, braking, and rolling

21
resistance. To minimize aerodynamic drag, engineers make solar cells as
sleek as possible. Rolling resistance is proportional to weight. Hence solar
cars should be engineered to be very light.

7. BODY & CHASSIS

The most distinctive part of solar cars is their bodies. The sleek and exotic
shapes are eye catching. The main goals when designing the body are to
minimize the aerodynamic drag, maximize the exposure to solar insolation,
minimize weight, and maximize safety.

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7.1 BODY SHAPES

Although cars differ in design, their shapes can be grouped into four
categories. A unified aero body and panel allows for a small frontal area,
low weight, and a wide range of visibility around the canopy. Fixed or
tilting, flat panels with a separate driver cab are simple, lightweight,
and inexpensive to construct; however, aerodynamic efficiency is
compromised due to exposed suspension components and vulnerability to
cross winds. Catamaran shapes offer reduced frontal area and low
aerodynamic drag. For north/south race routes, the curved array becomes
very powerful in the early morning and late afternoon as the sun travels
across the horizon. Finally, are uniquely designed vehicles whose
aerodynamic efficiency and power collection capabilities differ from
design to design. MAIZE & BLUE and SUNRUNNER were catamaran
shaped.

Figure 8: Body shapes of common solar cars

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7.2 CHASSIS

Generally, there are three types of chassis used in solar cars:

1. space frame
2. semi-monocoque or carbon beam
3. monocoque

A space frame uses a welded tube structure to support the loads and the
body. The body is a lightweight, non-load bearing, composite shell that is
attached to the chassis separately. The semi-monocoque or carbon beam
chassis uses composite beams and bulkheads to support the loads and is
integrated into a non-load bearing composite belly pan. The top sections of
the car are often separate body pieces that are attached to the belly pan. A
monocoque chassis uses the body structure to support the loads. Many
solar cars use a combination of the chassis categories

mentioned above. The image above is an example of a semi-monocoque

chassis with an integrated space frame used to protect the driver.

8. MATERIALS USED
A composite material is the combination of a filler material sandwiched
between layers of a structural material. Carbon fibre, Kevlar and fibreglass
are common composite structural materials. Honeycomb and foam are
common composite filler materials. These materials are bonded together
using epoxy resins and in the cases of Kevlar and carbon fibre, can obtain

24
impressive strengths (equal to steel) but remain very lightweight.
SUNRUNNER used Kevlar as the fabric with a Nomex honeycomb spacer
while MAIZE& BLUE used carbon fibre fabric.

9. FALLING SHORT
There are several characteristics that a commercially viable car must have.
Commercial cars typical can hold at least 4 passengers. It must be
extremely reliable, comfortable, and be able to function on its own. It must
also be able to maintain the required speed. In addition, commercial cars
typically have amenities such as air conditioning, radio, and power locks
and windows. Solar vehicles when driven on highways, experienced many
flat tires and often were incapable of maintaining highway speeds of fifty-
five miles per hour. With the energy available to solar cars, the type of
amenities described above is impossible. The car is also a very cramped
one. Hence it failed to break into the commercial car market as of now

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 10. THE FUTURE
10.1 IN THE SHORT TERM

One plausible market for solar vehicles is a terrestrial application of the

rovers that NASA uses in space for data collection in a hot, sun rich area
where manual labor is difficult. The vehicles would recharge
autonomously, and the driver’s discomfort would not be an issue because
there would not be a driver. In addition, these vehicles could be kept
lightweight and simple without a need for too many amenities.

10.1.1 CARRY-OVER OF EXPERTISE:

The solar car rush brought substantial advances to the design of electric
vehicles, starting with the use of solar power. It led to better motors, better
use of batteries, and better motor controller design which have been
adopted by some electrical vehicle manufacturers.

10.1.2 COMPOSITE HULL CAR:

Another key area that has been charging ahead is the composite hull car.
Composites were not only lighter, but they also made cars safer than their
steel counterparts.

10.1.3 HARNESSING SOLAR POWER

Solar cars also helped spread the word about the use of harnessing solar
power. By spreading the word about solar energy in this exciting way, the
cars contributed to the rise in the use of solar cells for other, more practical

26
uses. Lastly, it created a sport that has an educational as well as a social
benefit.

10.2 IN THE LONG RUN

Whatever be its limitations, the future is definitely full of promise for the
solar cars. It took us about a hundred years after electricity was invented,
to develop a commercially viable electric vehicle. Similarly solar cars too
need a suitable incubation period, to successfully foray into the
commercial vehicle segment.

With the crude prices hitting upwards of $50 a barrel and still looking
bullish, it is certain that the current preference for petroleum based
automobiles will change in the not too distant future. The solar car with no
fuel expenses will certainly be preferred for short distance commutation in
the future. Though it may offer only a significantly reduced performance
compared to the conventional vehicle it will then be looked upon as a cost
effective option.

Also, there are many areas of the solar car, which can be improved upon,
starting with the solar array. At present the solar array is only 12.5%
efficient. What would be the case if it were made atleast 50% efficient?
I’m sure that much of the current problems in solar cars can be overcome.

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 CONCLUSION
The solar cars are used exclusively for racing in tournaments, at present.
Though they have been around for about twenty five years now, the
technology is still in the developmental stages. Hence they can not be used
as a practical means of transport. The challenge lies in making it a viable
means of transport. Further research is needed in this regard to improve
solar panels, reduce weight, to improve reliability and to reduce the cost.
Research is being carried out on many semi-conductors and their alloys to
develop more efficient solar cells. It can be safely assumed that with the
advent of mass production there would be greatly reduced. Thus this
technology will definitely live up to its potential some time in the future.

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29
 REFERENCES

1. http://www.americansolarcarchallenge.org
2. http://www.solarcar.mcmaster.ca
3. http://www.formulasun.org
4. http://scg.levels.unisa.edu.au/src/pmwiki.php
5. http://www.raccoon.com/~cpraven/thesis/
6. http://www.umr.edu/~dougc/solar/sun.html
7. http://web.umr.edu/~wif/experimental/Beijing.Kevlar.html
8. http://sunsite.anu.edu.au/questacon/aimscc_main.html
9. http://www.wikipedia.com