Load Transfer from matrix to fiber

An external load (force) applied to a composite is partly borne by the matrix and partly by the
reinforcement. The load carried by the matrix across a section of the composite is given by the product
of the average stress in the matrix and its sectional area. The load carried by the reinforcement is
determined similarly. Equating the externally imposed load to the sum of these two contributions, and
dividing through by the total sectional area, gives a basic and important equation of composite theory,
sometimes termed the "Rule of Averages"

The reinforcement may be regarded as acting efficiently if it carries a relatively high proportion of the
externally applied load. This can result in higher strength, as well as greater stiffness, because the
reinforcement is usually stronger, as well as stiffer, than the matrix.

Longitudinal Loading Consider loading a composite parallel to the fibres. Since they are bonded
together, both fibre and matrix will stretch by the same amount in this direction, i.e. they will have
equal strains, ‘e’ (Figure M4.1.1.1). This means that, since the fibres are stiffer (have a higher Young
modulus, E), they will be carrying a larger stress. This illustrates the concept of load transfer, or load
partitioning between matrix and fibre, which is desirable since the fibres are better suited to bear high
stresses. By putting the sum of the contributions from each phase equal to the overall load, the Young
modulus of the composite is found (diagram). It can be seen that a "Rule of Mixtures" applies. This is
sometimes termed the "equal strain" o

Transverse Stiffness

The stiffness and strength of the composite are expected to be much lower in this case, since the (weak)
matrix is not shielded from carrying stress to the same degree as for axial loading. Empirical expressions
are available which give much better approximations, such as that of Halpin-Tsai. The Halpin-Tsai
expression for transverse stiffness is

Lamina and Laminate

High stiffness and strength usually require a high proportion of fibres in the composite. This is achieved
by aligning a set of long fibres in a thin sheet (a lamina or ply). However, such material is highly
anisotropic, generally being weak and compliant (having a low stiffness) in the transverse direction.
Commonly, high strength and stiffness are required in various directions within a plane. The solution is
to stack and weld together a number of sheets, each having the fibres oriented in different directions.
Such a stack is termed a laminate.

In the simple maximum stress criterion, it is assumed that failure occurs when a stress parallel or
normal to the fibre axis reaches the appropriate critical value, which is when one of the following is
satisfied:

In practice, there is likely to be some interaction between the failure modes. For example, shear failure
is expected to occur more easily if, in addition to the shear stress, there is also normal tensile stress
acting on the shear plane. The most commonly used model taking account of this effect is the Tsai-Hill
criterion. This can be expressed mathematically as:

This defines an envelope in stress space: if the stress state (s1, s2 and t12) lies outside of this envelope,
i.e. if the sum of the terms on the left hand side is equal to or greater than unity, then failure is
predicted. The failure mechanism is not specifically identified, although inspection of the relative
magnitudes of the terms in Equation (M4.1.1.26) gives an indication of the likely contribution of the
three modes. Under uniaxial loading, the Tsai-Hill criterion tends to give rather similar predictions to the
Maximum Stress criterion for the strength as a function of loading angle. The predicted values tend to
be somewhat lower with the Tsai-Hill criterion, particularly in the mixed mode regimes where both
normal and shear stresses are significant.

Fiber-Reinforced Composites

fiber-reinforced composites are subclassified by fiber length. For short fiber, the fibers are too short to
produce a significant improvement in strength.

INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced composite depend not only on the properties of the
fiber, but also on the degree to which an applied load is transmi6ed to the fibers by the matrix phase.
Important to the extent of this load transmi6ance is the magnitude of the interfacial bond between
the fiber and matrix phases. Under an applied stress, this fiber–matrix bond ceases at the fiber ends.
Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite
material. This critical length lc is dependent on the fiber diameter d and its ultimate (or tensile) strength
, and on the fiber–matrix bond strength (or the shear yield strength of the matrix, whichever is smaller)
tc according to

Fibers for which (normally l  15lc) are termed con9nuous; discon9nuous or short fibers have lengths
shorter than this. For discontinuous fibers of lengths significantly less than lc, the matrix deforms around
the fiber such that there is virtually no stress transference and little reinforcement by the fiber.

INFLUENCE OF FIBER ORIENTATION AND CONCENTRATION

Continuous and Aligned Fiber Composites

Tensile Stress–Strain Behavior—Longitudinal Loading

Elastic Behavior—Longitudinal Loading Let us now consider the elastic behavior of a continuous and
oriented fibrous composite that is loaded in the direc9on of fiber alignment. First, it is assumed that
the fiber–matrix interfacial bond is very good, such that deformation of both matrix and fibers is the
same (an isostrain situation). Under these conditions, the total load sustained by the composite Fc is
equal to the sum of the loads carried by the matrix phase Fm and the fiber phase Ff,

Am/Ac is equivalent to the volume frac9on of the matrix, Vm, and likewise for the fibers, Vf  Af/Ac.

The previous assumption of an isostrain state means that

and when each term in Equation 16.7 is divided by its respective strain,
because the composite consists of only matrix and fiber phases; that is, Vm  Vf  1.

for longitudinal loading, that the ratio of the load carried by the fibers to that carried by the matrix is

Elastic Behavior—Transverse Loading

A continuous and oriented fiber composite may be loaded in the transverse direction; that is, the load is
applied at a 90 angle to the direction of fiber alignment . For this situa9on the stress  to which the
composite as well as both phases are exposed is the same.

This is termed an isostress state. Also, the strain or deforma9on of the en9re composite is
Longitudinal Tensile Strength

For a continuous and aligned fiber–reinforced composite, longitudinal strength in tension

Here is the stress in the matrix at fiber failure (as illustrated in Figure 16.9a) and, as previously, is the
fiber tensile strength.

If we assume that (Figure 16.9a), which is the usual case, then fibers will fail before the matrix. Once the
fibers have fractured, most of the load that was borne by the fibers is now transferred to the matrix.

Transverse Tensile Strength

Whereas longitudinal strength is dominated by fiber strength, a variety of factors will have a significant
influence on the transverse strength; these factors include properties of both the fiber and matrix, the
fiber–matrix bond strength, and the presence of voids. Measures that have been employed to improve
the transverse strength of these composites usually involve modifying properties of the matrix

Discontinuous and Aligned-Fiber Composites

In this expression, K is a fiber efficiency parameter that depends on Vf and the Ef/Em ratio. Of course, its
magnitude will be less than unity, usually in the range 0.1 to 0.6. Thus, for random fiber reinforcement (as
with oriented), the modulus increases in some propor9on of the volume frac9on of fiber

THE FIBER PHASE

An important characteris9c of most materials, especially bri6le ones, is that a smalldiameter fiber is much
stronger than the bulk material. The probability of the presence of a critical surface flaw that can lead to
fracture diminishes with decreasing specimen volume, and this feature is used to advantage in the fiber–
reinforced composites. On the basis of diameter and character, fibers are grouped into three different
classifications: whiskers, fibers, and wires.

Hookes Law for isotropic material

Hookes Law for orthotropic material
Why are reinforcement made in thin fibre form? There are various reasons because of which the
reinforcement is made in thin fibre form. These reasons are given below. a) An important experimental
study by Leonardo da Vinci on the tensile strength of iron wires of various lengths (see references in [2, 3]) is
well known to us. In this study it was revealed that the wires of same diameter with shorter length showed
higher tensile strength than those with longer lengths. The reason for this is the fact that the number of
flaws in a shorter length of wire is small as compared longer length. Further, it is well known that the
strength of a bulk material is very less than the strength of the same material in wire form. The same fact
has been explored in the composites with reinforcement in fibre form. As the fibres are made of thin
diameter, the inherent flaws in the material decrease. Hence, the strength of the fibre increases as the fibre
diameter decreases. This kind of experimental study has revealed the similar results [2, 3]. This has been
shown in Figure 1.5 qualitatively
The functions of a reinforcing agent are: 1. These are the main load carrying constituents. 2. The reinforcing
materials, in general, have significantly higher desired properties. Hence, they contribute the desired
properties to the composite. 3. It transfers the strength and stiffness to the matrix material. What are the
functions of a matrix material? The matrix performs various functions. These functions are listed below: 1.
The matrix material holds the fibres together. 2. The matrix plays an important role to keep the fibres at
desired positions. The desired distribution of the fibres is very important from micromechanical point of
view. 3. The matrix keeps the fibres separate from each other so that the mechanical abrasion between
them does not occur. 4. It transfers the load uniformly between fibers. Further, in case a fibre is broken or
fibre is discontinuous, then it helps to redistribute the load in the vicinity of the break site. 5. It provides
protection to fibers from environmental effects. 6. It provides better finish to the final product. 7. The matrix
material enhances some of the properties of the resulting material and structural component (that fibre
alone is not able to impart). For example, such properties are: transverse strength of a lamina, impact
resistance