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Geomorphology Part I
PDF

1. Interior of The Earth ............................................................................................................................. 4

1.1 The study of the earth’s interior is essential .......................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Direct Sources of information about the interior ................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Indirect Sources of information about the interior ................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Seismic waves ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
How are earthquake waves produced?.............................................................................................................. 8
1.5 Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves ........................................................................................................ 9
Body waves ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Surface waves (L-Waves) .................................................................................................................................. 11
How do seismic waves help in understanding the earth’s interior? ................................................................ 12
1.6 The internal structure of the Earth ....................................................................................................................... 14
The Crust........................................................................................................................................................... 15
Lithosphere ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
The Mantle ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Asthenosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 18
The Outer Core ................................................................................................................................................. 19
The Inner Core .................................................................................................................................................. 19
Seismic Discontinuities ..................................................................................................................................... 20

2. Earth’s Magnetic Field......................................................................................................................... 20

2.1 Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ............................................................ 20
2.2 Magnetic poles ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Geomagnetic reversal ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Normal and Reversed field ............................................................................................................................... 23
The current location of the Magnetic Poles ..................................................................................................... 24
2.4 Compass ................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Magnetic declination ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip .............................................................................................................. 26
2.5 Geomagnetic poles ............................................................................................................................................... 27
2.6 Magnetosphere ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
Auroras ............................................................................................................................................................. 30
Geomagnetic storms ........................................................................................................................................ 31
2.7 Van Allen radiation belt ........................................................................................................................................ 31
2.8 Magnetic field of other solar system objects........................................................................................................ 32

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3. Geomorphic Movements .................................................................................................................... 33

3.1 Endogenic Geomorphic Movements .................................................................................................................... 33
The force behind Endogenic Movements ........................................................................................................ 33
Classification of Endogenic movements ........................................................................................................... 34
Diastrophism .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Sudden Movements ......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 Exogenic Geomorphic Movements ....................................................................................................................... 38
The force behind Exogenic Movements ........................................................................................................... 38
Denudation ....................................................................................................................................................... 38
Weathering ....................................................................................................................................................... 39

4. Tectonics ............................................................................................................................................ 45
4.1 Important concepts that tried to explain the tectonic processes ........................................................................ 46
4.2 Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1922) ................................................................................................ 46
Forces behind the drifting of continents, according to Wegener .................................................................... 48
Evidence in support of Continental Drift .......................................................................................................... 48
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory ............................................................................................................ 52
4.3 Seafloor Spreading ................................................................................................................................................ 52
Convection Current Theory .............................................................................................................................. 52
Paleomagnetism ............................................................................................................................................... 53
The concept of Sea Floor Spreading ................................................................................................................. 54
Evidence for Seafloor Spreading ...................................................................................................................... 55
4.4 Plate Tectonics ...................................................................................................................................................... 56
Major tectonic plates ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Minor tectonic plates ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Interaction of Plates ......................................................................................................................................... 60
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ............................................................................................................ 62
The significance of Plate Tectonics................................................................................................................... 63
Movement of The Indian Plate ......................................................................................................................... 63
Movement ........................................................................................................................................................ 64
4.5 Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading – Plate Tectonics .............................................................. 65

5. Convergent Boundary ......................................................................................................................... 68

5.1 Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc Convergence ................................................................................ 68
Formation of the Philippine Island Arc System ................................................................................................ 70
Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago ........................................................................................................ 70
Formation of the Caribbean Islands ................................................................................................................. 72
Formation of Isthmus of Panama ..................................................................................................................... 75
Formation of the Japanese Island Arc .............................................................................................................. 76
Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos (20 marks – Mains
2014)................................................................................................................................................................. 77
In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no island formation along the divergent boundary (mid-ocean ridge)
.......................................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.2 Continent-Ocean Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence ......................................................................... 78
Formation of Continental Arcs ......................................................................................................................... 79
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) ......................................................................................................... 79
Formation of the Andes.................................................................................................................................... 80
5.3 Formation of the Rockies ...................................................................................................................................... 81
5.4 Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence .................................................................... 81

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Formation of the Himalayans and the Tibetan Plateau ................................................................................... 82

Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains ................................................................... 85
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence ................................................................. 85
Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the margins of continents? Bring out the
association between the global distribution of Fold Mountains and the earthquakes and volcanoes. .......... 86
5.5 Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence ................................................................................... 87

6. Divergent boundary ............................................................................................................................ 87

6.1 Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas and Oceans ..................................................................... 88
6.2 Rift valley lakes...................................................................................................................................................... 91
6.3 Great Rift Valley .................................................................................................................................................... 94
East African Rift Valley...................................................................................................................................... 94

7. Classification of Mountains ................................................................................................................. 98

7.2 Fold Mountains ................................................................................................................................................... 101
‘Fold’ in geology.............................................................................................................................................. 101
Classification of fold mountains ..................................................................................................................... 103
Characteristics of Fold Mountains .................................................................................................................. 104
7.3 Block Mountains ................................................................................................................................................. 105
‘Fault’ in Geology ............................................................................................................................................ 105
7.4 Volcanic mountains ............................................................................................................................................. 108
7.5 Significant mountains and mountain ranges ...................................................................................................... 109
Longest Mountain Ranges .............................................................................................................................. 110
The Andes ....................................................................................................................................................... 114
The Rockies ..................................................................................................................................................... 114
The Great Dividing Range ............................................................................................................................... 116
Transantarctic Mountains .............................................................................................................................. 116
The Ural Mountains ........................................................................................................................................ 117
Atlas Mountains.............................................................................................................................................. 117
The Himalayas ................................................................................................................................................ 117
The Alps .......................................................................................................................................................... 118
Highest mountain peaks ................................................................................................................................. 118

Geography is the study of

1. the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere,

2. human activity which affects and is affected by the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere.
(Definition from Oxford Dictionary)
• Human activity which affects and is affected by the physical features include the distribution of populations,
distribution of resources and economic activities, and changes in the environment.

Geography, the natural science, is divided into two main branches:

1. Physical geography: deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere.
2. Human geography: deals with the environment shaped by human activity.

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Physical Geography can be divided into several sub-fields, as follows:

• Geomorphology (‘geo’ meaning earth, ‘morphe’ meaning form and ‘logos’ meaning discourse) is the field
concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped.
• Climatology is the study of the climate (weather conditions averaged over a long period).
• Meteorology focuses on weather processes and short-term forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
• Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas.
• Hydrology is concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land sur-
face and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle.
• Biogeography deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that determine
these patterns.
• Environmental geography analyses the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural
environment. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography.
• Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic information.

There are many other sub-branches in physical geography.

1. Interior of The Earth

• Understanding the structure of the earth’s interior (crust, mantle, core) and various forces (heat, seismic
waves) emanating from it is essential to understand the evolution of the earth’s surface, its current shape
and its future.

1.1 The study of the earth’s interior is essential

• to understand the earth’s surface

• to understand the geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, earthquakes, etc.
• to understand the earth’s magnetic field
• to understand the internal structure of various solar system objects
• to understand the evolution and present composition of the atmosphere
• for mineral exploration

Earth’s surface

• Many different geological processes shape the Earth's surface.

• The forces that cause these processes come from both above and beneath the Earth's surface.

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• Processes that are caused by forces from within the Earth are endogenous processes (Endo meaning "in").
• By contrast, exogenous processes (Exo meaning "out") come from forces on or above the Earth's surface.
• The major geological features of the earth’s surface like mountains, plateaus, lakes are mostly a result of
endogenous processes like folding, faulting that are driven by forces from inside the earth.

Geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, earthquakes

• The forces that cause catastrophic events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions come from deep below the
earth’s surface.
• For example, earthquakes occur due to the movement of the tectonic plates and the energy required for
this movement is supplied by the conventional currents in the mantle.
• Similarly, volcanism occurs through the vents and fissures created by the tectonic movements.

Earth’s magnetic field

• Earth’s magnetic field is a result of convection currents in the outer core of the earth.
• Life on earth would not have been possible if not for the earth’s magnetic field which protects the earth’s
atmosphere from the harmful solar wind.

The internal structure of various solar system objects

• The entire solar system was formed from a single nebular cloud, and the process of the formation of every
solar system object is believed to be similar to that of the earth.

Evolution and present composition of the atmosphere

• For life to flourish on the surface of the earth, the atmosphere needs to have essential components like ox-
ygen for respiration, CO2 and other greenhouse gases to maintain the temperature on the surface, ozone to
protect life from ultraviolet radiation and the right atmospheric pressure.
• All these components of the earth’s atmosphere owe their existence to the volcanic eruptions that unlock
them from the earth’s interior.

Mineral exploration

• Understanding volcanic activity and the nature of rocks is essential for mineral exploration.
• Most of the minerals like diamonds (form at a depth of 150-800 km in the mantle) that occur on the
earth’s surface are formed deep below the earth’s surface. They are brought to the surface by volcanic ac-
tivity.

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1.2 Direct Sources of information about the interior

• Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature of rocks deep down the surface.
• But as mining and drilling are not practically possible beyond a certain depth, they don’t reveal much in-
formation about the earth’s interior.
• Mponeng gold mine (deepest mine in the world) and TauTona gold mine (second deepest mine in the
world) in South Africa are deepest mines reaching to a depth of only 3.9 km.
• And the deepest drilling is only about 12 km deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in the 1970s over the
Kola Peninsula.

The Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia. (TUBS, from Wikimedia Commons)

• Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.

1.3 Indirect Sources of information about the interior

• Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help in estimating pressure deep inside.
• Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs, geysers etc. point to an interior which is very hot.

Seismic waves

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• They are the most important source available to understand the layered structure of the earth.
• The velocity of seismic waves changes as they travel through materials with different elasticity and density.
• The more elastic and denser the material is, the higher is the velocity.
• They also undergo refection or refraction when they come across materials with different densities.
• Earth’s internal structure can be understood by analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction and change
in velocity of the seismic waves when they travel through it.

Meteorites

• Meteorites and Earth are born from the same nebular cloud. Thus, they are likely to have a similar internal
structure.
• When meteoroids they fall to earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme friction and
the inner core is exposed.
• The heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar composition of the inner core of the
earth.

Gravitation

• The gravitation force differs according to the mass of material. The uneven distribution of mass of material
within the earth influences this value. Such a difference is called gravity anomaly.
• Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass in the crust of the earth.

Magnetic field

• The geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what's happening inside the Earth's core. Shifts in the
magnetic field also provide clues to the inaccessible iron core.

Sources of earth’s heat

Radioactive decay

• The high temperature below the crust is attributed to the disintegration of the radioactive substances.
• The nuclear decay happens primarily in the crust and the mantle.

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• Scientists believe that uranium could become sufficiently concentrated at the base of Earth’s mantle to
ignite self-sustained nuclear fission, as in a human-made reactor.
• The new measurements suggest radioactive decay provides more than half of Earth's total heat.

Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For nuclear fusion to occur there must be far more pressure and
temperature inside the earth. The earth is not massive enough to cause such conditions.

Primordial heat

• The rest is the heat left over from Earth's formation known as the primordial heat.
• Primordial heat is the kinetic energy transferred to Earth by external impacts of comets and meteorites and
the subsequent effects (friction caused by sinking of heavy elements like Fe, rising light elements like Si)
and latent heat of crystallisation released as the core solidified.

Tidal friction

• The ocean tides are not the only effect of tidal forces (gravitational influence of the moon and the sun on
earth; tides are explained in oceanography). The solid body of the Earth also bulges slightly in this way.
• The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body and the oceans) cause loss of energy of the Earth's rotation,
due to friction.
• This energy goes into heat, leading to miniscule increase in the Earth's internal temperature.
• The loss of rotational energy means that the Earth is slowing down in its rotation rate, currently by about
0.002 seconds per century.

1.4 Seismic waves

• Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth and its crust.
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers and are a result of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large human-made explosions.
• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the Earth's interior.
• The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves are often used interchangeably.

How are earthquake waves produced?

• The abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in the crustal layer) causes earthquake waves.
• Rock layers along a fault tend to move in opposite directions due to the force excreted on them but are
held in place by counteracting frictional force exerted by the overlying rock strata.

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The Focus of an Earthquake (Eround1); Epicentre (AnsateSam, via Wikimedia Commons)

• The pressure on the rock layers builds up over a period and overcomes the frictional force resulting in a
sudden movement generating shockwaves (seismic waves) that travel in all directions.
• The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake.
• The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre.
• An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.

1.5 Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves

• The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.

Body waves

• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling
through the interior of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
• There are two types of body waves:
1) the P-waves or primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave propagation is similar to sound waves),
and
2) the S-waves or secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave propagation is similar to ripples on the
surface of the water).

Primary Waves (P-waves)

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• Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among the seismic waves and hence are recorded
first on the seismograph.
• P-waves are also called as the
➢ longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the oppo-
site direction to, (parallel to) the direction of propagation of the wave; or
➢ compressional waves because they produce compression and rarefaction when travelling through a
medium; or
➢ pressure waves because they produce increases and decreases in pressure in the medium.
• P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to stretching (rarefaction) and squeezing (com-
pression) of the material.

The vibration of particles in Longitudinal wave and Transverse wave (Source)

• These waves are of relatively high frequency and are the least destructive among the earthquake waves.
• The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is in the up-down direction (vertical).
• They can travel in all mediums, and their velocity depends on shear strength (elasticity) of the medium.
• Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.
• These waves take the form of sound waves when they enter the atmosphere.
• P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.
• The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth's interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth's
crust to 13.5 km/s in the lower mantle, and 11 km/s through the inner core.

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We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density. But there are few exceptions ― mercury is
denser than iron, but it is less elastic; hence the speed of sound in iron is greater than that in mercury

Why do P-waves travel faster than S-waves?

• P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.

• P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the direction of propagation and hence transmit their
energy quite easily through the medium and thus travel quickly.
• On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves (motion of the medium is perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave) and are hence less easily transmitted through the medium.

P-waves as an earthquake warning

• Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the non-destructive primary waves that travel more
quickly through the Earth's crust than do the destructive secondary and surface waves.
• Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the delay between the arrival of the P-wave and other
destructive waves could be up to about 60 to 90 seconds (depends of the depth of the focus).

Secondary Waves (S-waves)

• Secondary waves (secondary ➔ they are recorded second on the seismograph) or S-waves are also called
as transverse waves or shear waves or distortional waves.
• They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.
• Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass (they distort the medium).
• S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.
• These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher destructive power compared to P-waves.
• The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is from side to side (horizontal).
• S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not support shear stresses.
• They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength) through the solid part of the Earth.

Surface waves (L-Waves)

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called surface waves
(long or L-waves). These waves move only along the surface.
• Surface Waves are also called long period waves because of their long wavelength.
• They are low-frequency transverse waves (shear waves).

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• They develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the epicentre and affect only the surface of the earth
and die out at smaller depth.
• They lose energy more slowly with distance than the body waves because they travel only across the
surface unlike the body waves which travel in all directions.
• Particle motion of surface waves (amplitude) is larger than that of body waves, so surface waves are
the most destructive among the earthquake waves.
• They are slowest among the earthquake waves and are recorded last on the seismograph.

Love waves

• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.

Rayleigh waves

• A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
• Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is
moving.
• Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.

Types of earthquake waves

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDfIgoXaXis

How do seismic waves help in understanding the earth’s interior?

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• Seismic waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off locations.

• Differences in arrival times, waves taking different paths than expected (due to refraction) and absence of
the seismic waves in certain regions called as shadow zones, allow mapping of the Earth's interior.
• Discontinuities in velocity as a function of depth are indicative of changes in composition and density.
• That’s is, by observing the changes in velocity, the density and composition of the earth’s interior can be
estimated (change in densities greatly varies the wave velocity).
• Discontinuities in wave motion as a function of depth are indicative of changes in phase.
• That is, by observing the changes in the direction of the waves, the emergence of shadow zones, different
layers can be identified.

The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves

• S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).

• The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and hence this zone is identified as the shadow
zone of S-waves. This observation led to the discovery of the liquid outer core.
• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 103° and 142° away from the
epicentre.
• This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the transition between the semisolid mantle
and the liquid outer core.
• However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but not
that of S-waves. This gives clues about the solid inner core.
• Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for both the
types of waves.

Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves

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• The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P
and S-waves.

Why do sound waves travel faster in a denser medium whereas light travels slower?

• The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and rarefaction of the medium.
• A higher density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by which compression and
rarefaction can take place. This way the velocity of sound increases with an increase in density.
• Light, on the other hand, is a transverse electromagnetic wave.
• An increase in the density increases effective path length, and hence it leads to higher refractive index
and lower velocity.

• The span of the shadow zone of the P-Waves = 78° [2 x (142° - 103°)]
• The span of the shadow zone of the S-Waves = 154° [360° – (103° + 103°)]
• The span of the shadow zone common for both the waves = 78°

1.6 The internal structure of the Earth

Earth’s Layers (Kelvinsong, from Wikimedia Commons)

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• The interior of the earth is made up of several concentric layers of which the crust, the mantle, the outer
core and the inner core are significant because of their unique physical and chemical properties.
• The crust is a silicate solid, the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the outer core is a viscous liquid, and the
inner core is a dense solid.

• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle
(part of the Earth's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere), outer core, and inner core.
• Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core.

The Crust

• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less
than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (average density of the earth is
5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of range of 5-30 km in case of the oceanic crust and as 50-
70 km in case of the continental crust.
• The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as
70-100 km thick in the Himalayan region.
• The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C
to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.
• The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometre in the upper part of the crust.
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• The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below that lie crystalline, igneous and met-
amorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.
• The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
• The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica + aluminium (also called sial) while the oceans
have the heavier silicates — silica + magnesium (also called sima) [Suess,1831–1914 ― this classification is
now obsolete (out of date)].
• The continental crust is composed of lighter (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like
granite.
• The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous
rocks, like basalt.

In geology, felsic refers to igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form feldspar and quartz.
It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron.
Felsic refers to rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium,
and potassium.

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth's Crust

Element Approximate % by weight

1. Oxygen (O) 46.6

2. Silicon (Si) 27.7

3. Aluminium (Al) 8.1

4. Iron (Fe) 5.0

5. Calcium (Ca) 3.6

6. Sodium (Na) 2.8

7. Potassium (K) 2.6

8. Magnesium (Mg) 1.5

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OS CIA

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth's Crust ➔ OS CIA

Most Abundant Elements of the Earth ➔ iOS

The Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity

• Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the boundary between the crust and the asthenosphere (upper
reaches of the mantle) where there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity.

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• It occurs at an average depth of about 8 kilometres beneath the ocean basins and 30 kilometres beneath
continental surfaces.
• The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing feldspar
(above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below).

Lithosphere

• The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness varying between 10-200 km.
• It is includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
• The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and the movement of these tectonic
plates cause large-scale changes in the earth’s geological structure (folding, faulting).
• The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation
as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.

The Mantle

• It forms about 83 per cent of the earth's volume and holds 67% of the earth’s mass.
• It extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3 g/cm3.
• The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. It is in a solid state.
• The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
• The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying
crust.
• Regarding its constituent elements, the mantle is made up of 45% oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23% magne-
sium (OSM).
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper boundary with the crust to ap-
proximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary.
• Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle (although
solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile).
• Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates.
• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle. However, in subduction zones, earth-
quakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi).

Asthenosphere

• The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno means weak).

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• It lies just below the lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km.

• It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its density is higher than that of the crust.
• These properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isostatic adjustments (the
elevated part at one part of the crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed part at another).
• It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.

The Outer Core

• The outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between 2900 km and 5100 km below the earth's surface.
• The outer core is composed of iron mixed with nickel (nife) and trace amounts of lighter elements.
• The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even though it has a composition
similar to the inner core.
• The density of the outer core ranges from 9.9 g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner core.
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise
to Earth's magnetic field.

The Inner Core

• The inner core extends from the centre of the earth to 5100 km below the earth's surface.
• The inner core is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron (80%) and some nickel (nife).
• Since this layer can transmit shear waves (transverse seismic waves), it is solid. (When P-waves strike the
outer core – inner core boundary, they give rise to S-waves)
• Earth's inner core rotates slightly faster relative to the rotation of the surface.
• The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field.
• The density of the inner core ranges from 12.6 g/cm3 to 13 g/cm3.
• The core (inner core and the outer core) accounts for just about 16 per cent of the earth's volume but
33% of earth’s mass.

• Scientists have determined the temperature near the Earth's centre to be 6000֯ C, 1000֯ C hotter than previ-

ously thought.
• At 6000°C, this iron core is as hot as the Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure caused by gravity pre-
vents it from becoming liquid.

Remember: when ambient pressure increases the melting point of solid increases, and vice versa. One exception is
Ice. In the case of ice increase in ambient pressure will lower its melting point.

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Seismic Discontinuities

• Seismic discontinuities are the regions in the earth where seismic waves behave a lot different compared to
the surrounding regions due to a marked change in physical or chemical properties.
1. Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): separates the crust from the mantle.
2. Asthenosphere: highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile part of mantle.
3. Gutenberg Discontinuity: lies between the mantle and the outer core.

2. Earth’s Magnetic Field

• A 'field' is a region in which a body experiences a force owing to the presence of other bodies.
• Gravitational fields determine how bodies with mass are attracted to each other.
• In electric fields, objects that have an electric charge are attracted or repelled from each other.
• Magnetic fields determine how electric currents that contain moving electric charges exert a force on oth-
er electric currents.

Field lines or magnetic flux in a simple bar magnet

2.1 Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it

• Dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth or a star generates a mag-
netic field and sustains it over astronomical time scales (millions of years).

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• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect (caused
due to the rotation of the earth), gives rise to self-sustaining (geodynamo) Earth's magnetic field.

Mechanism

• Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the earth’s outer core.

• Lower pressure than the inner core means the metal in the outer core is fluid.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner core.
• Heat sources include energy released by the compression of the core, energy released at the inner core
boundary as it grows (latent heat of crystallisation), and radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium.
• The differences in temperature, pressure and composition within the outer core cause convection currents
in the molten iron of the outer core as cool, dense matter sinks while warm, less dense matter rises.
• This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn produce magnetic fields.
• Charged metals passing through these fields go on to create electric currents of their own, and so the cycle
continues. This self-sustaining loop is known as the geodynamo.
• The spiral movement of the charged particles caused by the Coriolis force means that separate magnetic
fields created are roughly aligned in the same direction, their combined effect adding up to produce one
vast magnetic field of the planet.

Convection currents in the outer core. Spiral motion is caused due to the Coriolis Effect. (Wikipedia)

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Earth’s Magnetic field (Credits: universe-review.ca)

2.2 Magnetic poles

• A magnet's North pole is thought as the pole that is attracted by the Earth's North Magnetic Pole when the
magnet is suspended so it can turn freely.
• Since opposite poles attract, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is the south pole of its magnetic
field.
• Magnetic dipole field (simple north-south field like that of a simple bar magnet) is usually aligned fairly
closely with the Earth's rotation axis; in other words, the magnetic poles are usually fairly close to the ge-
ographic poles, which is why a compass works.
• However, the dipole part of the field reverses after a few thousand years causing the locations of the
north and south magnetic poles to switch.

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The terms magnetic north and magnetic south are not to be confused with geographic north and geographic
south, and geomagnetic north and geomagnetic south.

2.3 Geomagnetic reversal

• A geomagnetic reversal or a reversal in earth’s magnetic field is a change in a planet's magnetic field such
that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged.
• Based on palaeomagnetism (magnetism in rocks that was induced by the earth's magnetic field at the
time of their formation), it is observed that over the last 20 million years, magnetic north and south have
flipped roughly every 200,000 to 300,000 years.
• The reversal is not literally 'periodic' as it is on the sun, whose magnetic field reverses every 11 years.
• The time between magnetic reversals on the Earth is sometimes as short as 10,000 years and sometimes as
long as 25 million years.
• And the time it takes to reverse could be about a few hundred or a few thousand years.
• The magnetic poles emerge at odd latitudes throughout the process of the reversal.

Normal and Reversed field

• The Earth's field has alternated between periods of normal polarity, in which the predominant direction
of the field was the same as the present direction, and reverse polarity, in which it was the opposite.

Normal and Reversed field (The bar magnet at the centre represents earth’s magnetic field)
In Normal Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the South Pole of its Magnetic Field.
In Reverse Polarity, Earth’s North Magnetic Pole is the North Pole of its Magnetic Field.

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The current location of the Magnetic Poles

• The North and South Magnetic Poles wander (Polar Shift Theory) due to changes in Earth’s magnetic field.

• The North Magnetic Pole (86֯ N, 172֯ W) lie to the north of Ellesmere Island in northern Canada and is rapid-

ly drifting towards Siberia.

• The location of the South Magnetic Pole is currently off the coast of Antarctica and even outside the Ant-
arctic Circle.
• Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole migrates about 10 kilometres per year.
• Lately, the speed has accelerated to about 40 kilometres per year and could reach Siberia in a few decades.
• Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, the North and South Magnetic Poles are
not antipodal (a straight line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the centre of the Earth).
• The Earth's North and South Magnetic Poles are also known as Magnetic Dip Poles because of the vertical
"dip" of the magnetic field lines at those points.
• That is, if a magnetic compass needle is suspended freely at the magnetic poles then it will point straight
down at the north magnetic pole (south pole of earth’s magnetic field) and straight up at the south mag-
netic pole (north pole of earth’s magnetic field).

2.4 Compass

• A compass point north because all magnets have two poles, a north pole and a south pole, and the north
pole of one magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet.
• The Earth is a magnet that can interact with other magnets in this way, so the north end of a compass
magnet is drawn to align with the Earth's magnetic field.
• Because the Earth's Magnetic North Pole attracts the "north" ends of other magnets, it is technically the
"South Pole" of our planet's magnetic field.
• While a compass is a great tool for navigation, it doesn't always point exactly north. This is because the
Earth's magnetic North Pole is not the same as "true north (Earth's Geographic North Pole)."
• Although the magnetic declination (deviation from true north) does shift with time, this wandering is slow
enough that a simple compass remains useful for navigation.

Using magnetoreception various organisms, ranging from some types of bacteria, sea turtles, some migratory
birds, pigeons, etc. use the Earth's magnetic field for orientation and navigation.

Magnetic declination

• Magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic north and true north.

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• It is positive when the angle derived is east of the true north, and it is considered negative when the angle
measured is west of the true north.
• In which direction would a compass needle point if you were standing on the true North Pole?

Magnetic Declination (Odder or GPL, via Wikimedia Commons)

Magnetic Declination

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• Importance: Ships and other long-distance means of transport that rely on the compass for navigation
should do necessary corrections to account for magnetic declination at different latitudes and longitudes to
stay in the right course.

Magnetic deviation is the error of a compass needle due to the influence of nearby metallic objects.

Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip

• Magnetic dip, dip angle, or magnetic inclination is the angle made with the horizontal by the Earth's
magnetic field lines.
• In simple terms, magnetic inclination is the angle made by a compass needle when the compass is held in a
vertical orientation.
• The magnetic equator is the irregular imaginary line, passing round the earth near the equator, on which a
magnetic needle has no dip (because magnetic field lines are parallel to the horizontal at the equator).
• Again, the magnetic equator, like the magnetic field and poles, is not fixed.

From Marshak, S., 2001, Earth: Portrait of a Planet: New York, W.W. Norton. via Rutgers.edu

• Magnetic dip at the magnetic equator is 0,֯ and at the magnetic poles, it is 90֯.

• Importance: The phenomenon of magnetic dip is important in aviation, as it causes the aeroplane's com-
pass to give erroneous readings during banked turns and airspeed changes. Necessary corrections need to
be made to the compass reading to stay in the right course.

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2.5 Geomagnetic poles

• The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are the intersections of the Earth's surface and the axis of a bar
magnet hypothetically placed at the centre the Earth.
• There is such a pole in each hemisphere, and the poles are called as "the geomagnetic north pole" and "the
geomagnetic south pole", respectively.
• Approximately, geomagnetic dipole is currently tilted at an angle of about 11 degrees to Earth's rotational
axis.
• On the other hand, the magnetic poles (the magnetic north pole and the magnetic south pole) are the
points at which magnetic needles become vertical.
• The difference in the position of magnetic poles and geomagnetic poles is due to the uneven and complex
distribution of the earth’s magnetic field.

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Wikipedia

2.6 Magnetosphere

• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth's mag-
netic field in space.
• It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space, protecting the Earth from the charged par-
ticles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, includ-
ing the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's magnetosphere called heliosphere.

Magnetopause

• Earth's magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is distorted further out by the solar wind.
• The solar wind exerts a pressure. However, it is kept away by the pressure of the Earth's magnetic field.
• The magnetopause, the area where the pressures balance, is the boundary of the magnetosphere.
• Despite its name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii out
but the other side stretching out in a magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.

Magnetosheath

• The turbulent magnetic region just outside the magnetopause is known as the magnetosheath.

Plasmasphere

• Inside the magnetosphere is the plasmasphere, a region containing low-energy charged particles.
• This region begins at the height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the ionosphere.
• This region rotates with the Earth.

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Bow shock

• Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly.

Earth’s magnetosphere (Original bitmap from NASA. SVG rendering by Aaron Kaase, via Wikimedia Commons)

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Earth’s magnetosphere (Credits: losangeles.af.mil)

Auroras

• Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced by
charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet's magnetosphere.
• Positive ions slowly drift westward, and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This cur-
rent reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface.
• Some of these particles penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there.
• This results in an excitation of the oxygen and nitrogen molecular electrons. The molecules get back to
their original state by emitting photons of light which are the aurorae.
• The charged particles follow magnetic field lines which are oriented in and out of our planet and its atmos-
phere near the magnetic poles. Therefore, aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high latitudes.

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Geomagnetic storms

• The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as space weather, are largely driven by solar activity.
• If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the magneto-
sphere and more of it gets in.
• Periods of intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when a coronal mass ejection erupts
above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. It takes just two days to reach the Earth.
• At the Earth's surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the Earth's magnetic field strength.
• Ring Current: Ring current is the name given to the large electric current that circles the Earth above its
equator during magnetic storms.

Effects

• The ionosphere gets heated and distorted, which means that long-range radio communication that is
dependent upon sub-ionospheric reflection can be difficult.
• Ionospheric expansion can increase satellite drag, and it may become difficult to control their orbits.
• Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.
• Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would face high radiation levels.
• Electric power grids would see a high increase in voltage that would cause blackouts.
• Geomagnetic storms disrupt satellite communication systems like GPS.

2.7 Van Allen radiation belt

• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar
wind, that are captured by and held around a planet by that planet's magnetic field.
• There are two such concentric tire-shaped regions. The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the outer belt
is at 4–7 Earth radii.
• By trapping the solar wind, the belts deflect the energetic particles and protect the atmosphere.
• The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with adequate
shielding if they spend significant time near that zone.
• Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts. Beyond the
belts, they face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events.

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Van Allen Belts (Booyabazooka, via Wikimedia Commons)

2.8 Magnetic field of other solar system objects

Moon

• The magnetic field of the Moon is very weak in comparison to that of the Earth and doesn’t have a magnet-
ic dipole. It is not strong enough to prevent atmospheric stripping by the solar wind.

Mercury

• Mercury's magnetic field is approximately a magnetic dipole (meaning the field has two poles) and is just
1.1% that of Earth's magnetic field.
• It’s proximity to the sun makes it next to impossible to sustain an atmosphere.

Mars

• Mars does not have an intrinsic global magnetic field, but the solar wind directly interacts with
the atmosphere of Mars, leading to the formation of a magnetosphere.
• The lack of a significant magnetosphere is thought to be one reason for Mars's thin atmosphere.

Venus

• Venus lacks a magnetic field.

• Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind.
• In spite of the absence of a magnetic field, Venus’s atmosphere is one of the densest among the terres-
trial planets.

Jupiter

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• Jupiter has the largest magnetic field and a thick atmosphere.

Saturn

• Saturn's magnetosphere is the second largest of any planet in the Solar System after Jupiter.

Uranus and Neptune too have a significant and similar magnetic field.

3. Geomorphic Movements

• Earth’s crust and its surface are constantly evolving (changing) due to various forces emanating from below
(endogenic forces) as well as above the surface of the earth (exogenic forces).
• These forces cause physical and chemical changes to the geomorphic structure (earth’s surface).
• Some of these changes are imperceptibly slow (e.g. weathering, folding), some others are gradual (e.g. ero-
sion) while the remaining are quite sudden (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions).
• Geomorphic: relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of the earth's surface.
• Geomorphic agents: mobile medium (like running water, moving ice masses or glaciers, wind, waves, cur-
rents etc.) which removes, transports and deposits earth materials.
• Geomorphic processes: physical and chemical processes that take place on the earth’s surface (folding,
faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and exogenic forces.
• Geomorphic movements: large scale physical and chemical changes that take place on the earth’s surface
due to geomorphic processes.

3.1 Endogenic Geomorphic Movements

• The large-scale movements on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating from
deep below the earth’s surface are called as endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endogenic
movements (endo: internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form).
• The geomorphic processes that are driven by the forces emanating from deep below the earth’s surface are
called endogenic geomorphic processes (folding, faulting, etc.).

The force behind Endogenic Movements

• The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic movements is earth’s internal heat.
• Earth’s internal heat is a result of mainly radioactive decay (50% of the earth’s internal heat) and gravitation
(causes pressure gradients).

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• Differences in temperature and pressure (temperature gradients or geothermal gradients and pressure gra-
dients) among various layers of the earth give rise to density differences and these density differences
give rise to conventional currents.
• Convectional currents in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle) and the move-
ment of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the cause behind endogenic movements.
• The Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect) can influence where convection currents travel.
• The destination of convection currents determines the nature and location of the endogenic movements.

Classification of Endogenic movements

• Endogenic movements are divided into diastrophic movements and sudden movements.
• Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth's crust.
• Diastrophic movements are gradual and might stretch for thousands of years.
• On the other hand, sudden movements like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in a very short peri-
od.
• Diastrophic movements are further classified into epeirogenic movements (continent forming ― sub-
sidence, upliftment) and orogenic movements (mountain building ― folding, faulting).

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Diastrophism

• Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth's crust due to diastrophic movements (deforming move-
ments) such as folding, faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large area) and fracturing.
• All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under diastrophism. They
include:
1. orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding (crust is severely deformed in-
to folds) and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
2. epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust (simple defor-
mation);
3. earthquakes and volcanism involving local relatively minor movements;
4. plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
• The most obvious evidence of diastrophic movement can be seen where sedimentary rocks have been bent,
broken or tilted.

Epeirogenic or continent forming movements

• Epeirogenic or continent forming movements are radial movements (act along the radius of the earth).
• Their direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre.
• They cause upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting undulations (wavy surface) of long wavelengths
and little folding.
• The broad central parts of continents are called cratons and are subject to epeirogeny, hence the name
continent forming movements.

Uplift

• Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidence of
upliftment.

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Uplifted landforms

• In India, raised beaches occur at several places along the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Tirunelveli coasts.
• Several places which were on the sea some centuries ago are now a few miles inland due to upliftment.
• For example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta and Korkai
on the coast of Tirunelveli, were all flourishing seaports about 1,000 to 2,000 years ago.

Subsidence

• Submerged forests and valleys, as well as buildings, are evidence of subsidence.

• In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an earthquake.
• Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea level in Tirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an example of
subsidence.
• The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan coast by submergence of the interven-
ing land.

Arakan coast (Highlighted part)

• On the east side of Bombay island, trees have been found embedded in the mud about 4 m below low
water mark. A similar submerged forest has also been noticed on the Tirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.

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• A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait is very shallow and has been submerged in geologically
recent times. A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram near Chennai is submerged in the sea.

Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements

• In contrast to epeirogenic movement, the orogenic movement is a more complicated deformation of the
Earth's crust, associated with crustal thickening (due to the convergence of tectonic plates).
• Such plate convergence forms orogenic belts that are characterised by "the folding and faulting of layers of
rock, by the intrusion of magma, and by volcanism.
• Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth surface, as in plate tectonics.
• Tension produces fissures (since this type of force acts away from a point in two directions), and compres-
sion produces folds (because this type of force acts towards a point from two or more directions).

Fissure and Fold

Sudden Movements

• Sudden geomorphic movements occur mostly at the lithospheric plate margins (tectonic plate margins).
• The plate margins are highly unstable regions due to pressure created by pushing and pulling of magma in
the mantle (convectional currents).
• These movements cause considerable deformation over a short period.

Earthquakes

• Earthquakes occur when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks in the earth's interior due to folding, fault-
ing or other physical changes is relieved through the weak zones over the earth's surface in the form of ki-
netic energy (seismic waves).
• Such movements may result in uplift or subsidence in coastal areas.
• An earthquake in Chile (1822) caused a one-metre uplift in coastal areas.

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• An earthquake in New Zealand (1885) caused an uplift of up to 3 metres.

• An earthquake in Japan (1891) caused subsidence of up to 6 metres.
• Earthquakes may cause a change in contours, change in river courses, shoreline changes, glacial surges (as
in Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass wasting etc.

Volcanoes

• Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or towards the earth’s surface through
narrow volcanic vents or fissures.
• A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the earth's interior escapes through the crust by vents and
fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam, gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chlo-
ride, carbon dioxide etc.) and pyroclastic material (cloud of ash, lava fragments carried through the air,
and vapour).
• Depending on the chemical composition and viscosity of the lava, a volcano may take various forms.

3.2 Exogenic Geomorphic Movements

• The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating from
above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are called exogenic geomorphic process.
• Exogenic geomorphic process gives rise to exogenic geomorphic movements or simply exogenic move-
ments such as weathering and erosion.
• The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow but will, in the long run, af-
fect the rocks severely due to continued fatigue.

The force behind Exogenic Movements

• Exogenic processes are a direct result of the sun’s heat.

• Sun’s energy dictates the weather patterns like winds, precipitation, etc.
• Sun’s heat along with weather patterns are responsible for stress induced in earth materials giving rise to
exogenic movements (weathering and erosion).
• Earth materials become subjected to molecular stresses caused due to temperature changes.
• Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains.
• Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling (shear stresses ― separating forces) forces.

Denudation

• All the exogenic processes (weathering and erosion) are covered under a general term, denudation.

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• The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.

• Denudation depends on physical (folds, faults, orientation and inclination of beds, presence or absence of
joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of constituent minerals, permeability) and chemical (chemical
susceptibility of mineral constituents to corrosion) properties of the rocks.

Weathering

• Weathering is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals under the influence of physical (heat, pressure)
and chemical (leaching, oxidation and reduction, hydration) agents.
• As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.
• The weathered material is carried farther away by erosion.
• There are three major groups of weathering processes: 1) chemical; 2) physical or mechanical; 3) biolog-
ical weathering processes. All the types of weathering often go hand in hand.

Physical Weathering Processes

• Physical weathering involves mechanical disintegration of rocks due to temperature changes, freeze-thaw
cycles, wet-dry cycles, crystallisation of salts, animal and plant activity, etc.
• Various mechanisms of physical weathering are explained below.

Exfoliation due to pressure release or unloading

• Intrusive igneous rocks formed deep beneath the Earth's surface are under tremendous pressure due to
overlying load.
• Removal of the overlying load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure release with the result
that the upper layers of the rock expand and fracture parallel to the surface.
• Over time, sheets of rock break away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as exfo-
liation.

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• Exfoliation due to pressure release is also known as "sheeting".

Exfoliation due to thermal stress weathering

• Thermal stress weathering results from the subsequent expansion and contraction of rocks caused by diur-
nal and seasonal variations in the temperatures.
• The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more than the rock at depth, and this leads to peeling off of
the surface layers (exfoliation).
• This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal temperature changes
are drastic.
• Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock.

Granular Disintegration

• Granular disintegration happens in rocks composed of different types of coarse-grained minerals.

• Dark-coloured minerals absorb more heat than the light-coloured minerals.
• This leads to differential expansion and contraction of mineral grains resulting in grain by grain separation
from the rock.

Frost weathering

• During the warm season, the water penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in rocks.
• During the cold season, the water freezes into ice, and its volume expands as a result.

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• This exerts tremendous pressure on rock walls to tear apart even where the rocks are massive.
• Frost weathering occurs due to the growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during repeated cycles of
freezing and melting.
• Frost weathering is the collective name for several processes where ice is present.
• These processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw weathering.

Frost wedging

• Freeze wedging is caused by the repeated freeze-thaw cycle.

• Cracks filled with water are forced further apart with subsequent freezing and thawing.

Shattering

• Severe frost can disintegrate rocks along weak zones to produce highly angular pieces with sharp corners
and edges through the process of shattering.
• Shattering piles up rock fragments called scree at the foot of mountain areas or along slopes.

Block Separation (freeze-thaw weathering)

• Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over time, break up along the joints into angular
pieces. The splitting of rocks along the joints into blocks is called block disintegration.

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Salt Weathering

• Salt weathering occurs when saline solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving
salt crystals behind.
• Salt crystals expand during the crystallization process and also when they are subjected to above normal
temperatures.
• The expansion in near-surface pores causes splitting of individual grains within rocks, which eventually fall
off (granular disintegration or granular foliation).
• Salt weathering is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation
and crystallisation.

Mass Wasting

• Mass wasting is the mass movement of unconsolidated soil, sand, rocks, regolith (the layer of unconsolidat-
ed solid material covering the bedrock of a planet), etc. along a slope under the influence of gravity.
• Mass wasting occurs when the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting force leading to
slope failure (mass wasting).
• Timescales of the mass wasting process may be a few seconds (debris flows and mudflows) or hundreds of
years (mass wasting along the slopes of stable mountains leaving behind alluvial fan like structures).

Chemical Weathering

• Chemical weathering involves chemical decomposition of rocks and soil.

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• Chemical weathering processes include dissolution, solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and re-
duction that act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state.
• These weathering processes are interrelated and go hand in hand and hasten the weathering process.
• Acids produced by microbial and plant-root metabolism, water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along
with heat speed up all chemical reactions.

Natural dissolution

• Dissolution: a process where a solute in gaseous, liquid, or solid phase dissolves in a solvent to form a solu-
tion.
• Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium), oxidation potential
(iron-rich minerals) will weather through dissolution naturally (rains).
• These minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue and accumulate in dry regions.

Solution weathering

• Solution weathering occurs when the solvent is an acidic solution rather than simple water.
• A solution is a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed within the
major component (the solvent).
• Acidic solutions are any solution that has a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than water; solutions
that have a lower concentration of hydrogen ions than water is called basic or alkaline solutions.

Carbonation – Natural solution weathering

• Carbonation refers to reactions of carbon dioxide to give carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbonic acid.
• Carbonation weathering is a process in which atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering.
• As rain falls, it dissolves small amounts of carbon dioxide from the air, forming a weak acid that can dissolve
some minerals like limestone (calcium carbonate) (solution weathering).
• When carbonic acid reacts with limestone, it produces calcium bicarbonate, which is partially soluble in wa-
ter (dissolution weathering).
• Caves are formed when underground water containing carbonic acid travels through blocks of limestone,
dissolves out the limestone, and leaves empty pockets (caves) behind (E.g. Karst topography).
• Carbonation process speeds up with a decrease in temperature because colder water holds more dis-
solved carbon dioxide gas. Carbonation is, therefore, a large feature of glacial weathering.

Anthropogenic solution weathering

• Rainfall is naturally acidic ― pH of ~5.6 (CO2 dissolves in the rainwater producing weak carbonic acid).

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• Acid rain occurs when gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere.
• These oxides react in the rainwater to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to less than 4.
• These acids are capable of attacking certain kinds of rocks in much the way that carbonic acid does.

Sulphur dioxide, SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or fossil fuels.

The conversion of metallic ores to the pure metals often results in the formation of sulphur dioxide.

Hydration

• Hydration is the chemical addition of water that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to the
atoms and molecules of a mineral.
• When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the rock. For ex-
ample, iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides which are larger in volume.
• Hydration is reversible, and continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead to
their disintegration.
• The volume changes in minerals due to hydration will also help in physical weathering through exfoliation
and granular disintegration.

Hydrolysis

• In biological hydrolysis, a water molecule is consumed to affect the separation of a larger molecule into
component parts.
• In biological hydrolysis pure water reacts with silicate or carbonate minerals resulting in the complete dis-
solution of the original mineral (dissolution weathering).
• Biological hydrolysis is an important reaction in controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and
can affect climate.

Oxidation and Reduction

• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides (rusting in case
of iron) or hydroxides. Red soils appear red due to the presence of iron oxides.
• Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and water.
• The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur etc.
• When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
• Such conditions usually exist below the water table, in areas of stagnant water and waterlogged ground.
• The red colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish or bluish grey.

Biological activity and weathering

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• Biological weathering is the removal of minerals from the environment due to growth or movement of or-
ganisms.
• Living organisms contribute to both mechanical and chemical weathering.
• Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvi-
ronment.
• On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure as well as provid-
ing a pathway for water and chemical infiltration.
• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing the new surfaces to
chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
• Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which en-
hance decay and solubility of some elements.
• Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth and help in the concentration of iron and manganese oxides.

Significance of weathering

• Weathering is the first step in the formation of soil from rocks.

• Weathering weakens soil and rocks and makes it easy to exploit natural resources.
• Weathering leads to natural soil enrichment.
• Weathering leads to mineral enrichment of certain ores by leaching unwanted minerals leaving behind the
valuable ones.

Soil Erosion, another exogenic movement, is covered in the subsequent chapters.

4. Tectonics

• During WW II, it was discovered that the ocean floor had some unique relief features like ridges, trenches,
seamounts, shoals etc.
• Ridges and trenches gave insights into natural boundaries between various lithospheric plates (tectonic
plates). These important discoveries led to the field of tectonics in geology.
• Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle) and processes (collisions of the
lithospheric plates, folding, faulting, volcanism) that control the structure of the Earth's crust and its evolu-
tion through time.
• It is basically about understanding the large-scale deformation of the lithosphere (crust and upper mantle
above asthenosphere) and the forces that produce such deformation.

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• It deals with the folding and faulting associated with mountain building; the large-scale, gradual upward
and downward movements of the crust (epeirogenic movements); the growth and behaviour of old cores of
continents known as cratons; and sudden horizontal displacements along faults.

4.1 Important concepts that tried to explain the tectonic processes

Continental Drift Theory (CDT)

• Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relative to each other.

Polar wandering (similar to Continental Drift Theory)

• Polar wandering is the relative movement of the earth's crust and upper mantle with respect to the rota-
tional poles of the earth.

Seafloor Spreading Theory (SFST)

• Seafloor spreading describes the movement of oceanic plates relative to one another.

Plate Tectonics (PT)

• Plate tectonics is the movement of lithospheric plates relative to each other.

Convection Current Theory (CCT)

• Convection current theory forms the basis of SFST and PT. It explains the force behind plate movements.

4.2 Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1922)

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Plate Tectonics – Breakup of Pangea

• Alfred Wegener suggested continental Drift Theory in the 1920’s.

• According to Continental Drift Theory there existed one big landmass which he called Pangaea which was
covered by one big ocean called Panthalassa.
• A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and
Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
• Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era, Triassic Period, Late Triassic Epoch), and the con-
tinents began to break up and drift away from one another.

Forces behind the drifting of continents, according to Wegener

• According to Wegener, the drift was in two directions:

➢ equator wards due to the interaction of forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force (due to centrifugal force
caused by earth’s rotation) and buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by water),
and
➢ westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion (earth rotates from west to east, so tidal
currents act from east to west, according to Wegener).
➢ Wegener suggested that tidal force (gravitational pull of the moon and to a lesser extent, the sun) also
played a major role.
• The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth. Earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at
the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth (greater centrifugal force at the equator).
• Centrifugal force increases as we move from poles towards the equator. This increase in centrifugal force
has led to pole fleeing, according to Wegener.
• Tidal force is due to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters (tides ex-
plained in detail in oceanography).
• According to Wegener, these forces would become effective when applied over many million years, and the
drift is continuing.

Evidence in support of Continental Drift

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Evidence for CDT

Apparent Affinity of Physical Features

Apparent Affinity of Physical Features

• The bulge of Brazil (South America) seems to fit into the Gulf of Guinea (Africa).
• Greenland seems to fit in well with Ellesmere and Baffin islands of Canada.
• The west coast of India, Madagascar and Africa seem to have been joined.
• North and South America on one side and Africa and Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
• The Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of Europe and the Appalachians of USA seem to be one continu-
ous series.

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Continuous Very Old Fold Mountain Chain

Criticism

• Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to change.

• Several other combinations of fitting in of unrelated landforms could be attempted.
• Continental Drift Theory shifts India's position too much to the south, distorting its relationship with the
Mediterranean Sea and the Alps.
• The mountains do not always exhibit geological affinity.

Causes of Drift

• The gravity of the earth, the buoyancy of the seas and the tidal currents were given as the main factors
causing the drift, by Wegener.

Criticism

• This is illogical because for these factors to be able to cause a drift of such a magnitude, they will have to
be millions of times stronger.

Polar wandering (Shifting of Poles)

• The position of the poles constantly drifted (due to plate tectonics).

Criticism

• Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the continents.

Botanical Evidence

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Distribution of Fossils across the Gondwanaland

• Presence of glossopteris vegetation in Carboniferous rocks of India, Australia, South Africa, Falkland Islands
(Overseas territory of UK), Antarctica, etc. (all split from the same landmass called Gondwana) can be
explained from the fact that parts were linked in the past.

Criticism

• Similar vegetation is found in unrelated parts of the world like Afghanistan, Iran and Siberia.

Distribution of Fossils

• The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a contiguous
landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses.
• Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The skeletons of these are found only in
South Africa and Brazil. The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart with an ocean in between them.

Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans

• The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa.

Criticism

• Rocks of the same age and similar characteristics are found in other parts of the world too.

Tillite deposits

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• Tillite deposits are sedimentary rocks formed out of deposits of glaciers.

• The Gondwana system of sediments are found in India, Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia (all were previously part of Gondwana).
• Overall resemblance demonstrates that these landmasses had remarkably similar histories.

Placer Deposits

• Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the source (gold-bearing
veins) are in Brazil, and it is obvious that the gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau
when the two continents lay side by side.

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory

• Wegener failed to explain why the drift began only in Mesozoic era and not before.
• The theory doesn’t consider oceans.
• Proofs heavily depend on assumptions that are generalistic.
• Forces like buoyancy, tidal currents and gravity are too weak to be able to move continents.
• Modern theories (Plate Tectonics) accept the existence of Pangaea and related landmasses but give a very
different explanation to the causes of drift.

Though scientifically unsound on various grounds, Wegener’s theory is a significant milestone in the study of tec-
tonics, and it laid a strong foundation for future the theories like seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

4.3 Seafloor Spreading

• To understand the concept of Seafloor Spreading, we must first understand some basic concepts that form
the cornerstones for the concept of Seafloor Spreading.
• These cornerstones are Convectional Current Theory and Paleomagnetism.

Convection Current Theory

• Convection Current Theory is the soul of Seafloor Spreading Theory.

• Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents in the mantle.
• These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle.

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Convection currents in the mantle

• According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the mantle (100-2900 km
below the earth surface) seeks a path to escape and gives rise to the formation of convection currents in
the mantle.
• Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the seafloor due to the
divergence of the lithospheric plates (tectonic plates), and wherever the failing limbs meet, trenches are
formed due to the convergence of the lithospheric plates (tectonic plates).
• The movement of the lithospheric plates is caused by the movement of the magma in the mantle.

Paleomagnetism

• Paleomagnetism is the study of the record of earth’s magnetic field with the help of magnetic fields
recorded in rocks, sediment, or archaeological materials.
• Rocks formed from underwater volcanic activity are mainly basaltic (low silica, iron-rich) that makes up
most of the ocean floor.
• Basalt contains magnetic minerals, and as the rock is solidifying, these minerals align themselves in the
direction of the magnetic field.
• This locks in a record of which way the magnetic field was positioned at the time.
• Paleomagnetic studies of rocks have demonstrated that the orientation of the earth's magnetic field has
frequently alternated (geomagnetic reversal) over geologic time.
• The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field and magnetic field reversals are thus detectable by studying the
rocks of different ages.

Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence of Seafloor Spreading and Plate Tectonics

• Paleomagnetism led the revival of the continental drift hypothesis and its transformation into theories of
Sea Floor Spreading and Plate Tectonics.

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• The regions that hold the unique record of earth’s magnetic field lie along the mid-ocean ridges where the
sea floor is spreading.
• On studying the paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the oceanic ridges, it is found that alternate mag-
netic rock stripes were flipped so that one stripe would be of normal polarity and the next, reversed.
• Hence, paleomagnetic rocks (paleo: denoting rocks) on either side of the mid-ocean or submarine ridges
provide the most important evidence to the concept of Sea Floor Spreading.
• Magnetic field records also provide information on the past location of tectonic plates.

Explanation

• These oceanic ridges are boundaries where tectonic plates are diverging (moving apart).
• The fissure or vent (in between the ridge) between the plates allowed the magma to rise and harden into a
long narrow band of rock on either side of the vent.
• Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic field at the time before it solidifies on the
oceanic crust.
• As the conventional currents pull the oceanic plates apart, the solidified band of rock moves away from the
vent (or ridge), and a new band of rock takes its place a few million years later when the magnetic field was
reversed. This results in this magnetic striping where the adjacent rock bands have opposite polarities.
• This process repeats over and over giving rise to a series of narrow parallel rock bands on either side of the
ridge and alternating pattern of magnetic striping on the seafloor.

The alternating pattern of magnetic striping on the seafloor

The concept of Sea Floor Spreading

• Harry Hess proposed the idea of See Floor Spreading.

• When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere.

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• Basaltic magma rises from the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seafloor.
• The newly formed seafloor (oceanic crust) then gradually moves away from the ridge, and its place is
taken by an even newer seafloor and the cycle repeats.
• With time, older rocks are spread farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be
found nearer to the spreading zone.

Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

Seafloor Spreading

Evidence for Seafloor Spreading

Nature of oceanic rocks around mid-ocean ridges

• Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic ridges having equidistant locations from the crest were found
to have similarities both in terms of their constituents, their age and magnetic orientation.
• Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest and the age of the rocks
increases as one moves away from the crest (ridge).
• The rocks of the oceanic crust near the oceanic ridges are much younger than the rocks of the conti-
nental crust.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes along the mid-ocean ridges

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• The normal temperature gradient on the sea floor is 9.4° C/300 m, but near the ridges it becomes higher,
indicating an upwelling of magmatic material from the mantle.
• Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic Ocean and other oceans are almost parallel to the coastlines. This
indicates that the seafloor has widened with time.
• In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths whereas,
along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones.

4.4 Plate Tectonics

• It was from the continental drift theory, convection current theory and the theory of seafloor spreading, the
theory of Plate Tectonics was formulated.
• In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested the theory of plate tectonics. Morgan later outlined the theory in
1968.
• According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s lithosphere is broken into distinct plates which
are floating on a ductile layer called asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle).
• Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km in
oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.

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• The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively thinner, while the continental plates
contain Sialic material and are relatively thicker.
• Lithospheric plates (tectonic plates) vary from minor plates to major plates, continental plates (Arabian
plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometimes a combination of both continental and oceanic plates
(Indo-Australian plate).
• The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection currents in the mantle) causes the formation of
various landforms and is the principal cause of all earth movements.

Force for plate movement

• Convection currents in the mantle that are generated due to thermal gradients.

Rates of Plate Movement

• The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/year), and the East Pacific Rise in the South Pacific
(about 3,400 km west of Chile), has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/year).

Major tectonic plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate

2. North American plate
3. South American plate
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

Minor tectonic plates

1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate

2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
7. Turkish plate
8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)
9. Caribbean plate

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10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American plates)
11. Iranian plate.
• There are many more minor plates other than the ones mentioned above.
• Most of these minor plates were formed due to stress created by converging major plates.
• Example: the Mediterranean Sea is divided into numerous minor plates due to the compressive force exert-
ed by Eurasian and African plates.

The figure below shows the changes in landform with time due to the interaction of various plates.

The position of the continents through geologic past

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Divergent, Convergent and Transform Boundaries (nps.gov R.J. Lillie. 2005. Parks and Plates)

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Plate Boundaries

Interaction of Plates

• Major geomorphological features such as fold and block mountains, mid-oceanic ridges, trenches, volcan-
ism, earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence of the interaction between various lithospheric plates.
• There are three ways in which the plates interact with each other.

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Types of Plate Boundaries (Jose F. Vigil. USGS, via Wikimedia Commons)

Divergence forming Divergent Edge or the Constructive Edge

• In this kind of interaction, the plates diverge (move away from each other).
• Mid-ocean ridges (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge) are formed due to this kind of interaction.
• Here, the basaltic magma erupts and moves apart (seafloor spreading).
• On continents, East African Rift Valley is the most important geomorphological feature formed due to the
divergence of African and Somali plates.
• Divergent edges are sites of earth crust formation (hence the name constructive edge), and volcanic
earth forms are common along such edges.
• Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common along divergent edges.

Divergent Boundary

Convergence forming Convergent Edge or Destructive Edge

• In this kind of interaction, two lithospheric plates collide against each other.

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• The zone of collision may undergo crumpling and folding, and folded mountains may emerge (orogenic
collision). Himalayan Boundary Fault is one such example.
• When one of the plates is an oceanic plate, it gets embedded in the softer asthenosphere of the continen-
tal plate, and as a result, trenches are formed at the zone of subduction.
• Near the convergent edge a part of the crust is destroyed, hence the name Destructive Edge.
• The subducted material gets heated, up and is thrown out forming volcanic island arc and continental
arc systems and a dynamic equilibrium is achieved.

Convergent Boundary

Transcurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or Transform Edge

• In this kind of interaction, two plates slide past against each other, and there is no creation or destruction
of landform but only deformation of the existing landform.
• In oceans, transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid-oceanic ridges.
• San Andreas Fault (Silicon Valley lies dangerously close to the faultline) along the western coast of USA is
the best example for a transcurrent edge on continents.

Transform Edge

Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics

• Evidence for both See Floor Spreading and Plate tectonics are complimentary (almost same evidences).

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Paleomagnetism

• Paleomagnetic rocks are the most important evidence. The orientation of iron grains on older rocks shows
an orientation which points to the existence of the South Pole, once upon a time, somewhere between
present-day Africa and Antarctica (polar wandering).

Older rocks form the continents while younger rocks are present on the ocean floor

• On continents, rocks of up to 3.5 billion years old can be found while the oldest rock found on the ocean
floor is not more than 75 million years old (western part of Pacific floor).
• As we move, towards ridges, still younger rocks appear. This points to an effective spread of seafloor (See
floor spreading is almost similar to plate tectonics except that it examines the interaction between oceanic
plates only) along oceanic ridges which are also the plate margins.

Gravitational anomalies

• In trenches, where subduction has taken place (convergent edge), the value of gravitational constant ‘g’ is
less. This indicates a loss of material.
• For instance, gravity measurements around the Indonesian islands have indicated that large gravity anoma-
lies are associated with the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

• The fact that all plate boundary regions are areas of earthquake and volcanic disturbances goes to prove
the theory of plate tectonics.

The significance of Plate Tectonics

• Almost all major landforms formed are due to plate tectonics.

• New minerals are thrown up from the core with the magmatic eruptions.
• Economically valuable minerals like copper and uranium are found near the plate boundaries.
• From present knowledge of crustal plate movement, the shape of landmasses in future can be predicted.
• For instance, if the present trends continue, North and South America will separate. A piece of land will
separate from the east coast of Africa. Australia will move closer to Asia.

Movement of The Indian Plate

• The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions.

Indian Plate Boundaries

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• The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of continent-
continent convergence.
• In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains (Arakan Yoma) of Myanmar towards the island arc
along the Java Trench.
• The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in SW
Pacific.
• The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana coast
(Pakistan and Iranian coasts) and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift (Red Sea rift is formed
due to the divergence of Somali plate and Arabian plate) south-eastward along the Chagos Archipela-
go (Formed due to hotspot volcanism).
• The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by an oceanic ridge (divergent bounda-
ry) running in roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.

Topography of Indo-Australian Plate. The boundaries are conspicuous.

Movement

• India was a large island situated off the Australian coast. The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian conti-
nent till about 225 million years ago.
• India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years (Pangaea broke).
• About 140 million years ago, the subcontinent was located as south as 50◦ S latitude.
• The Tethys Sea separated the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate.
• The Tibetan block was a part of the Asiatic landmass.

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• India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas (the Indian
plate and the Eurasian plate were close to the equator back then).
• It’s thought that India’s coastline was denser and more firmly attached to the seabed, which is why Asia’s
softer soil was pushed up rather than the other way around.
• The process is continuing, and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.
• The northward movement of the Indian tectonic plate pushing slowly against the Asiatic plate is evident by
the frequent earthquakes in the region.
• During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major event that occurred was the
outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps (shield volcano).
• The shield volcanism started somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long period.

4.5 Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading – Plate Tectonics

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Continental Drift See Floor Spreading Plate Tectonics

Explained by Put forward by Alfred We- Arthur Holmes explained In 1967, McKenzie and Parker
gener in 1920s Convectional Current Theory suggested the theory of plate
in the 1930s. tectonics. Morgan later outlined
Based on convection current the theory in 1968
theory, Harry Hess ex-
plained See Floor Spreading
in the 1940s

Theory Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of Explains the Movement of Lith-
Continents only Oceanic Plates only ospheric plates that include
both continents and oceans.

Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, pole- Convection currents in the Convection currents in the man-
movement fleeing force, tidal currents, mantle drag crustal plates tle drag crustal plates
tides,

Evidence Apparent affinity of physical Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,
features, botanical evidence, Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic rocks,
fossil evidence, Tillite depos- distribution of earthquakes distribution of earthquakes and
its, placer deposits, rocks of and volcanoes etc. volcanoes, gravitational
same age across different anomalies at trenches, etc.
continents etc.

Drawbacks Too general with silly and Doesn’t explain the move-
sometimes illogical evidence. ment of continental plates ---------------------

Acceptance Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted

Usefulness Helped in the evolution of Helped in the evolution of Helped us understand various
convection current theory plate tectonics theory geographical features.
and seafloor spreading theo-
ry

Multiple choice questions

1. Polar fleeing force relates to:

a) Revolution of the Earth
b) Rotation of the earth
c) Gravitation

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d) Tides
2. Which one of the following is not a minor plate?
a) Nazca
b) Philippines
c) Arabia
d) Antarctica
3. Which one of the following facts was not considered by those while discussing the concept of sea floor
spreading?
a) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic ridges.
b) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic field observed in rocks of ocean floor.
c) Distribution of fossils in different continents.
d) Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
4. Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate along the Himalayan moun-
tains?
a) Ocean-continent convergence
b) Divergent boundary
c) Transform boundary
d) Continent-continent convergence

Answers: 1: b); 2: d); 3: c) & 4: d)

Answer in about 30 words.

1. What were the forces suggested by Wegener for the movement of the continents?
2. How are the convectional currents in the mantle initiated and maintained?
3. What is the major difference between the transform boundary and the convergent or divergent boundaries
of plates?
4. What was the location of the Indian landmass during the formation of the Deccan Traps?

Answer in about 150 words

1. What are the evidences in support of the continental drift theory?

2. Bring about the basic difference between the drift theory and Plate tectonics.
3. What were the major post-drift discoveries that rejuvenated the interest of scientists in the study of distri-
bution of oceans and continents?

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5. Convergent Boundary

• Along a convergent boundary two lithospheric plates collide against each other.
• When one of the plates is an oceanic plate, it gets embedded in the softer asthenosphere of the continen-
tal plate, and as a result, trenches are formed at the zone of subduction.

Convergent Boundary
In convergence there are subtypes namely:

1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean-ocean convergence (formation of volcanic island arcs).

2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates or ocean-continent convergence (formation of continental
arcs and fold mountains).
3. Collision of continental plates or continent-continent convergence (formation of fold mountains)
4. Collision of continent and arc, or continent-arc convergence.

The above concepts are explained in the next chapters.

5.1 Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc Convergence

• The concept of Ocean-Ocean Convergence helps us understand the formation of Japanese Island Arc,
Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc and Caribbean Islands.
• Archipelago: an extensive group of islands.
• Island arc: narrow chain of islands which are volcanic in origin. An island arc is usually curved.

Basics

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In all types of convergence, the denser plate subducts, and the less dense plate is either up thrust or folded or
both (upthrust and folded).

• In Ocean-Ocean Convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a less dense oceanic plate forming
a trench along the boundary.

Ocean – Ocean Convergence (via Wikimedia Commons)

• As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer asthenosphere, the
rocks in the subduction zone become metamorphosed (alteration of the composition or structure of a
rock) under high pressure and temperature.
• After reaching a depth of about 100 km, the plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the
melted part of the subducting plate) has lower density and is at high pressure.
• It rises upwards due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium.
• The magma flows out to the surface. A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic
eruptions at the ocean floor.

Subduction Zone Illustration (Eround1, via Wikimedia Commons)

• Constant volcanism above the subduction zone creates layers of rocks. As this process continues for mil-
lions of years, a volcanic landform is created which in some cases rises above the ocean waters.

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• Such volcanic landforms all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic islands which are collectively
called as Island Arcs (Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc, Japanese Is-
land Arc etc.).
• Orogenesis (mountain building) sets in motion the process of building continental crust by replacing the
oceanic crust (this happens at a much later stage. For example, new islands are born around Japan in every
few years. After some million years, Japan will be a single landmass because continental crust formation is
constantly replacing the oceanic crust).

This explanation is common for all the island arc formations (ocean-ocean convergence). We only need to know
the plates involved with respect to each island formation.

Formation of the Philippine Island Arc System

• Philippine Island Arc system is formed due to subduction of Philippine Sea plate under the Sunda Plate
(major continental shelf of the Eurasian plate). The trench formed here is called Philippine Trench.
• Sunda Shelf: The extreme south-eastern portion of the Eurasian plate, which is a part of Southeast Asia, is
a continental shelf. The region is called the Sunda Shelf. The Sunda Shelf and its islands is known as the
Sundaland block of the Eurasian plate.

Minor plates in the Southeast Asia

Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago

• In the case of Indonesian Archipelago, the Indo-Australian plate is subducting below Sunda Plate (part
of Eurasian Plate). The trench formed here is called Sunda trench (Java Trench is a major section of Sun-
da trench).

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• Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau) volcano lies close to the Java Trench. It is situated in the Sunda
Strait between the Indonesians Islands of Java and Sumatra.
• Underwater land shifting on the Anak Krakatau volcano in December 2018 triggered a Tsunami that killed
more than 400 people.

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Anak Krakatau volcano situated between the Indonesians Islands of Java and Sumatra (Google Maps)

Formation of the Caribbean Islands

• The Caribbean Plate is a mostly oceanic tectonic plate. The northern boundary with the North American
plate is a transform or strike-slip boundary (more about this in the subsequent chapters).
• The Caribbean Plate is moving to the east while the North American Plate is moving to the west.
• The Puerto Rico Trench is located at a boundary between the two plates that pass each other along a
transform boundary with only a small component of subduction.
• The boundary between the two plates in the past has been convergent, and most of the Greater Antilles
group of islands are formed due to the complex interaction between the two plates.

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• The eastern boundary of the Caribbean Plate is a subduction zone, the Lesser Antilles subduction zone,
where oceanic crust of the South American Plate is being subducted under the Caribbean Plate.
• This subduction zone explains the presence of active volcanoes along the Lesser Antilles.
• Mount Pelée is an active volcano at the northern end of Martinique Island (French overseas department) in
the Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean.
• The volcano is famous for its eruption in 1902. The eruption killed about 30,000 people. Most deaths were
caused by pyroclastic flows which destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre.

3D view of the Caribbean Islands (Wikipedia Commons)

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The Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles Island Arcs (Map from Google Earth)

The island groups in the Caribbean Sea

• The Greater Antilles is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea: Cuba, Hispaniola (containing
Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands.
• Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles (or the Caribbean islands).
• When combined with the Lucayan Archipelago (Bahama Archipelago), all three are known as the West
Indies.
• Lucayan Archipelago is an island group comprising the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and the British
Overseas Territory of the Turks and Caicos Islands.

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Islands in the Lesser Antilles Island Arcs (Map from Google Earth)

Formation of Isthmus of Panama

• Formation of the Isthmus of Panama involved subduction of the Pacific-Farallon Plate beneath the Carib-
bean and South American plates, forming a volcanic arc on the edge of the Caribbean Plate.
• The remains of the ancient Farallon Oceanic Plate are the Juan de Fuca Plate, parts of the North American
Plate and the South American Plate, the Cocos Plate and the Nazca Plate.
• This initial Panama Arc began to form as the Caribbean Plate moved eastward.
• The North and South American plates continued to move westward past the Caribbean Plate.
• In addition to their east-west (strike-slip) motion, the plates also acquired a north-south component of
convergence, leading to the collision of the Panama Arc with South America.
• This collision drove uplift in both the Northern Andes and the Panama Arc, forming the Isthmus of Panama.

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Plates in the region of Isthmus of Panama

Formation of the Japanese Island Arc

• Japan's volcanoes are part of three volcanic arcs.

Triple Junction of the plates

• The arcs meet at a triple junction on the island of Honshu.

• Northern arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench
formed is Japan Trench.
• Central arc is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Plate (island for-
mation is not significant along this arc). The trench formed is Izu Trench.
• Southern Arc is formed due to the subduction of the Philippine Plate under the Eurasian Plate. The trench
formed is Ryukyu Trench.
• Japanese island arc was very close to the mainland.

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• The force exerted by the Pacific plate and the Philippine plate tilted the arc towards its east giving rise to
the Sea of Japan.

The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench

• The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench, the deepest trench, is located in the western Pacific Ocean.
• The Mariana Trench is formed due to the subduction of the Pacific Plate below the Mariana Plate.
• The maximum known depth is between 10,994 & 11,034 metres in its floor known as the Challenger Deep.
The Mariana trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the centre of the Earth. This is because the Earth is not
a perfect sphere (its Geoid); its radius is about 25 kilometres smaller at the poles than at the equator.
As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres closer to the Earth's centre than the Chal-
lenger Deep seafloor.

Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and Philippines ar-

chipelagos (20 marks – Mains 2014)

20 marks = 200 words

• Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are located along the plate margins. Both the archipel-
agos were formed due to ocean-ocean convergence.
• Indonesian archipelago was formed due to convergence between Sunda oceanic plate (part of the Eurasian
plate) and Indo-Australian plate whereas Philippine archipelago was formed due to convergence between
Sunda oceanic plate and Philippine Sea plate.
• In ocean-ocean convergence, two oceanic plates converge or collide. The denser plate subducts into the
asthenosphere below the convergence zone and forms a trench at the surface. This region below the con-
vergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
• In the zone of subduction, due to high temperature and pressure, the rocks undergo metamorphosis and
the sediments in the oceanic plate melt to form magma.
• The magma being lighter moves upwards due to the buoyant force offered by the surrounding denser
medium. At the surface magma at high pressure escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions.
• The magma solidifies creating a volcanic layer. Subsequent volcanism builds a layer over layer and a vol-
canic mountain if formed. Such mountains are formed all along the converging edge above the less dense
plate.
• Over time the mountains merge, and the oceanic crust gets transformed into continental crust.
• This is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were formed.

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If asked for 10 marks = 100 words

• Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are formed due to ocean-ocean convergence.

• In ocean-ocean convergence, the denser plate subducts into the asthenosphere. This region below the
convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
• In the zone of subduction, the rocks undergo metamorphosis and the sediments in the oceanic plate melt
to form magma.
• At the surface magma escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions.
• Constant volcanism builds a layer over layer and a volcanic mountain if formed.
• Such mountains are formed all along the converging edge.
• Over time the mountains merge, and the oceanic crust gets transformed into continental crust.
• This is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were formed.

Related question

In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no island formation along the divergent

boundary (mid-ocean ridge)

• Basaltic magma flows out along the divergent edge (fissure type or shield type volcano).
• Basaltic magma has less silica, and hence it is less viscous. It flows over a long-distance causing seafloor
spreading but not volcanic islands.
• On the other hand, along the convergent boundary, andesitic or acidic magma flows out.
• Andesitic or acidic magma has more silica content, and hence it has higher viscosity. It doesn’t move
quickly and also solidifies faster. This helps in building a layer over layer on a confined region giving rise to
a volcanic mountain.

5.2 Continent-Ocean Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence

• The concept of Continent-Ocean Convergence is important to understand the formation of the Rockies,
the Andes and other similar fold mountain systems.
• Continent-Ocean Convergence is also called Cordilleran Convergence because this kind of convergence
gives rise to extensive mountain systems.
• A cordillera is an extensive chain of mountains or mountain ranges. Some mountain chains in North Ameri-
ca and South America are called cordilleras.
• Continent-Ocean Convergence is similar to ocean-ocean convergence. One important difference is that in
continent-ocean convergence mountains are formed instead of islands.

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• When oceanic and continental plates collide or converge, the oceanic plate (denser plate) subducts or
plunges below the continental plate (less dense plate) forming a trench along the boundary.
• The trenches formed here are not as deep as those formed in ocean-ocean convergence.
• As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into the softer asthenosphere, the
rocks on the continental side in the subduction zone become metamorphosed under high pressure and
temperature (metamorphism: alteration of the composition or structure of rock by heat, pressure).

Formation of Continental Arcs

• After reaching a certain depth, plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the melted part of the
subducting plate) has lower density and is at high pressure.
• It rises due to the buoyant force offered by surrounding denser medium. The magma flows out, some-
times violently to the surface.
• A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic eruptions at the surface of the conti-
nental plate along the margin.
• Such volcanic eruptions all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic mountains which are collectively
called as a continental arc. E.g. the Cascade Range (parallel to the Rockies), the Western Chile range
(parallel to the Andes)
✓ Arc: narrow chain of volcanic islands or mountains.
✓ Island arc: A narrow chain of volcanic islands (Japanese Islands).
✓ Continental arc: A narrow chain of volcanic mountains on continents (Cascade Range).
✓ Accretionary wedge: As the oceanic plate subducts, the sediments brought by it accumulates in the
trench region. These accumulated sediments are called as accretionary wedge.
✓ The accretionary wedge is compressed into the continental margin leading to crustal shortening.
✓ Convergence ➔ Crustal Shortening
✓ Divergence ➔ Crustal Widening
✓ Crustal Shortening at one place is compensated by Crustal Widening in some other place.

Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny)

Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a section of the earth's crust is folded and deformed by lateral com-
pression (force acting sideways) to form a mountain range.
Orogenic movements are ‘Tectonic movements’ of the earth involve the folding of sediments, faulting and
metamorphism (rocks that have transformed by heat, pressure).

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• Continental margins are filled with thick sediments brought by the rivers.
• As a result of convergence, the buoyant granite of the continental crust overrides (is placed above) the oce-
anic crust (continental crust in upthrust by the oceanic crust).
• As a result, the edge of the deformed continental margin is thrust above sea level.
• The advancing oceanic plate adds more compressive stress on the upthrust continental margin and leads to
its folding creating a fold mountain system (orogenic belt).
• In some cases, the advancing oceanic plate compresses the orogenic belt leading to its folding (Rockies
and Andes).
• With the formation of the orogenic belt (fold mountain belt), resistance builds up which effectively stops
convergence. Thus, the subduction zone progresses seaward.
• With the culmination of compression, erosion continues to denude mountains. This results in isostatic ad-
justment (denser regions sink, and less denser regions rise) which causes the ultimate exposure of the
roots of mountains.
• Examples are found in the Rockies, deformed in the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary period, and the An-
des, where the deformation began in the Tertiary Period is still going on.

Continent-Ocean Convergence

Formation of the Andes

• The Andes are formed due to convergence between Nazca plate (oceanic plate) and the South American
plate (continental plate). Peru-Chile trench is formed due to subduction of Nazca plate.
• The Andes are a continental arc (narrow, continental volcanic chain) formed due to the volcanism above the
subduction zone.

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• The pressure offered by the accretionary wedge folded the volcanic mountain, raising the mountains sig-
nificantly.
• The folding process is continuing, and the mountains are constantly rising. Volcanism is still active.
• Ojos del Salado active volcano on the Argentina-Chile border is the highest active volcano on earth at
6,893 m. (Olympus Mons on Mars is the highest volcano in the solar system. It is 26 – 27 km high)
• Mount Aconcagua (6,960 m, Argentina) in the Andes is the highest peak outside the Himalayas and the
highest peak in the western hemisphere. It is an extinct volcano.

Western Chile Range (Chilean Coast Range)

• The range was separated from the Andes during the Tertiary rise of the Andes due to the subsidence of the
Intermediate Depression.

5.3 Formation of the Rockies

• The North American plate (continental plate) moved westwards while the Juan de Fuca plate (minor oce-
anic plate) and the Pacific plate (major oceanic plate) moved eastwards.
• The convergence gave rise to a series of parallel mountain ranges.
• Unlike the Andes, the Rockies are formed at a distance from the continental margin due to the less steep
subduction by the oceanic plates.
• Trenching is less conspicuous as the boundary is filled with accretionary wedge and there are a series of
fault zones (San Andreas Fault) that make the landform different from the Andes.

Left: Formation of the Rockies (less steep subduction); Right: Formation of the Andes

5.4 Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence

Understanding Continent-Continent Convergence is important to understand the Formation of the Himalayas,

the Alps, the Urals and the Atlas Mountains.

• In ocean-ocean convergence and continent-ocean convergence, at least one of the plates is denser and
hence the subduction zone is quite deep (few hundred kilometres).

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• At continent-continent convergent margins, due to lower density, both of the continental crustal plates are
too light (buoyant) to be carried downward (subduct) into a trench.
• In most cases, neither plate subducts or even if one of the plates subducts, the subduction zone will not
go deeper than 40 – 50 km. The two plates converge, buckle up (suture zone), fold, and fault.
• As the continental plates converge, the ocean basic or a sedimentary basin (geoclinal or geosynclinal sedi-
ments found along the continental margins) is squeezed between the two converging plates.
• Huge slivers of rock, many kilometres wide are thrust on top of one another, forming a towering mountain
range.
• With the building up of resistance, convergence comes to an end. The mountain belt erodes, and this is
followed by isostatic adjustment.
• As two massive continents weld, a single large continental mass joined by a mountain range is produced.
• Examples: The Himalayas, Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains.

Suture zone: The subduction of the continental crust is not possible beyond 40 km because of the normal buoy-
ancy of the continental crust. Thus, the fragments of oceanic crust are plastered against the plates causing weld-
ing of two plates known as suture zone. Example: The Indus-Tsangpo suture zone.

Formation of the Himalayans and the Tibetan Plateau

• The Himalayas are the youngest mountain chain in the world.

• Himalayan mountains have come out of a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea and that the uplift has
taken place in different phases.
• During Permian Period (250) million years ago, there was a supercontinent known as Pangaea.
• Its northern part consisted of the present-day North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which is called
as Laurasia or Angaraland or Laurentia.
• The southern part of Pangaea consisted of present-day South America, Africa, South India, Australia and
Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland.
• In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow and shallow sea known as the Tethys
Sea (all this was explained earlier in Continental Drift Theory).
• There were many rivers which were flowing into the Tethys Sea (some of the Himalayan rivers were older
than the Himalayas themselves. We will study this in Antecedent and Subsequent Drainage).
• Sediments were brought by these rivers and were deposited on the floor of the Tethys Sea.
• These sediments were subjected to powerful compression due to the northward movement of the Indian
Plate. This resulted in the folding of sediments.

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• An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of marine
limestone from this ancient ocean.

• Once the Indian plate started plunging below the Eurasian plate, these sediments were further folded and
raised. This process is still continuing (India is moving northwards at the rate of about five cm per year and
crashing into rest of Asia).
• And the folded sediments, after a lot of erosional activity, appear as the present-day Himalayas.
• Tibetan plateau was formed due to upthrusting of the southern block of the Eurasian Plate.
• The Indo-Gangetic plain was formed due to the consolidation of alluvium brought down by the rivers flow-
ing from the Himalayas.

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• The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is attributed to the maximum push offered at two
ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.

Phases of formation

• The Himalayas do not comprise a single range but a series of at least three ranges running more or less
parallel to one another.
• Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to have emerged out of the Himalayan Geosyncline, i.e. the Tethys
Sea in three different phases following one after the other.
• The first phase commenced about 50-40 million years ago when the Great Himalayas were formed. The
formation of the Great Himalayas was completed about 30 million years ago.
• The second phase took place about 25 to 30 million years ago when the Middle Himalayas were formed.
• The Shiwaliks were formed in the last phase of the Himalayan orogeny — say about two million to twen-
ty million years ago.
• Some of the fossil formations found in the Shiwalik hills are also available in the Tibet plateau. It indicates
that the past climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat similar to the climate of the Shiwalik hills.

Recent studies have shown that convergence of the Indian plate and the Asian plate has caused a crustal short-
ening of about 500 km in the Himalayan region. This shortening has been compensated by seafloor spreading
along the oceanic ridge in the Indian Ocean.

Evidence for the rising Himalayas

• Today’s satellites that use high precision atomic clocks that can measure accurately even a small rise of one
cm. The heights of various places as determined by satellites indicate that the Himalayas rise by few centi-
metres every year. The present rate of uplift of the Himalayas has been calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
• Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel terraces at much higher levels
above the present water level. This could be possible only in the event of uplift of the region.
• The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region shows that the Indian
plate is moving further northwards and plunging into the Eurasian plate.
• This means that the Himalayas are still being raised due to compression and have not yet attained isostat-
ic equilibrium.
• The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage and have been rejuvenated (make or cause to appear
younger) in recent times. This shows that the Himalayan Landmass is rising, keeping the rivers in youth
stage since a long time.

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Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains

• The formation of each of these mountains is similar to the formation of the Himalayas.
• The Alps are young fold mountains which were formed due to the collision between African Plate and
the Eurasian Plate.
• The Atlas Mountains are also young folded mountains which are still in the process of formation. They
are also formed due to the collision between African Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
• The Urals are very old fold mountains which were formed even before the breakup of Pangaea. They
were formed due to the collision between Europe and Asia.
• The Appalachians are also very old fold mountains which were formed even before the breakup of Pan-
gaea. They were formed due to the collision between North America and Europe.

Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-Continent Convergence

• Oceanic crust is only 5 – 30 km thick. But the continental crust is 50 – 70 km thick. Magma cannot penetrate
this thick crust, so there are no volcanoes, although the magma stays in the crust.
• Metamorphic rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust experiences.
• With enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent-continent collisions bring on numerous and
large earthquakes (Earthquakes in Himalayan and North Indian Region, Kachchh region).

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Mains Question on Fold Mountains.

Why are the world’s fold mountain systems located along the margins of conti-
nents? Bring out the association between the global distribution of Fold Moun-
tains and the earthquakes and volcanoes.

Why fold mountains at the continental margin?

• Fold mountains are formed due to convergence between two continental plates (Himalayas, Alps) or be-
tween an oceanic and a continental plate (the Rockies, Andes).
• In Continent-Continent (C-C) convergence, oceanic sediments are squeezed and up thrust between the
plates and these squeezed sediments appear as fold mountains along the plate margins.
• In Continent-Ocean (C-O) convergence, the continental volcanic arc formed along the continental plate
margin is compressed and is uplifted by the colliding oceanic plate giving rise to fold mountains along the
continental plate margin.

Earthquakes

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• In both C-C convergence and C-O convergence, there is the formation of fold mountains and frequent
occurrence of earthquakes.
• This is because of the sudden release of friction between the subducting plate and up thrust plate.
• In C-C convergence, the denser plate pushes into the less dense plate creating a fault zone along the mar-
gin.
• Further collision leads to the sudden release of energy along this fault zone generating disastrous earth-
quakes (shallow-focus earthquakes).
• In C-O regions the subducting oceanic plate grinds against the surrounding denser medium producing
mostly shallow-focus earthquakes, and deep in the subduction zone deep-focus earthquakes occur.
• Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in C-C convergence.

Volcanism

• This is because of the thick continental crust in C-C convergence which prevents the outflow of magma.
Magma here lies stocked within the crust.
• In C-O convergence, metamorphosed sediments and melting of the subducting plate form magma which
escapes to the surface through the less thick continental crust.

5.5 Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea Convergence

• New Guinea came into being about 20 million years ago as a result of continent-arc collision.
• The continental plate pushes the island arc towards the oceanic crust. The oceanic plate plunges under the
island arc.
• A trench occurs on the ocean side of the island arc and, ultimately, the continental margin is firmly welded
against the island arc.

6. Divergent boundary

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• In the Seafloor Spreading Theory, we have studied how divergent boundaries below the oceans are respon-
sible for the spreading of the seafloor.
• In Plate Tectonics, we have learnt about the major and minor lithospheric plates and how these plates
moved through the geological past.
• We have studied about convection currents in the mantle which are the primary reason behind plate
movements ― divergence and convergence of the lithospheric plates.
• The horizontal limbs of the convection currents, just below the lithosphere, drag the plates horizontally.
• The falling limbs of the convection currents create a negative pressure on the lithosphere, and this negative
pressure (pulling force) is responsible for the formation of the convergent boundary.
• The rising limbs, on the other hand, create positive pressure on the lithosphere, and this positive pressure
(pushing force) creates a divergent boundary.
• Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and creation of new seas and oceans
just like convergent boundaries are responsible for the formation of fold mountains, volcanic arcs.

6.1 Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas and Oceans

• The formation of atmosphere and the oceans took millions of years. They were formed due to continuous
‘degassing’ of the Earth's interior.
• After the Earth's surface temperature came down below the boiling point of water, rain began to fall.
• Water began to accumulate in the hollows and basins, and the primeval (earliest) water bodies were
formed.
• The primeval water bodies evolved to form seas and oceans.
• The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a divergent boundary.
• New lithosphere is created at the divergent boundary and old lithosphere is destroyed somewhere
else at the convergent boundary.

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Basic Terms

• Upwarp: a broad elevated area of the earth's surface.

• Plume: a column of magma rising by convection in the earth's mantle.
• Rift Valley: a linear-shaped lowland (graben) between several highlands (horst) or mountain ranges creat-
ed by the action of a geologic rift or fault.

Stage 1: Upwarping, fault zones

• Rising limbs of the convection currents create a plume that tries to escape to the surface by upwarping the
lithosphere (doming the lithosphere upwards).
• During upwarping, a series of faults are created. Both normal and thrust faults (reverse fault) occur during
upwarping. The divergence of plates begin.

Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation

• Faulting due to divergence creates extensive rift system (fault zones, rift valleys).
• The lithosphere is subject to a horizontal extensional force, and it will stretch, becoming thinner (E.g. The
crust above Yellowstone hotspot is thinning because of mantle plume).
Eventually, it will rupture, leading to the formation of a rift valley.

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• This process is accompanied by surface manifestations along the rift valley in the form of volcanism and
seismic activity.
• Rifts are the initial stage of a continental break-up and, if successful, can lead to the formation of a new
ocean basin.
• An example of a place on Earth where this has happened is the South Atlantic Ocean, which resulted from
the breakup of South America and Africa around 138m years ago.
• The East African Rift is described as an active type of rift. Beneath this rift, the rise of a large mantle plume
is doming the lithosphere upwards (Ethiopian Highlands), causing it to weaken.
• The rifting started in the Afar region in northern Ethiopia at around 30 million years ago and propagating
southwards towards Zimbabwe. (It’s unzipping Africa!)
• Rifting is followed by flood basalt volcanism in some places that spread around the rift creating plateaus
and highlands (Ethiopian Highlands, Kenya Dome).

Mains 2018: What is a mantle plume and what role it plays in plate tectonics?
Backdrop: In early 2018, a large crack made a sudden appearance in south-western Kenya adding fuel to the de-
bate on the breakup of Africa.
Narmada and Tapti Rift Valleys (fault zones) are formed from a mechanism different from the one explained
above. They are formed due to the bending of the northern part of the Indian plate during the formation of Hima-
layas.

Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes

• Rift valley deepens due to further divergence and makes way for ocean waters.
• If the rift valleys are formed deeper within the continents, rains waters accumulate forming rift lakes.
• Rift lakes form some of the largest freshwater lakes on earth.
• Rift valleys evolve into a volcanic vent. Block mountains on either side of the rift evolve into oceanic ridges.
• Successive volcanism and seafloor spreading create spreading sites where new crust is formed (divergent
boundary is also called a constructive edge).
• Oceanic crust starts to replace continental crust. This stage is the formation of linear seas. Example: Red
Sea.

Stage 4: Linear Sea transforms into Ocean

• The intense outpouring of basaltic magma accentuates see floor spreading and oceanic crust formation.
• Oceanic crust replaces the continental crust, and a mighty ocean is formed.

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• Crust formation along the mid-oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated by crust destruction
(crustal shortening) along the convergent boundary (destructive Edge). This is how the continents and
oceans get transformed.

6.2 Rift valley lakes

• A rift lake is a lake formed as a result of subsidence related to movement on faults within a rift zone, an ar-
ea of extensional tectonics in the continental crust.
• They are often found within rift valleys and may be very deep. The rift lakes are bound by large steep cliffs
along the fault margins.

• Many of the world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys.

• Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift valley. It is the deepest lake in the world (the deepest point is
1642 meters below the surface).
• It is also the largest (by volume) freshwater lake in the world, containing roughly 20% of the world's un-
frozen surface fresh water.
• Lake Tanganyika, second largest freshwater lake by volume, is in the Albertine Rift, the westernmost
arm of the active East African Rift.
• Lake Tanganyika is also the world's longest freshwater lake and the second deepest lake in the world
(the deepest point is 1470 meters below the surface).
• Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the ancient and dormant
Midcontinent Rift.
• Lake Victoria is the world's second largest freshwater lake by surface area.

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African Great Lakes (MellonDor, from Wikimedia Commons)

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Major Lakes of the World

Great Lakes of North America (Phizzy, via Wikimedia Commons)

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6.3 Great Rift Valley

• The Great Rift Valley is a geographical feature running north to south for around 6,400 kilometres from
northern Syria to central Mozambique in East Africa.
• The northernmost part of the Rift forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
• Farther south, the valley is the home of the Jordan River which continues south through the Jordan Valley
into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border.
• From the Dead Sea southward, the Rift is occupied by the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea.
• The Afar Triangle of Ethiopia and Eritrea is the location of a triple junction.
• The Gulf of Aden is an eastward continuation of the rift, and from this point, the rift extends south-eastward
as part of the mid-oceanic ridge of the Indian Ocean.
• In a southwest direction, the fault continues as the Great Rift Valley, which split the older Ethiopian high-
lands into two halves.
• In eastern Africa, the valley divides into the Eastern Rift and the Western Rift. The Western Rift, also called
the Albertine Rift contains some of the deepest lakes in the world.

East African Rift Valley

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• The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift) includes the main Ethiopian Rift, running eastward
from the Afar Triple Junction, which continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley.
• The Western Rift Valley includes the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley of Lake Malawi.
• To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west to the Red Sea Rift or east
to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
• The EAR transects through Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi and
Mozambique.
• Before rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and uplift of the Ethiopian, So-
malian, and East African plateaus occurred.

Breaking up of Africa

• The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa.
• The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22-25 million years ago.
• In the past, it was considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley.
• The EAR is subjected to different stages of rifting along its length. To the south, where the rift is young,
extension rates are low, and faulting occurs over a wide area. Volcanism and seismicity are limited.
• Towards the Afar region, however, the entire rift valley floor is covered with volcanic rocks.
• This suggests that, in this area, the lithosphere has thinned almost to the point of complete break-up.

• The rift is a narrow zone that is a developing divergent tectonic plate boundary, in which the African Plate is
in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate (African
Plate), at a rate of 6–7 mm annually.

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• As extension continues, lithospheric rupture will occur within 10 million years, the Somalian plate will
break off, and a new ocean basin will form.

Volcanism and seismicity along East African Rift Valley

• The East African Rift Zone includes many active as well as dormant volcanoes.

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• Mount Kilimanjaro (it has three volcanic cones), is a dormant stratovolcano in Tanzania, Mount Kenya is
an extinct stratovolcano.
• Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them.
• The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today.
• The majority of earthquakes occur near the Afar Depression, with the largest earthquakes typically occur-
ring along or near major border faults.

How come Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya that formed close to the divergent boundary are stra-
tovolcanoes when the magma that flows out at the divergent boundary is basaltic?

• The formation of stratovolcano and shield volcano depends on the silica content of the magma.
• Shield volcanoes are formed from magma that contains a low proportion of silicates (magma coming
from the mantle, like in divergent boundary).
• Stratovolcanoes are formed from magma that contains a high proportion of silicates (magma formed due
to the melting of crustal plates, like in convergent boundary).
• Mt Kilimanjaro is a stratovolcano. It was formed during the process of formation of the African rift valley.
• During the formation of the African rift valley, there was a lot of faulting. The stress caused in the crustal
plates led to the melting of the subsurface layer into magma, and the volcanism around Kilimanjaro oc-
curred due to this magma (high proportion of silicates).
• Take a look at the picture below to know the proportion of silicon content in mantle and crust.

Silicon content in the mantle, oceanic crust (mafic) and the continental crust (felsic)

• Majority of the stratovolcanoes occur along the convergent boundary, but there is no fixed rule that they
should occur only along convergent boundaries. It all depends on the nature of magma that flows out.

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7. Classification of Mountains

Classification of mountains on the basis of location

Continental mountains

Coastal mountains

• the Rockies,
• the Appalachians,
• the Alpine mountain chains,
• the Western Ghats and
• the Eastern Ghats (India);

Inland mountains

• the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe),

• the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of Asia,
• the Urals of Russia, the Aravallis,
• the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the Maikal of India.

Oceanic mountains

• Oceanic mountains are found on continental shelves and ocean floors.

• If the height of the mountains is considered from the ocean floor, Mauna Kea (9140 m), would be the
highest mountain. It is a dormant volcanic mountain in the Hawaii hotspot volcanic chain.

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Mauna Kea, a dormant volcano in the island of Hawaii

Classification of mountains on the basis of the period of origin

• A total of nine orogenic or mountain building movements have taken place so far.
• Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian times between 600-3,500 million years ago.
• The three more recent orogenies are the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.

Precambrian mountains

• They belong to the Pre-Cambrian period, a period that extended for more than 4 billion years.
• The rocks have been subjected to upheaval, denudation and metamorphosis.
• So, the remnants appear as residual mountains.
• Some of the examples are Laurentian mountains, Algoman mountains etc.

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Caledonian mountains

• They originated due to the great mountain-building movements and associated tectonic movements of the
late Silurian and early Devonian periods (approximately 430 million years and 380 million years ago).
• Examples are the Appalachians, Aravallis, Mahadeo etc.

Hercynian mountains

• These mountains originated during the upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in Europe (approximately
340 million years and 225 million years ago).
• Some examples are the mountains of Vosges and the Black Forest, Altai, Tien Shan mountains of Asia,
Ural Mountains etc.

Alpine system

• Has its origin in the Tertiary Period (65 million years to 7 million years ago).

Examples are

• the Rockies of North America, the Alpine mountains of Europe,

• the Atlas Mountains of north-western Africa,
• the Himalayas of the Indian subcontinent
• the mountains radiating from Pamir knot like Pontic, Taurus, Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc.
• Being the most recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes and Rockies are the loft-
iest with rugged terrain.

Classification of mountains on the basis of mode of origin

Original or Tectonic mountains

• Original or Tectonic mountains are the product of tectonic forces.

• The tectonic mountains may be categorized into
1. fold mountains (the Himalayas, the Rockies, the Andes),
2. block mountains (Vosges mountains in France, the Black Forest in Germany, Vindhya and Satpu-
ra in India) and
3. volcanic mountains (Cascade Range in the USA, Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Fuji-
yama).

Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual mountains

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• Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual mountains (Aravallis in India, Urals in Russia) are the remnants of
old fold mountains derived as a result of denudation (strip of covering).
• Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaus which have been dissected by rivers into hills and val-
leys.
• Examples of dissected plateaux, where the down-cutting streams have eroded the uplands into mountains
of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau.

7.2 Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains are formed when sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines are subjected to compressive
forces.
• They are the loftiest mountains, and they are generally concentrated along continental margins.

Geosyncline: a large-scale depression in the earth's crust containing very thick deposits. E.g. Tethys geosyncline.

‘Fold’ in geology

• A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is folded
(deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata (rock layers).
• The folds that are upwardly convex are called as anticlines. The core (centre) of an anticline fold consists of
the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards.
• In contrast, the folds that are downwardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold consists
of the younger strata, and the strata are progressively older outwards.

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• Limbs: The limbs are the flanks of the fold.

• Hinge line: the where the flanks join together (the line of maximum curvature).
• Axial plane: plane defined by connecting all the hinge lines of stacked folding surfaces (the plane in which
hinge lines of various strata lie).

Types of folds

• A symmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical.

• An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined.
• An isoclinal fold has limbs that are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately parallel to the
axial plane.
• An overturned fold has a highly inclined axial plane such that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane.

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Classification of fold mountains

On the basis of period of origin

• On the basis of the period of origin, fold mountains are divided into very old fold mountains, old fold
mountains and Alpine fold mountains.

Very Old Fold Mountains

• They are more than 500 million years old.

• They have rounded features (due to denudation).
• They are of low elevation.
• The Appalachians in North America and the Ural Mountains in Russia are the examples.

Old Fold Mountains

• Old fold mountains had their origin before the Tertiary period (tertiary period started 66 million years ago).
• The fold mountain systems belonging to Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-building periods fall in this
category.
• They are also called thickening relict fold mountains because of lightly rounded features and medium
elevation.
• Top layers are worn out due to erosional activity. Example: Aravalli Range in India.
• The Aravalli Range in India is the oldest fold mountain systems in India.
• The range rose in post-Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogeny.

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Alpine or young fold mountains

• Alpine fold mountains belonging to the Tertiary period (66 million years ago to present) can be grouped
under the new fold mountains category since they originated in the Tertiary period.
• Examples are the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps, the Himalayas, etc.

Characteristics

• Rugged relief.
• Imposing height (lofty).
• High conical peaks.

On the basis of the nature of folds

Simple fold mountains

• Simple fold mountains with open folds in which well-developed systems of synclines and anticlines are
found, and folds are of wavy patterns.

Complex fold mountains

• Complex fold mountains in which the rock strata are intensely compressed to produce a complex structure
of folds.
• In the Himalayas, over folds and recumbent folds are often found detached from their roots and carried a
few hundred kilometres away by the tectonic forces. These detached folds are called ‘nappe.’

Characteristics of Fold Mountains

• Fold mountains belong to the group of youngest mountains of the earth.

• The presence of fossils suggests that the sedimentary rocks of these folded mountains were formed after
accumulation and consolidation of silts and sediments in a marine environment.
• Fold mountains extend for great lengths whereas their width is considerably small.
• Generally, fold mountains have a concave slope on one side and a convex slope on the other.
• Fold mountains are mostly found along continental margins facing oceans (C-O Convergence).

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• Fold mountains are characterized by granite intrusions (formed when magma crystallises and solidifies
underground to form intrusions) on a massive scale.
• Recurrent seismicity is a common feature in folded mountain belts.
• High heat flow often finds expression in volcanic activity (Himalayas is an exception, because of C-C con-
vergence).
• These mountains are by far the most widespread and also the most important.
• They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper, gold etc.

7.3 Block Mountains

• Block mountains are created because of faulting on a large scale (when large areas or blocks of earth are
broken and displaced vertically or horizontally).
• The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the lowered blocks are called graben.
• The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley (graben) and the Vosges moun-
tain (horst) in Europe are examples.
• Block mountains are also called fault block mountains since they are formed due to faulting as a result of
tensile and compressive forces.

There are two basic types of block mountains:

1. Tilted block mountains have one steep side contrasted by a gentle slope on the other side.
2. Lifted block mountains have a flat top and extremely steep slopes.

‘Fault’ in Geology

• When the earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place.
• A fault is a planar fracture (crack) in a volume of earth’s crust, across which there has been significant dis-
placement of a block/blocks of crust.
• The faulted edges are usually very steep, e.g. the Vosges and the Black Forest of the Rhineland.

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• Faults occur due to tensile and compressive forces acting on the parts of the crust.

• Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, such as subduction zones
or transform faults.
• Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.
• In an active fault, the pieces of the Earth's crust along a fault move over time.
• Inactive faults had movement along them at one time, but no longer move.
• The type of motion along a fault depends on the type of fault.

Types of faults

Types of faults (Actualist, from Wikimedia Commons)

Strike-slip fault

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• In a strike-slip fault (also known transcurrent fault), the plane of the fault is usually near vertical, and the
blocks move laterally either left or right with very little vertical motion (the displacement of the block is
horizontal).

Transform fault

• A special class of strike-slip fault is the transform fault or transform boundary when it forms a plate
boundary.
• A transform fault is the only type of strike-slip fault that is classified as a plate boundary.
• Most of these faults are hidden in the deep ocean, where they offset divergent boundaries in short zigzags
resulting from seafloor spreading.
• They are less common within the continental lithosphere. The best example is the Dead Sea transform
fault.
• The transform boundary ends abruptly and is connected to another transform, a spreading ridge, or a sub-
duction zone.

Dip-slip faults

• Dip-slip faults can be either normal or reverse.

• In a normal fault, the hanging wall (displaced block of crust) moves downward, relative to the footwall (sta-
tionary block). In a reverse fault (thrust fault) the hanging wall moves upwards.
• Reverse faults occur due to compressive forces whereas normal faults occur due to tensile forces.
• A downthrown block between two normal faults is a graben.
• An upthrown block between two normal faults is a horst.
• Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary.
• Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary.

Rift Valley system

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• Tension causes the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or
rift valley, which will have steep walls.
• The East African Rift Valley system is the best example.
• In general, large-scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression.

Block Mountains

• Block mountains may originate when the middle block moves downward and becomes a rift valley while
the surrounding blocks stand higher as block mountains.

Plateaus

• Sometimes, the surrounding blocks subside leaving the middle block stationary. Such cases are found in
high plateau regions.

Oblique-slip faults

• A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault.
• Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip and strike-slip.
• Many disastrous earthquakes are caused along the oblique slip.

7.4 Volcanic mountains

• Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity.

• Mount Aconcagua, Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Mauna Kea and Mount Fujiyama are examples of such
mountains.
• These are, in fact, volcanoes which are built up from material ejected from fissures in the earth’s crust.
• The materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud.
• They fall around the vent in successive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic cone.
• Volcanic mountains are often called mountains of accumulation.
• They are common in the Circum-Pacific belt.

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7.5 Significant mountains and mountain ranges

Basics

Ridge
• Mountain ridges refer to mountains which originate as a result of local folding and faulting.
• Generally, the slope of one side of the ridge is steep in contrast to the moderate slope on the other side (in
case of Himalayas, the southern slope is steeper compared to the northern slope).
• In some cases, a ridge may have a symmetrical slope on both sides.

Mountain range

• It refers to a series of ridges which originated in the same age and underwent the same processes.
• The most prominent or characteristic feature of mountain ranges is their long and narrow extension.
• Example: the Himalayas is a mountain range with Himadri ridge, Himachal ridge and Shiwalik ridge.

Mountain System

• A group of mountain ranges formed in a single period, similar in their form, structure and extension, is
termed a mountain system.
• Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada (USA), the Rocky mountain system of North America and the Ap-
palachian.

Mountain Chain

• It consists of mountain ranges which differ in size and period of formation.

Cordillera

• Cordillera is a community of mountains which includes ridges, ranges, mountain chains and mountain sys-
tems.
• The best example is the Western Cordillera in the western part of North America.

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Longest Mountain Ranges

1. The Andes - 7,000 km

2. The Rockies - 4,830 km
3. The Great Dividing Range - 3,500 km
4. The Transantarctic Mountains - 3,500 km
5. The Ural Mountains - 2,500 km
6. The Atlas Mountains - 2,500 km
7. The Appalachian Mountains - 2,414 km
8. The Himalayas - 2,400 km
9. The Altai Mountains - 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
10. The Western Ghats - 1,600 km
11. The Alps - 1,200 km
12. Drakensberg - 1,125 km
13. The Aravalli Range - 800 km

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The Andes

• The Andes is the longest continental mountain range in the world.

• The Andes is the world's highest mountain range outside of Asia with an average height of 4000 m.
• The highest peak is Mount Aconcagua (6,962 m) (volcanic origin, but now it’s dormant).
• World's highest volcanoes are in the Andes.
• Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) (active volcano) on the Chile-Argentina border is the highest volcano on earth.

The Rockies

• Rocky Mountain range forms a part of the American Cordillera

American Cordillera

• The American Cordillera is a chain of mountain ranges (cordilleras) that consists of an almost continuous
sequence of mountain ranges that form the western backbone of the Americas and Antarctica.
• It is also the backbone of the volcanic arc that forms the eastern half of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

North Cordillera

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• The ranges of the Cordillera from Mexico northwards are collectively called the North American Cordillera.
• They include the Alaska Range and the Brooks Range in Alaska, main belt of the Rocky Mountains along
with the parallel Columbia Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, the Cascades, and various small Pacific coastal
ranges.
• In Mexico, the Cordillera continues through the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental.

South Cordillera

• The Cordillera continues through the mountain ranges of Central America in Guatemala, Honduras, Nicara-
gua, Costa Rica, and Panama, and becomes the Andes Mountains of South America.
• The Andes with their parallel chains continue to the very tip of South America at Tierra del Fuego.
• The Cordillera continues along the Scotia Arc before reaching the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula.

Cascade Range

• The Cascade Range or the Cascades is a major mountain range of western North America.
• The Cascades (Cascade volcanoes) are part of the Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire.
• They are made up of a band of thousands of very small, short-lived volcanoes.
• The Cascade Range has few strikingly large volcanoes, like Mount St. Helens.
• The volcanoes and earthquakes in the Cascades arise from a common source: subduction, where the dense
Juan de Fuca oceanic plate plunges beneath the North American Plate.

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Cascade Volcanism (Wikipedia Commons)

The Great Dividing Range

• The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern Highlands, is Australia's most substantial mountain.
• It is also known as the Australian Alps and was formed due to rifting.

Transantarctic Mountains

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Transantarctic Mountains (krill oil [CC0], via Wikimedia Commons)

The Ural Mountains

• Mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western Russia, from the coast of the
Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and northwestern Kazakhstan.
• They are formed due to Continent-Continent collision of supercontinent Laurussia with the young and
weak continent of Kazakhstania.
• Their eastern side is usually considered the natural boundary between Europe and Asia.
• Since the 18th century, the mountains have been a major mineral base of Russia.

Atlas Mountains

• Mountain range across the north-western stretch of Africa extending about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) through
Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
• The highest peak is Toubkal (4,165 metres) in southwestern Morocco.
• These mountains were formed when Africa and Europe collided.

The Himalayas

• The Himalayan range is home to the planet's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest.
• Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river, its eastern an-
chor, Namcha Barwa, just west of the great bend of the Brahmaputra river (Tsangpo river).

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• The range varies in width from 400 kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in the east.

Geology

• The Himalaya are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted
sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
• According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or
orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
• The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were
also formed as a result of this collision.

Impact on climate

• The Himalayas are believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the
Taklamakan and Gobi.

The Alps

• The mountains were formed as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
• Extreme folding caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding
into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc (4,810 m) (French–Italian border).
• The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4,000 m, known as the four-
thousanders.

Highest mountain peaks

The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars (~26 km in elevation).
It is also the highest active volcano in the Solar System.

Highest Mountain of each continents (The other name of Mount McKinley is Mount Denali.)

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Highest Mountains on Earth

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Geomorphology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Geomorphology Part II
Short Notes PDF
This Short Notes appears a bit long because of the images

1. Volcanism ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Lava types ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava .................................................................................... 3
Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Volcanic Landforms .................................................................................................................................. 4
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms............................................................................................................................. 4
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Volcanism Types ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Exhalative (vapour or fumes) ........................................................................................................................... 10
Effusive (Lava outpouring)................................................................................................................................ 10
Explosive (Violent ejection of solid material) ................................................................................................... 11
Subaqueous Volcanism..................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Eruptive Volcanism Types ...................................................................................................................... 12
Hawaiian Eruption ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Icelandic Eruptions ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Strombolian Eruption ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Vulcanian Eruption ........................................................................................................................................... 15
Plinian Eruption ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Pelean Eruption ................................................................................................................................................ 18
1.5 Hotspot Volcanism ................................................................................................................................. 19
Mantle Plumes.................................................................................................................................................. 19
1.6 Geysers and Hot Springs ........................................................................................................................ 26
1.7 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes ................................................................................................. 27
1.8 Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World .............................................................. 28
Volcanos in India............................................................................................................................................... 29
1.9 Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction ............................................................................................ 29
1.10Positive Effects of Volcanoes ................................................................................................................. 29
1.11Rocks ...................................................................................................................................................... 30
Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks........................................................................................................................ 30
Sedimentary Rocks or detrital rocks................................................................................................................. 31
Metamorphic Rocks.......................................................................................................................................... 31

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2. Earthquakes ....................................................................................................................................... 34
2.2 Causes of Earthquakes ........................................................................................................................... 35
2.3 Earthquakes based on the depth of focus ............................................................................................. 36
Shallow-focus earthquake ................................................................................................................................ 36
Deep-focus earthquake .................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4 Distribution of Earthquakes ................................................................................................................... 37
2.5 Richter magnitude scale ......................................................................................................................... 38
2.6 Effects of Earthquakes............................................................................................................................ 42

3. Tsunami.............................................................................................................................................. 42
3.1 Normal waves vs Tsunami waves ........................................................................................................... 43
3.2 Warning Systems .................................................................................................................................... 45

4. Soil erosion and Landforms ................................................................................................................. 46

Sheet erosion .................................................................................................................................................... 46
Rill and gully erosion ........................................................................................................................................ 46
4.2 Wind Erosion .......................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ................................................................................................. 47
Fluvial Erosional Landforms.............................................................................................................................. 47
Drainage systems (drainage patterns) ............................................................................................................. 54
Fluvial Depositional Landforms ........................................................................................................................ 60
4.4 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .................................................................................................... 64
4.5 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ................................................................................................ 65
Coastlines ......................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ................................................................................................. 67
Glacial Erosional Landforms ............................................................................................................................. 67
4.7 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..................................................................................................... 68
Erosional Arid Landforms ................................................................................................................................. 68
Arid Depositional Landforms ............................................................................................................................ 69

5. Lakes .................................................................................................................................................. 72
5.1 Classification of Lakes ............................................................................................................................ 72
5.2 Lakes and Man........................................................................................................................................ 74
5.3 Important Lakes on Earth ....................................................................................................................... 74

6. Plateau ............................................................................................................................................... 77
6.1 Economic significance of plateaus ......................................................................................................... 77
6.2 Plateau Formation .................................................................................................................................. 78
Thermal expansion ........................................................................................................................................... 78
Crustal shortening ............................................................................................................................................ 78
Volcanic flood basalts ....................................................................................................................................... 78
6.3 Plateau Types ......................................................................................................................................... 79
Dissected plateau ............................................................................................................................................. 79
Volcanic plateau ............................................................................................................................................... 79
Others ............................................................................................................................................................... 79
6.4 Major plateaus of the World .................................................................................................................. 79

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Others ............................................................................................................................................................... 81

1. Volcanism

1.1 Lava types

Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcanic lava

Volcano (Medium69.Cette William Crochot, via Wikimedia Commons)

• These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point.

• They are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of silica.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying.
• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive boundaries (convergent boundaries).

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and are highly fluid.
• They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are not very explosive.
• Shield type lava flow is common along the constructive boundaries (divergent boundary).

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1.2 Volcanic Landforms

• Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the crust are called Plutonic rocks.
• Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the surface are called Igneous rocks.
• In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer all rocks of volcanic origin.

Extrusive and Intrusive volcanic landforms

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

Conical Vent and Fissure Vent

Fissure vent

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• A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, linear volcanic vent .

• Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcanism (shield type volcanoes).

Conical vent

• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent through which magma flows out violently.
• Conical vents are common in andesitic volcanism (composite or stratovolcano).

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms

• Andesitic lava accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to the formation of layers, and this
makes the mounts appear as a composite volcano or a stratovolcano (divided into layers).

• Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mount Vesuvius, Mount Fuji are examples.

Shield Type Volcanic Landforms

• The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most familiar examples.

• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basaltic lava (very fluid).
• Example: Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa (active shield volcano) and Mauna Kea (dormant shield volcano).

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Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plateaus)

• Basaltic magma erupts for a long time, spreading over a vast area.
• Example: Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake Basin, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield.

Crater

The crater of Mount Fuji, Japan

• When water from rain or melted snow gets accumulated in the crater, it becomes a crater lake.

Caldera

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• The volcanic material above the chamber collapses into the empty magma chamber, and the collapsed sur-
face appears like a large cauldron-like hollow (tub shaped) called the caldera.
• When water from rain or melted snow gets accumulated in the caldera, it becomes a caldera lake (in gen-
eral, the caldera lakes are also called crater lakes).
• Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed after its supervolcanic eruption around 75,000 years ago. It is the largest
crater lake in the world.

A crater lake, in general, could be of volcanic origin (volcanic crater lake, volcanic caldera lake) or due
to a meteorite impact (meteor crater or impact crater), or in the crater left by an artificial explosion
caused by humans.
Lonar Lake, also known as Lonar crater (Lonar, Buldhana district, Maharashtra) was created by a meteor
impact during the Pleistocene Epoch.

Cinder cone

• A cinder cone is a steep circular or oval-shaped hill of loose pyroclastic fragments that have been built
around a volcanic vent.

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Lava Dome

• In Lava domes, viscous magma piles up around the vent.

Lava dome protruding from a volcanic vent

Pseudo volcanic features

• Pseudo volcanic features are certain topographic features that resemble volcanic forms but are of non-
volcanic origin. They include meteorite crater, salt plugs, and mud-volcanoes.
• Salt structures are impermeable and can lead to the formation of a stratigraphic trap (an impermeable
layer capable of retaining hydrocarbons).
• Structural traps, in contrast, are cracks in faults and folds that can retain hydrocarbons.

Mud-volcanoes

• Some mud volcanoes, entirely of a non-volcanic origin, occur near oil-fields where methane and other
volatile hydrocarbon gases mixed with mud force their way upward.

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms

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Batholiths

• These are large granitic rock bodies formed due to solidification of hot magma inside the earth.
• Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be exposed on the surface after erosion.

Laccoliths

• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies connected by a pipe-like conduit from below.
• The Karnataka plateau is spotted with dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are ex-
amples of laccoliths or batholiths.

Sills

• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill. The thinner ones are called sheets.

Dykes

• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost per-
pendicular to the ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes.
• These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
• These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.

1.3 Volcanism Types

• Four types of volcanism can be identified.

1. Exhalative (vapour or fumes)
2. Effusive (lava outpouring)
3. Explosive (violent ejection solid material)
4. Subaqueous Volcanism

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Exhalative (vapour or fumes)

This includes the discharge of material in gaseous forms, such as

✓ steam, fumes and

✓ Hydrochloric acid
✓ Ammonium chloride
✓ Sulphur dioxide
✓ Carbon dioxide
✓ Carbon monoxide.
✓ Hydrogen sulphide
✓ Hydrogen
✓ Nitrogen

• These gases may escape through vents which are in the form of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles and sol-
fataras.
• This kind of volcanism indicates the volcano is reaching its extinction.
• Associated landforms are called sinter mounds, cones of precipitated minerals and mud volcanoes.

Effusive (Lava outpouring)

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• This type of activity refers to abundant outpourings of basaltic lava from a vent or fissure.
• The Deccan traps, which are composed of such lavas today, cover an area of 5,00,000 square km. The orig-
inal extent of the formation must have been at least 14 lakh square km.
• Columnar structure is sometimes developed in fine-grained plateau basalts (Deccan Traps near Mumbai).

Explosive (Violent ejection of solid material)

Volcano (William Crochot, via Wikimedia Commons)

• This type of activity results in fragmentation and ejection of solid material through vents.
• Volcanic eject that settles out of air or water is sometimes called pyroclastic sediments.
• Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the volcanoes.
• Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra
• Lapilli: These are gravel-sized particles either in the molten or solid state.
• Blocks: Cobble or boulder-sized solid ejecta.

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• Bombs: a lump of lava thrown out by a volcano.

• Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes.
• Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel through air for many kilometres.
• The heavier particles like bombs and blocks fall in the vicinity of the vent.

Subaqueous Volcanism

• This type of volcanic activity takes places below the surface of the water.

1.4 Eruptive Volcanism Types

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Hawaiian Eruption

• They are the calmest types characterised by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt-type lavas from
craters, lava lakes, fissures with little-ejected material (low gaseous content).

Icelandic Eruptions

• The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel fissures.
• Such outpourings often build lava plateaus. E.g. Deccan Traps, Siberian Traps.

Strombolian Eruption

• Stromboli Volcano (lighthouse of the Mediterranean) has been erupting continuously for centuries.
• Because of the high gas pressures associated with the magma, episodic explosive eruptions occur (erupts
once in every few minutes – fountain like eruption).

Anak Krakatoa

• The greatest volcanic explosion known to humans is perhaps that of Krakatoa (Plinian) eruption in 1883.
• At present, Krakatoa (Krakatau or Krakatoa Archipelago) is a group of four small volcanic islands in the
Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra.

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• The fourth island, Anak Krakatau (meaning Child of Krakatoa) has become increasingly active with Strom-
bolian type eruptions.
• 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami was caused because of a landslide on Anak Krakatau.

Vulcanian Eruption

• This leads to the build-up of high gas pressure, eventually resulting in an explosive eruption.
• Eruptive columns often reaching between 5 and 10 km high.
• After each eruption cycle, the volcano is dormant for decades or centuries.

Plinian Eruption

• Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the historical eruption of
Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD that buried the Roman town of Pompeii.
• The gases erupt into a massive column of the gas plume that reaches up 2 to 45 km into the atmos-
phere (stratosphere).

Mount Vesuvius

• Mount Vesuvius is a stratovolcano in Bay of Naples, Italy.

• It is best known for its Plinian type eruption in AD 79.
• The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of more than 30 km.
• Today, it is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes (3,000,000 people living nearby).

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Mount St. Helens

• Mount St. Helens is an active volcano located in the Cascade Volcanic Arc.
• Mount St. Helens is most notorious for its major 1980 Plinian type eruption that killed more than 50 people.

Mount Tambora

• Mount Tambora is an active volcano located in Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia.

Mount Tambora (Google Maps)

• Tambora is known for its major Plinian type eruption in 1815 (most powerful in recorded history).
• A Year Without a Summer occurred in 1816.
• 71,000 people died due to famines caused in Europe and America.

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Volcanic Explosivity Index (USGS)

Nevado del Ruiz

• Nevado del Ruiz is a volcano located in Colombia.

• The volcano usually generates Vulcanian to Plinian eruptions, which produce destructive lahars.
• In 1985, a small eruption caused lahars that killed 25,000 people.

Lahar

• A lahar is a violent type of mudflow or debris flow composed of a slurry of pyroclastic material, rocky
debris and water. The material flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley.

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Lahar

Mount Pinatubo

• Mount Pinatubo is an active volcano located in the Luzon island of the Philippines.
• Pinatubo Plinian type eruption in 1991 sent sulphuric into the stratosphere cooled global ground tempera-
tures by 1°C for the next two years, and ozone depletion temporarily increased substantially.

Pelean Eruption

• In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown out laterally by the
collapse of the cinder cone.
• Hot gas and lava mixture are not carried skyward to become cold tephra but spreads downslope as a nuce
ardente, continuing to cushion the flowing fragments.

Pelean Eruption

Mount Pelée

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• Mount Pelée is a volcano at the northern end of Martinique Island (French overseas department in the
Lesser Antilles island arc of the Caribbean).
• The volcano is famous for its Pelean type eruption in 1902 that killed about 30,000 people.

1.5 Hotspot Volcanism

• Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the mantle known as mantle plumes.
• Most of the mantle plumes lie far from tectonic plate boundaries (e.g. Hawaiian Hotspot), while others rep-
resent unusually large-volume volcanism near plate boundaries (e.g. Iceland Hotspot).

Mantle Plumes

• A mantle plume is convection of abnormally hot rock (magma) within the Earth's mantle.
• The position of the mantle plumes seems to be relatively fixed.
• Mantle plumes are theorised to form at the core-mantle boundary

Mantle plumes and flood basalt volcanism (large igneous provinces)

• On the continents, mantle plumes have been responsible for extensive accumulations of flood basalts.
• The basaltic magma may then erupt onto the surface through a series of fissures giving rise to large igne-
ous provinces.

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• Large igneous provinces, such as Iceland, Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and Ontong Java Plateau, are
extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions.
• The Réunion hotspot (produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago) coincides with the Creta-
ceous–Paleogene extinction event (also known as Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) extinction or ― fifth and the
most recent mass extinction).
• Though a meteor impact (Chicxulub Crater) was the cause of the extinction event, the volcanic activity may
have caused environmental stresses.

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Large Igneous Provinces (Credits: Gautam Sen)

Mantle plumes and volcanic hotspots

• The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot magma to a fixed location in the
mantle referred to as a hotspot.

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Distribution of hotspots

Distribution of hotspots (Credits: K. Cantner, Earth Magazine)

Hotspot volcano chain

• Attached to the tectonic plate below, the volcano moves and is eventually cut off from the hotspot (plate
moves overhead relative to the fixed plume source).
• A new and active volcano develops over the hotspot creating a volcanic arc that parallels plate motion.
• The Hawaiian Islands chain in the Pacific Ocean is the best example. The islands and seamounts (submarine
mountains) exhibit age progression, with the youngest near present-day Hawaii.

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• Other hotspots with time-progressive volcanic chains behind them include Réunion, the Chagos-
Laccadive Ridge, the Louisville Ridge, the Yellowstone.
• Some hotspots lack time-progressive volcanic trails, e.g., Iceland, the Galapagos, the Azores, the Canar-
ies.

Reunion Hotspot

• The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Lakshadweep is a part of this ridge) and the southern part of the Masca-
rene Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion hotspot.

Mantle plumes and divergence (plate tectonics)

• The plume rises through the centre and diverges in all directions just below the lithospheric plates.
• Afar hotspot in Africa got ruptured due to the mantle plume below. At the Afar triple junction, the Arabi-
an, African, and Somali plates are moving away from the centre.

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Afar Triple Junction: The Afar Triple Junction is located along a divergent plate boundary dividing the Nubian,
Somalian, and Arabian plates. Here, the Red Sea Rift meets the Aden Ridge and the East African Rift.

Mantle plumes and uplifted landforms (epeirogenic movements)

• As the plume reaches the lithosphere, it spreads out laterally doming zones of the Earth. E.g. The Ethiopian
Highlands.

Mantle plumes and thinning of the continental crust

• The Yellowstone hotspot is an example for a hotspot developed beneath a continent.

• Here the mantle plume has been thinning the part of America’s crust (above and is likely to thin the
whole of the surface opening the door for the underlying supervolcano.

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Yellowstone hotspot volcanic trail

Mantle plumes and Supervolcanoes

• A supervolcano is a large volcano in which the volume of magma deposits that can erupt to the surface is
greater than 1,000 cubic kilometres.
• This can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or subduction zones (for example, Toba
Caldera Lake, Sumatra Island, Indonesia).
• There were more than 40 super-eruptions in earth’s history, and the most recent occurred in New Zealand's
Lake Taupo (Taupo supervolcano) some 26,000 years ago.

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1.6 Geysers and Hot Springs

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• Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, New Zealand and Yellowstone
Park of U.S.A.

1.7 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes

• Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Anak Krakatoa are active volcanoes
• Mount Kilimanjaro (it has three volcanic cones), is a dormant stratovolcano in Tanzania.
• Mount Kenya is an extinct stratovolcano.
• The Barren Island in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India which was thought to be extinct erupted
recently.

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1.8 Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World

• Since the 16th century, around 480 volcanoes have been reported to be active.
• Of these, nearly 400 are located in and around the Pacific Ocean, and 80 are in the mid-world belt across
the Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt and in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
• The belts of highest concentration are Aleutian-Kurile islands arc, Melanesia and New Zealand-Tonga
belt.
• Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all volcanic activity is above the sea.

Regions with active volcanism along 'Pacific Ring of Fire'

• The Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan,

• the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and Sumatra in particular),
• Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and North Island, New Zealand.
• Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to
Alaska.

The 5 countries with the most volcanoes (Source)

1. United States – 173 (most of them are in Alaska)

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2. Russia - 166
3. Indonesia - 139
4. Iceland - 130
5. Japan – 112

Volcanos in India

• There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or the Indian peninsula.

• Barren Island (only active volcano in India) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands became active in the
1990s.
• It is now considered an active volcano after it spewed lava and ash in 2017.
• The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km north-east of Barren Island; it is
probably extinct. Its crater wall has been destroyed.

1.9 Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction

• The volcanic gases that pose the greatest potential hazard to people, animals, agriculture, and property are
sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride.
• Locally, sulphur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and air pollution downwind from a volcano.
• Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject a tremendous volume of sulphur aerosols into the strato-
sphere can lead to lower surface temperatures and promote depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.

1.10 Positive Effects of Volcanoes

• The Puga valley in Ladakh region and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are promising spots in India for
the generation of geothermal electricity.

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1.11 Rocks

• Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma and lava.

• Sedimentary Rocks — the result of deposition of fragments of rocks.
• Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.

Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks

• Igneous rocks are unfossiliferous.

• Granite, gabbro, basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.

Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks)

• If magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral grains formed in the rocks may be very large.
• Such rocks are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite).

Extrusive igneous rocks (Lava or Volcanic rocks

• Sudden cooling of magma just below the surface or lava above the surface results in small and smooth
grains in rocks as rapid cooling prevents crystallisation, as a result, such rocks are fine-grained.
• Such rocks are called extrusive rocks or volcanic rocks (e.g. Basalt).
• The Deccan traps in the Indian peninsular region is of basaltic origin.

Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or Intermediate rocks

Acid Rocks

• Acidic rocks are characterised by high content of silica (quartz and feldspar) — up to 80 per cent.

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• These rocks have a lesser content of heavier minerals like iron and magnesium.
• Hence, they are less dense and are lighter in colour than basic rocks.
• These rocks constitute the sial portion of the crust.
• Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma cools fast, and it does not flow and spread far away.
• High mountains are formed of this type of rock.
• Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and resistant to weathering.
• Granite, quartz and feldspar are typical examples.

Basic Rocks

• These rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent); magnesia content is up to 40 per cent, and the re-
maining is spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis, potassium etc.
• Due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks cools slowly and thus, flows and spreads far
away. This flow and cooling give rise to plateaus.
• Presence of heavy elements imparts to these rocks a dark colour. Not being very hard, these rocks are
weathered relatively easily.
• Basalt, gabbro and dolerite are typical examples.

Sedimentary Rocks or detrital rocks

• Sedimentary rocks are formed by lithification. They are fossiliferous.

• Example: sandstone, shale etc.
• These types of rocks cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent.
• Ice deposited sedimentary rocks are called till or tillite. Wind-deposited sediments are called loess.

Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are classified into:

1. mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess.

2. organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal.
3. chemically formed — limestone, halite, potash.

Depending on the predominance of calcium content or the carbon content, sedimentary rocks may be calcare-
ous (limestone, chalk, dolomite) or carbonaceous (coal).

Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphism is a process by which recrystallisation and reorganisation of minerals occur within a

rock. This occurs due to pressure, volume and temperature changes.

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• In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an
arrangement is called foliation or lineation.
• Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers. Such
a structure in is called banding.
• Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.

Some examples of Metamorphosis

Igneous or Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock

Granite Pressure Gneiss

Clay, Shale Pressure Schist

Sandstone Heat Quartzite

Clay, Shale Heat Slate ➔ Phyllite

Coal Heat Anthracite ➔ Graphite

Limestone Heat Marble

Rock cycle

• Igneous rocks can be changed into sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.

• The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks themselves can turn into metamorphic rocks.
• The crustal rocks may be carried down into the mantle to become magma.

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Some Rock-Forming Minerals

• Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of feldspar. It has a light colour, and its main constituents are silicon,
oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium. It is used for ceramics and gloss making.
• Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline structure. It is uncleaved,
white or colourless. It cracks like glass and is present in sand and granite. It is used in the manufacture of
radio and radar.
• Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it is the ore of aluminium. It is non-crystalline and occurs in small
pellets.
• Cinnabar (mercury sulphide): Mercury is derived from it. It has a brownish colour.
• Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. It is used in cement and iron and steel indus-
tries. It is white.
• Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate and is used in cement, fertiliser and chemical industries.
• Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
• Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron oxide) of iron.
• Amphibole: It forms about 7 per cent of the earth's crust and consists mainly of aluminium, calcium, silica,
iron, magnesium, etc. It is used in the asbestos industry.

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• Mica: It consists of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc., and forms 4 % of the earth's crust. It
is generally found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and is mainly used in electrical instruments.
• Olivine: The main elements of olivine are magnesium, iron and silica. It is normally a greenish crystal.
• Pyroxene: It consists of calcium, aluminium, magnesium, iron and silica. It is of green or black colour.
• Other minerals like chlorite, calcite, magnetite, hematite, bauxite, barite, etc., are also present in rocks.

Multiple choice questions.

1. Which one of the following are the two main constituents of granite? (a) Iron and nickel (c) Silica and alu-
minium (b) Iron and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium
2. Which one of the following is the salient feature of metamorphic rocks? (a) Changeable (c) Crystalline (b)
Quite (d) Foliation
3. Which one of the following is not a single element mineral? (a) Gold (c) Mica (b) Silver (d) Graphite
4. Which one of the following is the hardest mineral? (a) Topaz (c) Quartz (b) Diamond (d) Feldspar
5. Which one of the following is not a sedimentary rock? (a) Tillite (c) Breccia (b) Borax (d) Marble

Answers:
1) C. Silica and aluminium (Granite is an acidic igneous rock).
2) D. Foliation (E.g. Marble)
3) C. Mica is a group of silicate minerals; Graphite is a naturally-occurring form of crystalline carbon
4) B. Diamond is the hardest
5) D. Marble is a metamorphic rock

2. Earthquakes

Focus and epicentre

• The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake.
• The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre (first surface point to experience the
earthquake waves).
• A line connecting all points on the surface where the intensity is the same is called an isoseismic line.

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The focus of an Earthquake (Eround1, via Wikimedia Commons); Epicentre (AnsateSam, via Wikimedia Commons)

Foreshocks and aftershocks

• Usually, a major or even moderate earthquake of shallow focus is followed by many lesser-size earthquakes
known as aftershocks.
• A mild earthquake preceding the violent shaking movement of an earthquake is known as a foreshock.

Swarms

• Large numbers of small earthquakes may occur in a region for months without a major earthquake.
• Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often occur in swarms.

2.2 Causes of Earthquakes

Fault Zones

Deformation and Rupturing (Steven Earle)

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• The longest earthquake ruptures along thrust faults (convergent boundary) are approximately 1,000
km.
• The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults (transform fault) are about half to one third as long as
the lengths along the thrust fault.
• The fault ruptures along normal faults (divergent boundary) are shorter.

Plate tectonics

• Reverse faults (convergent boundary) are associated with the most powerful earthquakes, meg-
athrust earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.
• Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath an-
other. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.
• Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major earthquakes up to about magni-
tude 8.
• San Andreas Fault is a transform fault where Pacific plate and North American plate move horizontally rel-
ative to each other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.
• Earthquakes associated with normal faults (divergent boundary) are generally less than magnitude 7.

Reservoir-induced seismicity

• Loading and unloading of water can significantly change the stress.

• The 6.3 magnitude 1967 Koynanagar earthquake occurred near the Koyna Dam reservoir in Maharashtra
and claimed more than 150 lives.
• The 2008 Sichuan earthquake (Zipingpu Dam), caused approximately 68,000 deaths.

2.3 Earthquakes based on the depth of focus

• Shallow earthquakes are 0 – 70 km deep.

• Intermediate earthquakes are 70 – 300 km deep.
• Deep earthquakes are 300 – 700 km deep.
• Of the total energy released in earthquakes, about 12-15 per cent comes from intermediate earth-
quakes, about 3-5 per cent from deeper earthquakes and about 70-85 per cent from the shallow
earthquakes.

Shallow-focus earthquake

• The great majority of earthquakes have shallow-focus. Hence, they are also called as ‘crustal earthquakes.’

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• Though comparatively of low magnitude, shallow focus earthquakes can cause relatively greater
damage at the surface (as the whole energy is directed towards a small area) compared to their
deep-focus counterparts.

Deep-focus earthquake

• In general, the term "deep-focus earthquakes" is applied to earthquakes deeper than 70 km.
• The deeper-focus earthquakes commonly occur in patterns called Benioff zones.
• But the earthquakes alone may not cause much destruction as the foci of the quakes lie at great
depths and the energy of the quakes dissipates over a wide area.

Wadati–Benioff zone: Earthquakes along the Convergent boundary

• Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of subduction along which earthquakes are common. The most powerful
earthquakes occur along this zone (most powerful earthquakes occur along the convergent boundary).

2.4 Distribution of Earthquakes

• The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all earthquakes.
• A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt (Himalayas and Alps). The energy released in earthquakes from
this belt is about 15 per cent of the world total.

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• The mid-world mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends parallel to the equator from Mexico across the Atlantic
Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges to the Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the
adjoining lands.

Distribution of Earthquakes

2.5 Richter magnitude scale

• Under the Richter magnitude scale, an increase of one step corresponds to about 32 times increase in
the amount of energy released, and an increase of two steps corresponds to 1,000 times increase in
energy.
• Thus, an earthquake of Mw of 7.0 releases about 32 times as much energy as one of 6.0 and nearly
1,000 times (~ 32 X 32) one of 5.0.
• Richter scale is only effective for regional earthquakes no greater than M5. Moment magnitude scale is
more effective for large earthquakes.

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Magnitude Description Average earthquake effects Frequency of occurrence

1.0–1.9 Micro • Microearthquakes, not felt, or Several million per year

felt rarely.
• They are recorded by seismo-
graphs.

2.0–2.9 Minor • Felt slightly by some people. Over one million per year
• No damage to buildings.

3.0–3.9 • Often felt by people, but very Over 100,000 per year
rarely causes damage.

4.0–4.9 Light • Noticeable shaking of indoor 10,000 to 15,000 per year

objects.
• Generally, causes none to mini-
mal damage.

5.0–5.9 Moderate • Slight damage to buildings. 1,000 to 1,500 per year

• Felt by everyone.

6.0–6.9 Strong • Poorly designed structures re- 100 to 150 per year
ceive moderate to severe dam- • 2011 Christchurch earthquake (6.2)
age.
• Felt in wider areas; up to
hundreds of kilometres from the
epicentre.
• Strong to violent shaking in the
epicentral area.

7.0–7.9 Major • Causes damage to most build- 10 to 20 per year

ings • 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake (7.7–
• Felt across great distances with 8.2)
major damage mostly limited to • 2001 Gujarat earthquake (7.7)
250 km from epicentre.

8.0–8.9 Great • Major damage to buildings, One per year

structures likely to be destroyed. • 1556 Shaanxi earthquake (8.0)
• Felt in extremely large regions. • 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake (8.6)
• 2008 Sichuan earthquake (8.0)

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• 2010 Chile earthquake (8.8)

9.0 and • At or near total destruction – One per 10 to 50 years

greater severe damage or collapse to all • 1960 Valdivia earthquake, Chile (9.4–
buildings. 9.6)
• Permanent changes in ground • 1964 Alaska earthquake (9.2)
topography. • 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (9.1–
9.3)
• 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, Japan (9.1)

Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents

Most powerful earthquakes ever recorded

Event Mw Focus

1 1960 Valdivia earthquake 9.4–9.6 33 km • Undersea megathrust earthquake

• Most powerful earthquake ever recorded
• The resulting tsunami affected the entire Pacific
Rim killing 1,000–7,000 people.

2 1964 Alaska earthquake 9.2 25 km • Collapsing structures and tsunamis resulted in

100+ deaths.

3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake 9.1–9.3 30 km • Undersea megathrust earthquake

• Caused by a rupture along the fault between the
Burma Plate and the Indian Plate.
• A series of large tsunamis up to 30 metres high
were created.
• The shift of mass and the massive release of ener-
gy slightly altered the Earth's rotation.

4 2011 Tōhoku earthquake 9.1 30 km • Undersea megathrust earthquake

• Most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan
• The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves
• 15,896 causalities
• Caused Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

Notable earthquakes

Event Magnitude Notes

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1556 Shaanxi earthquake 8.0 Deadliest earthquake with 8,00,000+ fatalities

Most of the deaths were caused due to the collapse of
artificial caves carved into the loess cliffs

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Costliest earthquake that caused damage to property
9.1 worth $250 billion

1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake 7.7 to 8.2 The earthquake caused an area of subsidence that formed
the Sindri Lake and a local zone of uplift dammed several
rivers. This natural dam was known as the Allah Bund
(Dam of God).

2001 Gujarat earthquake (Focus: 24 km) 7.7 The earthquake killed between 13000 and 20000 people

• The Gujarat quake occurred 400 km to the south-east of the tectonic boundary separating Indian Plate and
the Eurasian Plate.
• The current tectonics is governed by the effects of the continuing continental collision along this boundary.

Earthquake zones of India

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Earthquake zones of India (Source)

• The latest seismic zone map prepared by the National Disaster Management Authority reveals that nearly
59% of India's land area is prone to moderate or severe earthquakes.

2.6 Effects of Earthquakes

Soil liquefaction

• Soil liquefaction occurs when water-saturated soil temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid
to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink.

3. Tsunami

• Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour wave”. A tsunami is a series of very long-wavelength.
• They are sometimes referred to as tidal waves because of long wavelengths, although the attractions of
the Moon and Sun play no role in their formation.
• With the decrease in speed, the height of the tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which was imperceptible in
deep water may grow to many metres high, and this is called the ‘shoaling’ effect.

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3.1 Normal waves vs Tsunami waves

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• Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long wavelengths and period.
• Tsunamis are different from the wind-generated waves (period of five to twenty seconds).
• Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of their long wavelengths.

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• They have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and a wavelength exceeding 500 km.
• Tsunamis lose little energy as they propagate because of their very large wavelength.
• They travel at high speeds in deep waters, and their speed falls when they hit shallow waters.
• Tsunami waves are not noticed by ships far out at sea.
• When tsunamis approach shallow water, however, the wave amplitude increases (conservation of
energy).

3.2 Warning Systems

• In 1965, early warning system was started by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NO-
AA). The member states of the NOAA include the major Pacific Rim countries.
• NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’ (DART) gauge.

India’s preparedness

• The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian Ocean post-2004.
• A National Tsunami Early Warning Centre, which can detect earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in
the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in 2007 in India.

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• It is set up by Ministry of Earth Sciences in the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
(INCOIS), Hyderabad.

4. Soil erosion and Landforms

• Erosion by water is termed differently according to the intensity and nature of erosion: raindrop (splash
erosion) erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream bank erosion, landslides, coastal ero-
sion, glacial erosion.

Sheet erosion

• Weathering and erosion tend to level down the irregularities of landforms and create a peneplane.

Rill and gully erosion

• Gullies formed over a large area gives rise to badland topography (Chambal Ravines).

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4.2 Wind Erosion

• Wind erosion or aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Very fine and medium sands are moved by wind in a succession of bounds and leaps, known as saltation.
• Small sand and dust particles are transported over long distances through the air by a process known as
suspension.
• Coarse sand is not usually airborne but rather is rolled along the soil surface. This type of erosion is called
surface creep.
• Very coarse sand and gravels are too large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils have surfaces cov-
ered with coarse fragments. This kind of arid soil surface is known as desert pavement.

4.3 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Fluvial Erosional Landforms

• Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional activity of rivers.
• Various aspects of fluvial erosive action include:
✓ Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.
✓ Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.
✓ Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and breaking down in the process.
✓ Corrasion or abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and wearing them down.

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✓ Downcutting (vertical erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream (downcutting leads to valley deepen-
ing).
✓ Lateral erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley widening).
✓ Headward erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back away
from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.

Vertical, Lateral and Headward Erosion (Kayau, from Wikimedia Commons)

✓ Braiding: the main water channel splitting into multiple, narrower channel. A braided river,
or braided channel, consists of a network of river channels separated by small, and often temporary, islands
called braid bars. Braided streams occur in rivers with low slope and/or large sediment load.

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River course

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Youth

• Steep-sided "V-shaped' valleys, waterfalls, and rapids are characteristic features.

• E.g. Rivers flowing in the Himalayas.

Maturity

• Erosion takes place on the outside of bends, creating looping meanders in the soft alluvium of the river
plain.
• Deposition occurs on the inside of bends and on the river bed.
• E.g. Rivers flowing in the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plain.

Old Age

• As the river becomes shallower more deposition occurs, forming temporary islands (Majuli, a river island
in the Brahmaputra River, Assam is currently the world's largest river island) and braiding (e.g. braid-
ed channels of Brahmaputra river flood plain in Assam) the main channel into multiple, narrower channels.
• As the sediment is laid down, the actual mouth of the river moves away from the source into the sea or
lake, forming a delta.

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• E.g. Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

Waterfalls

• Kunchikal Falls (it is a cascade falls ― falls with many steps) formed by Varahi river in Shimoga district,
Karnataka is the highest waterfall in India (455 m).
• Nohkalikai Falls (340 m) is the tallest plunge waterfall in India. The waterfall is located near Cherrapunji.
• Jog or Gersoppa falls (253 m) on Sharavati river (a tributary of Cauvery), Karnataka is the second-highest
plunge waterfall in India.
• Angel Falls in Venezuela is the world's highest waterfall, with a height of 979 metres and a plunge of 807
metres.
• Tugela Falls (948 m) in the Drakensberg mountains, South Africa is the world's second highest waterfall.

Meanders

• The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive erosion and vertical cliffs and is
called the cliff-slope side. This side has a concave slope.
• The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and is called the slip-off
side.
• The meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or oxbow type.

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Oxbow Lake

• In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards shifting of Ganga has left many oxbow lakes to the north of the
present course of the Ganga.

Peneplane (Or peneplain)

• This refers to an undulating featureless plain punctuated with low-lying residual hills of resistant rocks. It is
considered to be an end product of an erosional cycle.

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Uluru or Ayers Rock in central Australia standing on a peneplane

• Fluvial erosion, in the course of geologic time, reduces the land almost to base level (sea level), leaving so
little gradient that essentially no more erosion could occur.

Drainage basin

• Other terms that are used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment area, catchment basin,
drainage area, river basin, and water basin.
• In closed (endorheic) drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a
sink, which may be a permanent lake (e.g. Lake Aral, also known Aral Sea, Dead Sea), dry lake (some
desert lakes like Lake Chad, Africa), or a point where surface water is lost underground (sinkholes in
Karst landforms).

Drainage Divide

• Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one another by a drainage divide.

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Difference between a River Basin and a Watershed

• Watershed of Yamuna + watershed of Chambal + watershed of Gandak + …. = Drainage basin of Ganga.

Some important drainage basins across the world

Basin Continent Drains to Basin Area km2

Amazon River South America Atlantic Ocean 6,144,727

Hudson Bay North America Atlantic Ocean 3,861,400

Congo River Africa Atlantic Ocean 3,730,474

Caspian Sea Asia/Europe Endorheic basin 3,626,000

Nile River Africa Mediterranean Sea 3,254,555

Mississippi-Missouri River North America Gulf of Mexico 3,202,230

Lake Chad Africa Endorheic basin 2,497,918

Black Sea multiple Mediterranean Sea 2,400,000

Niger River Africa Atlantic Ocean 2,261,763

Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) Asia Pacific Ocean 1,722,155

Baltic Sea Europe Atlantic Ocean 1,700,000

Ganges–Brahmaputra Asia Bay of Bengal 1,621,000

Indus River Asia Arabian Sea 1,081,733

Drainage systems (drainage patterns)

Concordant drainage

• A drainage pattern is described as concordant if it correlates to the topology and geology of the area.
• In simple words, in a concordant drainage pattern, the path of the river is highly dependent on the slope of
the river and topography.

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• Concordant drainage patterns are the most commonly found drainage patterns and are classified into
many consequent, subsequent, obsequent and resequent.

Consequent Rivers

• The rivers which follow the general direction of the slope are known as the consequent rivers.
• For example, rivers like the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

Subsequent Rivers

• A tributary stream that is formed by headward erosion along an underlying rock after the main drainage
pattern (consequent river) has been established is known as a subsequent river.
• The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles. They are
the subsequent drainage of the Ganga drainage system.

Obsequent Rivers

• After the valley development of consequent and subsequent rivers, obsequent rivers may form at right an-
gles to the subsequent rivers and flow opposite to the direction of flow of the original consequent river.

Resequent Rivers

• A resequent river flows in the same direction as that of the initial consequent drainage.
• Resequent rivers originate at a much later stage (hence they are called resequent) in comparison to the
master consequent rivers.

Discordant or Insequent drainage patterns

• A drainage pattern is described as discordant if it does not correlate to the topology (surface relief fea-
tures) and geology of the area.

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• In simple words, in a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows its initial path irrespective of the changes
in topography.
• Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: antecedent and superimposed.
• Usually, rivers in both these drainage types flow through a highly sloping surface.

Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent Drainage

• A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted, and the river sticks to its original slope, cut-
ting through the uplifted portion like a saw (vertical erosion) and forming deep gorges. This type of drain-
age is called antecedent drainage.
• Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and other Himalayan rivers that are older than the Himalayas
themselves. There are usually called antecedent rivers (rivers older than the existing land itself).

Superimposed or Epigenetic (Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage

• When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal rocks but continues to follow the
initial slope, it seems to have no relation with the harder rock bed.
• This type of drainage is called superimposed drainage.

Explanation

• Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly relative to the base level of the stream. This increases the gradi-
ent of the stream and therefore, gives the stream more erosive power.
• The stream has enough erosive power that it cuts its way through any bedrock, maintaining its former
drainage pattern.
• The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas and the rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau
present some good examples of superimposed drainage.

Antecedent Drainage: cuts through the newly formed landform and maintains the same path. E.g. Himalayan
Rivers.
Superimposed Drainage: cuts deeper through the existing landform and maintains the same path. E.g. some
medium scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern peninsular India.
Antecedent Drainage: The soil formed is weak (mostly weak sediments), and the rivers easily erode it.
Superimposed Drainage: The rivers have high erosive power so that they can cut through the underlying strata.

Other Drainage Patterns

Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage Pattern

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• Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery, Krishna.

Trellis Drainage Pattern

• In this type of pattern, the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right angles, and differential
erosion through soft rocks paves the way for tributaries.
• Examples: The old folded mountains of the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and Seine and its tribu-
taries in Paris basin (France) have drainage of trellis pattern.

Angular Drainage Pattern

• The tributaries join the main stream at acute angles.

• This pattern is common in Himalayan foothill regions.

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Rectangular Drainage Pattern

• The main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles creating rectangular patterns.
• This pattern has a subsequent origin. Example: Colorado River (USA), streams found is the Vindhyan
Mountains of India.

Radial Drainage Pattern

• The tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all directions.
• Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region, the rivers originating from the Amarkantak Mountain,
Central French Plateau, Mt. Kilimanjaro.
• The Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originate from Amarkantak Hills and flow in different directions.

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Annular Drainage Pattern

• When the upland has a soft outer stratum, the radial streams develop subsequent tributaries which try to
follow circular drainage around the summit.
• This is not a very common drainage pattern in India. Some examples of this are however found in Pi-
thoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Parallel Drainage Pattern

• The tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other in a uniformly sloping region.
• Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and the small and swift rivers originating in the Western Ghats
that flow into Arabian Sea.

Centripetal Drainage Pattern

• In a low-lying basin, the streams converge from all sides.

• Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.

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Deranged Drainage Pattern

• This is an uncoordinated pattern of drainage characteristic of a region recently vacated by an ice-sheet.

• The picture is one of the numerous watercourses, lakes and marshes; some inter-connected and some in
local drainage basins of their own.
• This type of drainage is found in the glaciated valleys of Karakoram.

Barbed Drainage Pattern

• A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a tributary with the main river is characterized by a dis-
cordant junction — as if the tributary intends to flow upstream and not downstream.
• The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the Kosi is an interesting example of barbed drainage pattern.

Fluvial Depositional Landforms

Alluvial Fans and Cones

• Such fans appear throughout the Himalayan foothills in the north Indian plains.

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Natural Levees

• These act as natural protection against floods but a breach in a levee causes sudden floods in adjoining ar-
eas, as it happens in the case of the Hwang Ho river of China.

Delta

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Arcuate or Fan-shaped (Curved)

• This type of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting distributaries and a general
fan-shaped profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.

Bird’s Foot Delta (Elongated)

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• The currents and tides are weak in such areas and the number of distributaries lesser as compared to an
arcuate delta. Example: Mississippi River.

Estuaries

• Sometimes the mouth of the river appears to be submerged. This may be due to a drowned valley because
of a rise in sea level.
• These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports and industries because estuaries provide access to deep water,
especially if protected from currents and tides. Example: Hudson estuary.

Cuspate Delta

• This is a pointed delta generally formed along strong coasts and is subjected to strong wave action. There
are very few or no distributaries in a cuspate delta.
• Example: Tiber river on the west coast of Italy.

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High-constructive deltas – Elongate and Lobate Delta

• Develops when fluvial action and depositional process dominate the system.
• Elongate delta is represented by the bird-foot delta of the Mississippi River.
• The Godavari River represents lobate delta.

Lobate: Shaped like a lobe

Godavari – Lobate
Krishna – Arcuate
Kaveri – Quadrilateral
Nile, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra – Arcuate
All the above are more or less the same kind (arcuate) of deltas

• Both of these types have a large sediment supply that tends to disperse sediment along the shoreline.
• A lobate delta (a subtype of fan-shaped delta) is formed if the river water is as dense as the seawater (pre-
cipitation or coagulation of river sediments occur immediately, and hence the delta is not elongated).
• A bird-boot delta (elongated delta) is formed when the river water is lighter than seawater (precipitation
or coagulation of river sediments can occur at a distance from shore, and hence the delta is elongated).

4.4 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

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• Limestone is an organically formed sedimentary rock (formed by the decomposition of calcareous shells)
and is soluble in rainwater.
• The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up
carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a
weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate (limestone).
• Karsts are so named after a province of Yugoslavia (in Balkans) on the Adriatic Sea coast where such for-
mations are most noticeable.

4.5 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Coastlines

1. Coastline of Emergence
2. Coastline of Submergence
3. Neutral coastline
4. Compound coastline
5. Fault coastline
• Coastline is modified either due to rise or fall in sea levels or upliftment or subsidence of land, or both.

Coastlines of Emergence

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• These are formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.
• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical features.
• The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
emergence.
• The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent. The northern portion of
the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, is an ex-
ample of an emergent coast.
• Coramandal coast ➔ Tamil Nadu Coast ➔ Coastline of emergence
• Malabar coast ➔ Kerala Coast ➔ Coastline of emergence
• Konkan coast ➔ Maharashtra and Goa Coast ➔ Coastline of submergence

Coastlines of Submergence

• Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned lowlands are its typical features.

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4.6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Types of Glaciers: continental glaciers, ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley glaciers.
• The continental glaciers are found in Antarctica and Greenland. The biggest continental ice sheet in Ice-
land.
• Ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on mountains from which the valley or mountain glaciers originate.
• The piedmont glaciers form a continuous ice sheet at the base of mountains as in southern Alaska.
• The valley glaciers, also known as Alpine glaciers, are found in higher regions of the Himalayas in our coun-
try and all such high mountain ranges of the world.
• The largest of Indian glaciers occur in the Karakoram range, viz. Siachen (72 km), while Gangotri in Uttar
Pradesh (Himalayas) is 25.5 km long.

Glacial Erosional Landforms

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4.7 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

• Arid regions are regions with scanty rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall under arid landforms.

Erosional Arid Landforms

Water Eroded Arid Landforms

Badland Topography

• Ravines and gullies are developed by linear fluvial erosion leading to the formation of badland topography.
• Example: Chambal Ravines.

Bolsons

• The intermontane basins in dry regions are generally known as bolsons.

Playas

• Small streams flow into bolsons, where water is accumulated. These temporary lakes are called playas.
• After the evaporation of water, salt-covered playas are called salinas.

Pediments

• In form and function there is no difference between a pediment and an alluvial fan; however, pediment is
an erosional landform while a fan is a constructional one.

Bajada

• Bajadas are moderately sloping depositional plains located between pediments and playa.
• Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a bajada.

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Wind Eroded Arid Landforms

• The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the following ways, viz. deflation, abrasion, and attrition.
• Deflation == removing, lifting and carrying away dry, unsorted dust particles by winds. It causes depres-
sions known as blowouts.
• Abrasion == When wind loaded with sand grains erodes the rock by grinding against its walls is called
abrasion or sandblasting.
• Attrition == Attrition refers to wear and tear of the sand particles while they are being transported.

Following are the major landforms produced by wind erosion.

Arid Depositional Landforms

• The depositional force of wind also creates landforms. These are as follows.

Sand Dunes

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• Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand found in deserts. Generally, their heights vary from a few metres
to 20 metres, but in some cases, dunes are several hundred metres high and 5 to 6 km long.

Some of the forms are discussed below:

Longitudinal dunes

• Formed parallel to the wind movement. The windward slope of the dune is gentle whereas the leeward side
is steep. These dunes are commonly found at the heart of trade-wind deserts like the Sahara, Australian,
Libyan, South African and Thar deserts.

Transverse dunes

• Dunes deposited perpendicular (transverse) to the prevailing wind direction.

Barchans

• Crescent-shaped dunes. The windward side is convex whereas the leeward side is concave and steep.

Parabolic dunes

• They are U-shaped and are much longer and narrower than barchans.

Star dunes

• Have a high central peak, radically extending three or more arms.

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Loess

• In some parts of the world, windblown dust and silt blanket the land. This layer of fine, mineral-rich mate-
rial is called loess.
• Extensive loess deposits are found in northern China, the Great Plains of North America, central Eu-
rope, and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
• The thickest loess deposits are near the Missouri River in the U.S. state of Iowa and along the Yellow River
in China.

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5. Lakes

• Most lakes have at least one natural outflow (exorheic lake) in the form of a river or stream, which main-
tain a lake's average level by allowing the drainage of excess water
• Other lakes are found in endorheic basins. Some lakes do not have a natural outflow and lose water solely
by evaporation or underground seepage or both. They are termed endorheic lakes.

5.1 Classification of Lakes

Saline lakes

• Salt lakes (saline lakes) can form where there is no natural outlet.
• Because of the intense evaporation (negative freshwater balance, i.e., more water is lost in evaporation than
gained from rivers) these lakes are saline.
• For example, the Dead Sea has a salinity (salt content) of 250 parts per thousand, and the Great Salt Lake
of Utah, U.S.A. has a salinity of 220 parts per thousand.
• Playas or salt lakes are a common feature of deserts (arid landforms).

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Lakes Formed by Earth Movement:

Tectonic lakes

• They include Lake Titicaca and the Caspian Sea.

Rift valley lakes

• The best-known example is the East African Rift Valley which runs through Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania,
Kenya and Ethiopia, and extends along the Red Sea to Israel and Jordan over a total distance of 3,000 miles.

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• It includes such lakes as Lakes Tanganyika, Malawi, Rudolf, Edward, Albert, as well as the Dead Sea
1,286 feet below mean sea level, the world’s lowest lake.

5.2 Lakes and Man

Means of communication

• Large lakes like the Great Lakes of North America provide a cheap and convenient form of transport for
heavy and bulky goods such as coal, iron, machinery, grains and timber.
• The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways penetrate more than 1,700 miles into the interior.

Water storage

• E.g. Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh.

Hydro-electric power generation

• E.g. Artificial lakes like Hirakud.

Agricultural purposes

• Many dams are built across artificial lakes. E.g. Bhakra Nangal Dam (Himachal Pradesh; its reservoir is
known as the Gobind Sagar Lake) and Hirakud Dam (Odisha) on the Mahanadi in India.

Regulating river flows

• E.g. Hoover Dam on the River Colorado and the Bhakra and Nangal Dams on the Sutlej in India.
• The Hirakud dam was originally conceived as a flood control measure. But the project is criticised for doing
more damage than good.

Tourist attraction and health resorts

• E.g. Lake Chilka, Leh, Dead Sea etc.

5.3 Important Lakes on Earth

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• Note 1: Black Sea is not a lake since Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits connect it to the Mediterrane-
an Sea. Many big rivers fall into the Black Sea, making the salinity of its surface water half that of the ocean:
17 per cent.
• Note 2: the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea are lakes. The surface and shores of the Dead Sea are 423
metres below sea level, making it Earth’s lowest elevation on land.
• Note 3: While writing facts about lakes, people ignore the Caspian Sea because for them it is too big to be
considered a lake. But it is still a lake (closed body).

World’s Highest and Lowest Lakes

• The world's highest lake, if size is not a criterion, maybe the crater lake of Ojos del Salado, at 6,390 me-
tres. It is in the Andes.
• The highest large lake in the world is the Pumoyong Tso (Pumuoyong Tso; 5018 metres above sea level)
in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
• The world's highest commercially navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia border at 3,812 m.
It is also the largest lake in South America.
• The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea, bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 metres below sea level. It is
also one of the lakes with the highest salt concentration.

The largest lakes (surface area) by continent

• Australia – Lake Eyre (salt lake)

• Africa – Lake Victoria, also the third-largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one of the Great Lakes of Africa.

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• Antarctica – Lake Vostok (subglacial)

• Asia – Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is considered a lake, it is the largest in Eurasia, but is divided be-
tween the two geographic continents)
• Europe – Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake Onega, both located in northwestern Russia.
• North America – Lake Superior.
• South America – Lake Titicaca, which is also the highest navigable body of water on Earth at 3,812 metres
above sea level. The much larger Lake Maracaibo is a contiguous body of water with the sea, so it is
ignored.

Largest Lakes by Surface Area

1. Caspian Sea (saline lake) – Asia

2. Lake Superior (freshwater lake) – North America
3. Lake Victoria (freshwater lake) – Africa
4. Lake Huron (freshwater lake) – North America
5. Lake Michigan (freshwater lake) – North America

Largest Lakes by Volume

1. Caspian Sea (saline lake)

1. Lake Baikal (fresh water lake)
2. Lake Tanganyika (freshwater lake)
3. Lake Superior (freshwater lake)

Deepest Lakes in the World

1. Lake Baikal
2. Lake Tanganyika
3. Caspian Sea

Lake Baikal (Deepest)

• Located in Siberia, Russia.

• It is the deepest lake in the world (1,600+ metres deep).
• It is the world's second largest lake by volume (the Caspian Sea is the largest lake) and the world’s largest
freshwater lake by volume.
• It is the second longest freshwater lake.

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Lake Tanganyika (Longest)

• The longest freshwater lake in the world.

• It is also the second largest freshwater lake by volume.
• It is the second deepest lake in the world, after Lake Baikal.

Great Lakes

• Great Lakes of North America are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes which connect to the Atlantic
Ocean through the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
• Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country.

Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario (in the order of west to east)
Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (In the order of largest to smallest)

Dead Sea

• Also called the Salt Sea.

• Lake bordering Jordan to the east, and Palestine and Israel to the west.
• It Earth's lowest elevation on land.

6. Plateau

6.1 Economic significance of plateaus

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Plateaus are of great economic significance. Comment with reference to India And World.

• The plateau of France (Massif Central), the Deccan plateau of India, Katanga plateau of Congo (Copper
mines), Western Australian plateau or Kimberly Plateau (diamond mines) and Brazilian plateau or Brazili-
an Highlands are very good sources of minerals.
• In India, huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found in the Chotanagpur plateau.
• In the plateau areas, there may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a great height. In India, the
Hundru Falls in the Chotanagpur plateau on the river Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in Karnataka are
examples of such waterfalls.
• Angel falls in Venezuela is also a waterfall that descends a plateau.
• The lava plateaus like Deccan traps are rich in black soil that is fertile and good for cultivation. Example:
Maharashtra has good cotton growing soils called regurs.
• Loess Plateau in China has very fertile soils that are good for many kinds of crops.

6.2 Plateau Formation

• Tectonic plateaus are formed from processes that create mountain ranges, volcanism (Deccan Plateau),
crustal shortening (Tibetan Plateau ― thrusting of one block of crust over another, and folding occurs. Ex-
ample:), and thermal expansion (Ethiopian Highlands).

Thermal expansion

• Plateaus caused by thermal expansion of the lithosphere are usually associated with hot spots.
• The Yellowstone Plateau in the United States, the Massif Central in France, and the Ethiopian Plateau
in Africa are prominent examples.

Crustal shortening

• The great heights of some plateaus, such as the Plateau of Tibet is due to crustal shortening.
• Plateaus in North Africa, Turkey, Iran, and Tibet, where the African, Arabian, and Indian continental masses
have collided with the Eurasian continent.

Volcanic flood basalts

• The volcanism involved in such situations is commonly associated with hot spots.
• For example, the basalts of the Deccan Traps, which cover the Deccan plateau in India, were erupted 60–65
million years ago over the same hot spot that presently underlies the volcanic island of Reunion.

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• Volcanic plateaus include the Columbia Plateau in the north-western USA, Deccan Traps of peninsular
India, Laurentian plateau or The Canadian Shield and the Siberian Traps of Russia.

6.3 Plateau Types

• There are two kinds of plateaus: dissected plateaus and volcanic plateaus.

Dissected plateau

• A dissected plateau forms as a result of upward movement in the Earth’s crust.

• The Colorado Plateau, in the western United States, Tibetan plateau etc. are examples.

Volcanic plateau

• The Columbia Plateau in the north-western United States of America and Deccan Traps are two such plat-
eaus.

Others

• Intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world, bordered by mountains. The Tibetan Plateau is one
such plateau.
• Continental plateaus are bordered on all sides by the plains or seas, forming away from mountains.

6.4 Major plateaus of the World

Tibetan Plateau

• It is the Highest and largest plateau in the world and hence called the ‘roof of the world’.
• It is surrounded by mountains to the south by the Himalayan Range, to the northeast by the Kunlun
Range, and to the west by the Karakoram Range.

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Columbia – Snake Plateau

• River Columbia and its tributary Snake meet in this plateau.

• It is bordered by the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mountains and divided by the Columbia River.
• This plateau has been formed as the result of volcanic eruptions with a consequent coating of basalt lava
(flood basalt plateau).

Colorado Plateau

• It lies in the western part of U.S.A. It is the largest plateau in America.

• It is divided by the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon.
• This plateau is an example of the intermontane plateau.
• Mesas and buttes are found here at many places (arid Landforms).
• The plateau is known for the groundwater which is under positive pressure and causes the emergence of
springs called Artesian wells.

Deccan Plateau

• The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica and iron ore in the Cho-
tanagpur region, and diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.

Kimberley Plateau

• It lies in the northern part of Australia.

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• This plateau is made of volcanic eruption.

• Many minerals like iron, gold, lead, zinc, silver and diamonds are found here.

Katanga Plateau

• It lies in the Congo.

• It is famous for copper production.
• Other minerals like Cobalt, Uranium, Zinc, Silver, Gold and Tin are also mined here.

Patagonian Plateau

• It is a Piedmont plateau (arid landforms) lying in southern part of Argentina.

• It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
• It is an important region for sheep rearing.

Massif Central

• This plateau lies in central France.

• It is famous for Grape cultivation.

Anatolian Plateau

• Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey lies on this plateau.

• It is an intermontane plateau lying between Pontiac and Taurus Mountain ranges.
• Tigris – Euphrates Rivers flow through this plateau.
• Precious wool producing Angora goats are found here.

Others

• Piedmont Plateau: it is located in the Eastern United States. It sits between the Atlantic coastal plain and
the main Appalachian Mountains
• Spanish Plateau or Iberian Plateau: It is situated in the middle of Spain. It is a lava plateau. It is rich in
minerals like Iron.
• Loess Plateau: It is in China. The soil here is made of fine particles brought by the wind. This fine loamy soil
is extremely productive. Crops grown in this soil along the Yellow River give great yields.
• Potwar Plateau: It is situated in the northern plateau (Punjab) region of Pakistan. The Salt Range is located
to the south-west of the plateau.
• Bavarian Plateau: Southern part of Germany.
• Ahaggar Plateau: A small plateau located in Algeria, Sahara.

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Climatology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com

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Climatology Part I
PDF

1. Latitudes and Longitudes ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Latitude or Parallel ................................................................................................................................... 4
Important parallels of latitudes .......................................................................................................................... 4
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth .................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Longitude or Meridian.............................................................................................................................. 5
Longitude and Time ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Standard Time and Time Zones .......................................................................................................................... 6
Indian Standard Time ......................................................................................................................................... 6
The International Date Line ................................................................................................................................ 7
1.3 Comparison: Latitude vs Longitude........................................................................................................ 10

2. Motions of the earth ........................................................................................................................... 11

2.1 Rotation of Earth .................................................................................................................................... 12
Shape of the earth ............................................................................................................................................ 12
2.2 Revolution .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Solstice.............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Equinox ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Perihelion and Aphelion ................................................................................................................................... 17
Eclipse ............................................................................................................................................................... 19

3. Atmosphere........................................................................................................................................ 27
3.1 Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere ........................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Composition of Atmosphere .................................................................................................................. 29
Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere .............................................................................................................. 29
Important constituents of the atmosphere ..................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Structure of Atmosphere ....................................................................................................................... 32
Troposphere ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
Stratosphere ..................................................................................................................................................... 34
Mesosphere ...................................................................................................................................................... 35
Thermosphere .................................................................................................................................................. 35
Exosphere ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.4 Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere........................................................................................................ 37

4. Temperature Distribution on Earth ..................................................................................................... 39

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4.1 Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ........................................................................................................... 39

Radiation........................................................................................................................................................... 39
Conduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Convection ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution .......................................................................................... 40
The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays ............................................................................ 41
Duration of Sunshine ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Transparency of Atmosphere ........................................................................................................................... 41
Albedo .............................................................................................................................................................. 41
Land-Sea Differential ........................................................................................................................................ 42
Prevailing Winds ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Aspects of Slope ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Ocean Currents ................................................................................................................................................. 43
Altitude ............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Earth’s Distance form Sun ................................................................................................................................ 43
4.3 The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution ......................................................................................... 44
General characteristics of isotherms................................................................................................................ 44
General Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................... 44
Seasonal Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................. 45
4.4 Latitudinal Heat Balance ........................................................................................................................ 49
4.5 Heat Budget............................................................................................................................................ 50
4.6 Vertical Distribution of Temperature ..................................................................................................... 52
Latent Heat of Condensation ........................................................................................................................... 52
Lapse Rate ........................................................................................................................................................ 53
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) ............................................................................................................................... 54
Temperature Inversion ..................................................................................................................................... 59

5. Pressure Systems and Wind Systems ................................................................................................... 63

5.1 Atmospheric pressure ............................................................................................................................ 63
5.2 Atmospheric pressure cells .................................................................................................................... 63
5.3 Isobars .................................................................................................................................................... 63
Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centres ....................................................................................................... 64
5.4 Vertical Variation of Pressure ................................................................................................................ 64
5.5 Factors affecting Wind Movement ........................................................................................................ 65
Pressure Gradient Force ................................................................................................................................... 65
Buoyant force ................................................................................................................................................... 65
Frictional Force ................................................................................................................................................. 66
Coriolis force..................................................................................................................................................... 66
Centripetal Acceleration ................................................................................................................................... 69
5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Pressure........................................................................................................ 70
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ .................................................................................................... 70
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes ........................................................................................ 71
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt ............................................................................................................................ 73
Polar High-Pressure Belt ................................................................................................................................... 74
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems .............................................................................................................. 74
Pressure belts in July ........................................................................................................................................ 75
Pressure belts in January .................................................................................................................................. 76
5.7 Pressure systems and General Circulation ............................................................................................. 77
Hadley Cell ........................................................................................................................................................ 78

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Ferrel Cell.......................................................................................................................................................... 78
Polar Cell ........................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.8 Classification of Winds ........................................................................................................................... 78
Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds ................................................................................... 79
Secondary or Periodic Winds............................................................................................................................ 80
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze............................................................................................................................. 81
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ................................................................................................................ 81
Tertiary or Local Winds..................................................................................................................................... 82

6. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) ......................................................................................................... 84

6.1 Water Vapour in Atmosphere ................................................................................................................ 85
Humidity ........................................................................................................................................................... 85
6.2 Evaporation ............................................................................................................................................ 88
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation.............................................................................................................. 88
6.3 Condensation ......................................................................................................................................... 89
Processes of Cooling for Producing Condensation ........................................................................................... 90
6.4 Forms of Condensation .......................................................................................................................... 90
Dew................................................................................................................................................................... 91
White Frost ....................................................................................................................................................... 91
Fog .................................................................................................................................................................... 92
Mist ................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Smog ................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Clouds ............................................................................................................................................................... 97
6.5 Precipitation ......................................................................................................................................... 101
6.6 Types of Rainfall ................................................................................................................................... 101
Convectional Rainfall ...................................................................................................................................... 102
Orographic Rainfall ......................................................................................................................................... 102
Frontal Rainfall ............................................................................................................................................... 103
Cyclonic Rain................................................................................................................................................... 104
Monsoonal Rainfall ......................................................................................................................................... 104
World Distribution of Rainfall ......................................................................................................................... 104

7. Thunderstorm....................................................................................................................................106
Stage 1: Cumulus stage................................................................................................................................... 107
Stage 2: Mature stage .................................................................................................................................... 107
Stage 3: Dissipating stage ............................................................................................................................... 108
7.2 Types of Thunderstorms ...................................................................................................................... 109
Thermal thunderstorm ................................................................................................................................... 109
Orographic thunderstorm .............................................................................................................................. 109
Frontal thunderstorm ..................................................................................................................................... 109
Single-cell thunderstorm (Isolated thunderstorm) ........................................................................................ 109
A multi-cell thunderstorm .............................................................................................................................. 110
A supercell thunderstorm............................................................................................................................... 110
7.3 Tornado ................................................................................................................................................ 110
Formation ....................................................................................................................................................... 111
Waterspout..................................................................................................................................................... 111
Distribution of tornadoes ............................................................................................................................... 112
7.4 Lightning and thunder .......................................................................................................................... 112

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Thunder .......................................................................................................................................................... 113

Lightning from cloud to Earth......................................................................................................................... 114
Lightning deaths ............................................................................................................................................. 114
7.5 Hailstorm .............................................................................................................................................. 115
Favourable conditions for hail formation....................................................................................................... 115
Formation of hail ............................................................................................................................................ 115
7.6 Hazards posed by thunderstorms and associated phenomenon ........................................................ 117

1. Latitudes and Longitudes

• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system) are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place
on earth.
• Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N Latitude, 77° E Longitude.

1.1 Latitude or Parallel

• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator measured in degrees from the cen-
tre of the earth.

Latitude (ϕ) and longitude (λ) are defined on a perspective spherical modal (Wikipedia)

• As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a
little longer than that at the equator.
• For example, at the equator linear distance of a degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at 45° it is
111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles, it is 111.7 km (69.4 miles). The average is taken as 111 km (69
miles).

Important parallels of latitudes

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• Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90° N) and the south pole (90° S), there are four important par-
allels of latitudes:
1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
3. The Arctic circle (66½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
4. The Antarctic circle is (66½° S) in the southern hemisphere.

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth

Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth

• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-
ricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles.
• As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of Capricorn and
the Antarctic circle, have moderate temperatures. These are, therefore, called temperate zones.
• Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does not rise much
above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting. These are, therefore, called frigid zones.

1.2 Longitude or Meridian

• Longitude is an angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime (First) Meridian measured in degrees
from the centre of the earth.

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• On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run from pole to pole passing through the
equator. Such lines are also called meridians.
• It was decided in 1884 to choose the meridian which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at
Greenwich, near London, as the zero meridian or prime meridian.
• All other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards of the prime meridian up to 180°.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude, the meridians of longitude are of equal length.
• The meridians of longitude have one very important function; they determine local time in relation to
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), which is sometimes referred to as World Time.

Longitude and Time

• Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one
hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour.
• Conversely, if we go westwards by 15°, local time is retarded by 1 hour.
• Thus, the places east of Greenwich gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich lose time.
• A traveller going eastwards gains time from Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° E when he will be
12 hours ahead of GMT (GMT+12).
• Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 hours when he reaches 180° W. There is thus a total difference of
24 hours or a whole day between the two sides of the 180° meridian.

180° E and 180° W correspond to the same longitude. The difference is the direction of travel.

Standard Time and Time Zones

• Standard Time is the time corresponding to a certain longitude or longitudes as chosen by a country.
• Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries. E.g. IST corresponds
to the time at 82.5° E longitude.
• In countries that have a very large longitudinal extent (large east-west span), such as Canada, USA, Rus-
sia, it would be inconvenient to have a single time zone. So, such countries have multiple time zones.
• For example, Russia has nine time zones, and Canada and USA have six time zones each.

Indian Standard Time

• Indian Standard Time (IST) is taken as the time at 82.5° E longitude (passing close to the east of Prayagraj
or Allahabad). Which means, IST is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of GMT (IST = GMT+5:30).

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Longitudinal extent of India

Chaibagaan Time

• One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists introduced “Chaibagaan time” or “Bagaan time”, a schedule
observed by tea planters, which was one hour ahead of IST.
• This was done to improve productivity by optimising the usage of daytime.
• After Independence, Assam, along with the rest of India, has been following IST.
• The administration of the Indian state of Assam put forward a proposal to change its time zone back to
Chaibagaan time to conserve energy and improve productivity.
• Indian government refused to accept such a proposal.

The International Date Line

• The International Date Line (IDL) an imaginary line that passes through the Pacific Ocean.
• Along the International Date Line, the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed.
• A traveller crossing the date line from east to west loses a day, and while crossing the dateline from west to
east, he gains a day.

Explanation:

• 180° E is GMT+12 and 180° W is GMT-12, hence the difference between 180° E and 180° W is 24 hours.
• That is, time difference on either side of IDL is 24 hours. So, the date changes as soon as one crosses IDL.

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International Date Line

Why is the international dateline drawn in a zigzag manner?

• The International Date Line curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering Strait, and at the island
groups of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia.
• If the dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island Country or Island group would fall under
different date zones. Thus, to avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn in a zig-zag manner.
• Some of regions along the dateline keep Asiatic, or New Zealand standard time, others follow the American
date and time.

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Time Zones and International Date Line

The Island Groups of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia

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IDL cutting across Oceania (Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia) (Jailbird, via Wikimedia Commons)
Samoa, Christmas Island (Kiribati) and Tonga are the first places that welcome a New Year.
Baker Island (USA) and Howland Island (USA) are the last to celebrate a new year.

1.3 Comparison: Latitude vs Longitude

Latitude Longitude

• Angular distance of a point measured along the north or • Angular distance measured along the
south of the equator equator

• Latitudes are named south and north of Equator • Longitudes are named east or west of
Prime Meridian

• Also called as Parallels • Also called as Meridian

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• Equator = 0° Latitude • Prime meridian = 0° Longitude

• Equator has the maximum length • All longitudes are equal in length

• Equator, Tropic of Cancer 23.5° N, Tropic of Capricorn • Prime meridian 0° and International Date
23.5° S, Arctic circle 66.5° N, Antarctic circle 66.5° S, North Line 180° E or 180° W are important longi-
Pole 90° N and South Pole 90° S are important latitudes tudes

Both are used to determine the location of a point on earth. The location is identified with Co-ordinates

Prelims Mock: Statements

1) A person travelling from Japan to Alaska across International Date Line will gain a day.
2) A person travelling from Hawaii to New Zealand across International Date Line will lose a day.
3) It is inconvenient for a country of greater latitudinal extent but smaller longitudinal extent (Chile for exam-
ple) to have multiple time zones.
4) On a 24-hour clock, the time is 00:00 in London. Then the time in Mumbai on a 12-hour clock will be 05:30
AM.

Which of the above statements are false?

a) None
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) 3 only

Explanation:

• If the time and date in Japan is 12:00 AM 01/01/2019, then the date in Alaska (USA) will be 31/12/2018.
Thus, a person travelling from Japan to Alaska across the International Date Line will gain a day (Japan is
more than 18 hours ahead of Alaska).
• IST is GMT+5:30. So, if it is 00:00 in London, then the time in India is 05:30 AM. If it is 23:00 GMT,
31/12/2018, then the time and date in India is 4:30 AM 01/01/2019.
• On a 24-hour clock, the time is 00:00 in London. Then the time in Mumbai on a 12-hour clock will be 05:30
AM.

Answer: a) None

2. Motions of the earth

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• Rotation and revolution are the most important motions of the earth.

2.1 Rotation of Earth

• The spinning movement of the earth is called rotation.

• The Earth rotates around its axis in west to east direction.
• Earth’s axis is the imaginary line that passes through the North Pole, earth’s centre and the South Pole.
• Earth’s axis is antipodal ― meaning it passes through the centre of the earth connecting two exactly oppo-
site ends.
• It takes approximately 24 hrs (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds) to complete one rotation.
• Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
• Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal, i.e. it makes
an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane of the earth (ecliptic plane).

Inclination of the Earth’s Axis

Shape of the earth

• The shape of the earth is Geoid (some sources mention is as oblate spheroid). That is, the earth is slightly
flattened at the poles and bulged at the equatorial region.
• The radius at the equator is larger than at the poles due to the long-term effects of the earth's rotation
(the speed of rotation, and hence the centrifugal force, is greater at the equator than at the poles).

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Geoid

• The gravitation force is not the same at different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near the poles and
less at the equator.
• This is because of
a) The poles are closer to the centre due to the equatorial bulge and thus have a stronger gravitational
field.
b) The speed of rotation of the earth is greater at the equator than at the poles. Thus, the centrifugal force
is greater at the equator. As the centrifugal force and the gravitational force are counteracting forces
(acting in the opposite direction), the latter is slightly less at the equator compared to the poles.

Que: Shouldn't the gravity at the equator be greater as there is more mass at the equator?
Ans: The density of earth along the poles is greater than along the equator (because of the difference is speed of
rotation). As a denser object of a given mass is smaller, you get closer to its centre of mass and experience a
stronger gravitational force.

Temperature falls as we move from equator towards poles

• Temperature falls at the surface of the earth as one moves away from the equator towards poles.
• This is because of the spherical (geoid) shape of the earth and the position of the sun relative to earth.
• The energy received per unit area decreases from equator to poles as the equator receives direct sun-
light and the sun’s rays becomes slant or oblique as we move poleward.

Prelims mock: Statements

1. The shape of the Earth is Geoid.

2. The region that lies between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called Torrid Zone.
3. The temperature decreases from equator to poles because of the shape of the earth.
4. The North Pole is a latitude.

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Which of the above statements are true?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1, 3 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
d) All

Answer: None are false, d) all

2.2 Revolution

• At the same time that the Earth spins on its axis, it also orbits or revolves around the Sun. This movement is
called revolution.
• The plane in which the earth revolves around the sun is called as orbital plane or the ecliptic.

Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth’s orbit, known as the ecliptic. The plan-
ets are very close to the ecliptic, whereas comets and Kuiper belt objects are at significantly greater angles to it.

• It takes 365¼ days (one year) for the earth to complete one revolution around the sun.
• Six surplus hours saved every year are added to make one day over a span of four years.
• This surplus day is added to the month of February. Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead
of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.

Solstice

Summer solstice

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• On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, and the rays of the sun fall directly on the
Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat.
• Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions
north of the equator.
• The longest day and the shortest night all across the northern hemisphere occur on 21st June.
• At this time in the southern hemisphere, all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
nights are longer than the days.
• This position of the earth is called the summer solstice. (For southern hemisphere 21st June is winter solstice)
• During summer solstice the whole of Arctic region falls within the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long.

Winter solstice

• On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun.
• The longest night and the shortest day all across the northern hemisphere occur on 22nd December.
• It is summer in the southern hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the
northern hemisphere.
• This position of the earth is called the winter solstice. (For southern hemisphere 22nd December is summer
solstice)

Midnight sun

• Because of the axial tilt of the Earth, the Sun does not set at high latitudes in local summer.
• The number of days per year with potential midnight sun increases as one goes closer towards the poles.
• The Sun remains continuously visible for one day during the summer solstice (21st June in the Northern
Hemisphere and 22nd December in the Southern Hemisphere) at the polar circle, for several weeks only 100
km closer to the pole, and for six months at the pole.

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The Sun sets and rises very close to the horizon at the higher latitudes

• At extreme latitudes, the midnight sun is usually referred to as polar day.

• At the poles themselves, the Sun rises and sets only once each year on the equinox.
• The opposite phenomenon, polar night, occurs in winter when the Sun stays below the horizon throughout
the day.

Daylight saving in temperate regions

• Daylight saving time (DST) or summer time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by
one hour or more.
• In DST, evening time is increased by sacrificing the morning hours.

Normal days = Start office at 10 AM and close at 5 PM.

DST = Start office at 9 AM and Close at 4 PM

• Typically, users in regions with summer time (countries in extreme north and south) adjust clocks forward
one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backwards in the autumn to standard time.
• Advantages: benefits retailing, sports, and other activities that exploit sunlight after working hours. Reduces
evening use of incandescent lighting, which was formerly a primary use of electricity.
• Disadvantages: DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel and sleep pat-
terns.

Equinox

• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.
• At this position, neither of the poles are tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days
and equal nights. This is called an equinox.

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• On 23rd September, it is autumn season (season after summer and before the beginning of winter) in the
northern hemisphere and spring season (season after winter and before the beginning of summer) in the
southern hemisphere.
• The opposite is the case on 21st March when it is spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the
southern hemisphere.

Days are always longer than nights at the equator

• If there was no atmosphere, there would be no refraction, and the daytime and night-time would be near
equal at the equator, at least during equinoxes.
• But due to atmosphere, the sun’s rays get refracted (bending of light due to change in density of the medi-
um).
• Refraction is particularly stronger during the morning and the evening time when the sun’s rays are slant.
• Even though the actual sun is below the horizon, its apparent image would appear above the horizon due
to refraction. This makes the days longer than nights at the equator.

Apparent position of the Sun due to Refraction of Light

Perihelion and Aphelion

• The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci.
• Approximately every 100,000 years, Earth's orbital path changes from being nearly circular to elliptical due
to gravitational influences of other planetary objects, particularly the Moon.
• The Earth is closest to the Sun at its perihelion which occurs about two weeks after the December Sol-
stice.
• At perihelion position, the earth is about 147.1 million km away from the sun.
• It is farthest from the Sun at its aphelion which occurs about two weeks after the June Solstice.

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• At aphelion position, the earth is about 152.1 million km away from the sun.
• The dates when Earth reaches the extreme points on its orbit are not fixed.

Perihelion and Aphelion

How much does the elliptical orbit affect the weather on earth?

Amount of energy received from the sun

• The difference in the amount of the sun's energy that the earth receives (called the solar constant) doesn't
vary considerably between perihelion and aphelion.
• Throughout the year, the solar constant varies by very little due to the very small eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit (eccentricity of an ellipse varies between 0 and 1. A circle is an ellipse with eccentricity 0).
• After all, the distance difference between perihelion and aphelion is only a small fraction of Earth's average
distance to the sun.
• In the southern hemisphere, the meagre solar constant increase is offset by the higher water to land ratio.

Duration of seasons

• The elliptical orbit does affect our weather by affecting the duration of the seasons, although this effect is
not significant.
• Earth is farther away from the Sun in summer. Therefore, its orbital velocity is at its lowest, and it requires
more time to travel from the summer solstice point to the autumnal equinox (September 23rd) than it needs
to move between the winter solstice and vernal equinox (21st March).

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The varying orbital speed of the earth (in the figure, the orbit of the earth is exaggerated)

• Thus, the winter is about 89 days, and the summer is approximately 92 days long.
• That is, in the northern hemisphere the summer is slightly longer than the winter.

Kepler's second law of planetary motion states that a line between the sun and the planet sweeps equal areas
in equal times. Thus, the speed of the planet increases as it nears the sun and decreases as it recedes from the sun.
The earth achieves its fastest orbital speed at the perigee and slowest orbital speed at the apogee.

Eclipse

• An eclipse happens when a planet or a moon gets in the way of the sun’s light.
• On earth, we experience two kinds of eclipses: 1) solar eclipses that occur only on a new moon day and
lunar eclipses that occur only on a full moon day.
• Revolution of the moon around the earth close to the earth’s ecliptic plane, proximity between the moon
and the earth, and the relative apparent size of the sun and the moon, are all together responsible for the
occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses.

The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times
the Moon's diameter. Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth
appear to be approximately the same size.

Phases of the moon

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Phases of the Moon (Wikipedia)

Phases of the Moon (Wikipedia)

• The lunar phase or phase of the Moon is the shape of the sunlit portion of the Moon as viewed from Earth.
• The Moon's rotation is tidally locked by Earth's gravity; therefore, most of the same lunar side always faces
Earth. This near side is variously sunlit, depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit.

Tidal locking is the situation when an object's orbital period matches its rotational period. E.g. the Moon’s rota-
tion time is 27.3 days, just the same as its orbital time, 27.3 days.

• During the New moon phase, the Sun and the Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, and the side
of the Moon facing Earth is under darkness.

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• As the Moon waxes (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases
progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon.
• The Moon is then said to wane as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent
moon, and back to new moon.
• The lunar phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days),
as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and Earth around the Sun shift.

Perigee and Apogee

• Like the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon's path around the Earth is elliptical.
• The point in the Moon's orbit that is closest to the Earth is called the perigee and the point farthest from
the Earth is known as the apogee.
• The terms are also sometimes used interchangeably with the Earth's Perihelion and Aphelion.
• In January 2019 perigee was ~3,57,000 km and apogee was ~4,06,000 km.
• The distance of perigee and apogee positions change from time to time.
• On average, the distance is taken as 382,900 kilometres from the Moon's centre to the centre of Earth.

Sidereal period

• The orbit of a planet around the Sun measured with respect to the fixed stars is used to determine the si-
dereal period.
• The sidereal period of the Earth is 365.25 days (Gregorian calendar month is about 30.44 days).
• The Moon's sidereal orbital period (the sidereal month) is ~27.3 days ― the time interval that the Moon
takes to orbit 360° around the Earth relative to the fixed stars.

Synodic period

• Synodic period is the time required for a body within the solar system, such as a planet, the Moon, to return
to the same position relative to the Sun as seen by an observer on the Earth.
• The Moon’s synodic period is the time between successive recurrences of the same phase; e.g., between full
moon and full moon.

The Moon completes one revolution

✓ relative to the fixed stars in about 27.32 days (a sidereal month) and
✓ relative to the Sun in about 29.53 days (a synodic month).

Thus, one Georgian year = 12 Georgian months = ~ 13.37 sidereal months =~ 12.37 synodic months

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• The time difference in sidereal and synodic months is due to the constantly shifting orbital positions of
the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun.

Supermoons & Micromoons

• The Moon's phase and the date of its approach to its perigee or apogee are not synced.
• When a Full Moon or New Moon occurs close to the Moon's perigee, it is known as a Supermoon.
• On the other hand, when a Full Moon or New Moon occurs close to the Moon's apogee, it is known as a
Micromoon.

Supermoon and Micromoon

Solar Eclipse

• A solar eclipse happens when the moon gets in the way of the sun’s light and casts its shadow on Earth.

Solar Eclipse (NASA illustration)

• The type of solar eclipse that happens during each season (whether total, annular or partial) depends on
apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon.

Total Solar Eclipse (Umbra)

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• A total solar eclipse occurs when the sun and the moon are exactly in line with the Earth and the moon
completely obscures the sun.
• During a total solar eclipse, the sun’s corona is visible to the naked eye as a bright ring around the ob-
scured sun.
• A total solar eclipse happens about every year and a half somewhere on Earth.
• The moon’s shadow on Earth isn’t very big, so only a small portion of places on Earth will see it.
• On average, the same spot on Earth only gets to see a solar eclipse for a few minutes about every 375
years!

Sun’s Corona during a total solar eclipse

Umbra

• Umbra is the region of the shadow of the moon in which all light from the sun is completely excluded.
• Thus, in an eclipse of the Sun, the regions within the umbra experience a total solar eclipse.
• During any one eclipse, totality (total solar eclipse or umbra) occurs at best only in a narrow track on the
surface of Earth. This narrow track is called the path of totality.

Path of totality (umbra) (Credits)

Annular Solar Eclipse

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• An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size
of the Moon is smaller (when the moon is at its apogee) than that of the Sun.
• Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.

Annular Solar Eclipse

Partial Solar Eclipse (Penumbra)

• A partial eclipse occurs when the sun and the moon are not exactly in line with the earth and the moon
only partially obscures the sun.
• This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or
total eclipse.
• However, some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Earth's
polar regions and never intersects the Earth's surface.
• Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the sun's brightness as it takes well over 90% coverage
to notice any darkening at all.
• A partial solar eclipse happens at least twice a year somewhere on Earth.

Penumbra

• Penumbra is the region of the shadow of the moon outside the umbra where the light from the Sun is
partially blocked.
• Thus, in an eclipse of the Sun, the regions within the penumbra experience partial solar eclipse.

Lunar Eclipse

• During a lunar eclipse, Earth gets in the way of the sun’s light hitting the moon. That means that during the
night, a full moon fades away as Earth’s shadow covers it up.

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• If the moon passes through the lighter part of Earth's shadow, a penumbral eclipse (partial eclipse) oc-
curs.
• If the moon passes through the darker part of Earth's shadow, an umbral eclipse (total eclipse) occurs.

Blood moon

• During a total lunar eclipse, a little bit of light from Earth's sunrises and sunsets (on the disk of the planet)
falls on the surface of the moon.
• The moon can look reddish because of the Earth’s atmosphere that absorbs the other colours while it
bends (refraction) some sunlight toward the moon
• How red the moon appears can depend on how much pollution, cloud cover or debris there is in the at-
mosphere.

Lunar Eclipse and Blood Moon (Eggishorn, from Wikimedia Commons)

Why don’t we have a lunar eclipse or a solar eclipse every month?

Why not every full moon day a lunar eclipse? Why not every new moon day a solar eclipse?

• Not every new moon causes a solar eclipse and not every full moon sees a lunar eclipse.

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• This is because of the of moon’s tilted orbit around Earth with respect to the earth’s orbital plane (eclip-
tic).

Moons orbital plane is tilted to the earth’s ecliptic (Earth's orbital plane) by about 5.1° (NASA)

• Solar and lunar eclipses happen only during an eclipse season when the plane of the Earth's orbit
around the Sun crosses with the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth.

Eclipse season occurs at the descending and the ascending nodes (SuperManu, Wikipedia)

• It is because of the non-planar and non-circular differences that eclipses are not a common event.
• If the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the Moon's orbit around the Earth were both in the same plane,
then there would be a lunar eclipse at every full moon, and a solar eclipse at every new moon.
• And if both orbits were perfectly circular, then each solar eclipse would be the same type every month.

Prelims Question: Variations in the length of daytime and nighttime from season to season are due to

In simple words, seasons are caused due to?

a) the earth’s rotation on its axis [causes day and night]

b) the earth’s revolution around the sun in an elliptical manner

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c) latitudinal position of the place

d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis
• The earth’s rotation on its axis causes day and night.
• The earth’s revolution around the sun in an elliptical manner causes perihelion (closest position of earth to
sun) and aphelion (farthest position of earth to sun).
• Latitudinal position of the place determines the amount of sunlight received.
• Revolution of the earth on a tilted axis causes seasons or variations in the length of daytime and nighttime
from season to season.

Answer: d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

Rotation of earth ➔ Days and Nights
Revolution of earth on a tilted axis ➔ Seasons (Variations in the length of daytime and nighttime from
season to season)
Revolution of the earth around the sun in an elliptical manner ➔ Perihelion and Aphelion
Revolution of the moon around the earth ➔ Phases of the Moon (New Moon, Full Moon)
Revolution of the moon around the earth in an elliptical manner ➔ Perigee and Apogee
Revolution of the moon on a tilted orbital plane around the earth ➔ Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
Revolution of the moon on a tilted orbital plane around the earth in an elliptical manner ➔ Moons ap-
parent size is different for various Solar Eclipses (not all solar eclipses are similar)

3. Atmosphere

• Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several thousands of kilometres above
its surface. This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere.
• Like land (lithosphere) and water (hydrosphere), the atmosphere is also an integral part of the earth and it is
held in place by the gravitational influence of earth.

3.1 Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere

• The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen.

Hadean eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya): The primordial atmosphere

• Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere.

• Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of
Earth, produced the next atmosphere.

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During the Late Heavy Bombardment (4 billion years ago), a disproportionately large number of asteroids have
collided with the early terrestrial planets including earth.

• Over time, the Earth’s surface solidified leaving behind hot volatiles which resulted in a heavy CO2 atmos-
phere with hydrogen, nitrogen, inert gases and water vapour.
• After the formation of oceans, dissolving in ocean water removed most CO2 from the atmosphere.
• Some CO2 reacted with metals to form carbonates that were deposited as sediments.
• The early atmosphere contained almost no oxygen.
• Most of the lighter gases like the hydrogen and helium escaped into space and are continually escaping
even to the present day due to atmospheric escape (outer layers stripped by solar wind).

Archean eon (4000 mya – 2500 mya)

• The atmosphere was without oxygen, and the atmospheric pressure was around 10 to 100 atmospheres.
• Nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere".
• Most of the nitrogen in the air was carried out from deep inside the earth by volcanoes.
• In the late Archean Eon, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by
photosynthesising cyanobacteria.
• The constant re-arrangement of continents influenced the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by trans-
ferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores.

Proterozoic Eon (2500 mya – 541 mya): Oxygen in atmosphere

• Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago.
• O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the Proterozoic.

Phanerozoic Eon (541 mya to present): The present atmosphere

• The amount of oxygen reached a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago.
• Two main processes govern changes in the oxygen levels in the atmosphere:
1. Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen.
2. Breakdown of pyrite (iron sulphide) and volcanic eruptions release sulphur into the atmosphere,
which oxidises and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic erup-
tions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen.
• Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals.
• Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is great enough for this rapid development of animals.

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3.2 Composition of Atmosphere

• The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the life that it sustains.
• Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon
dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other noble gases.
• The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principal-
ly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
• Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine, fluorine com-
pounds and elemental mercury vapor.
• Sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide (SO2) may be derived from natural
sources or industrial air pollution.

Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere

Name Percentage by Volume

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08

Oxygen (O2) 20.95

Argon (Ar) 0.93

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.036

Neon (Ne) 0.002

Helium (He) 0.0005

Krypto (Kr) 0.001

Methane (CH4) 0.000179

Xenon (Xe) 0.00009

Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005

NO AC NH KM

• Permanent atmospheric gases remain in fixed proportion to the total gas volume.
• Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place and from time to time.
• Heavier gases like nitrogen and oxygen tend to stick at the bottom of the atmosphere.
• The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
• Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.

Important constituents of the atmosphere

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Oxygen

• All living organisms inhale oxygen.

• Besides, oxygen can combine with other elements to form important compounds, such as, oxides.
• Also, normal combustion is not possible without oxygen.

Nitrogen

• It is a relatively inert gas and is an important constituent of all organic compounds.

• The main function of nitrogen is to control combustion by diluting oxygen, i.e., it prevents spontaneous
combustion of oxygen in the atmosphere.
• It also indirectly helps in oxidation of different kinds.

Carbon Dioxide

• Green plants, through photosynthesis, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is a very important factor in the heat energy budget.
• With increased burning of fossil fuels – oil, coal and natural gas – the carbon dioxide percentage in the at-
mosphere has been increasing at an alarming rate.
• More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means more heat absorption. This could significantly raise the
temperature at lower levels of the atmosphere thus inducing drastic climatic changes.

Ozone (O3)

• Ozone (O3) is a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms.

• It forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is unevenly distributed.
• It is between 20 km and 30 km altitude (stratosphere) that the greatest concentrations of ozone are found.
• It is formed at higher altitudes (due to interaction between O2 and UV light) and transported down-
wards.
• Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Water Vapour

• Water Vapour is one of the most variable gaseous substances present in atmosphere – constituting be-
tween 0.02% and 4% of the total volume (in cold dry and humid tropical climates respectively).
• 90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth.
• Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays a significant role in the insulating action, of the atmosphere.

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• It absorbs not only the long-wave terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat emitted by earth during nights),
but also a part of the incoming short-wave solar radiation (visible and UV radiation).

Electromagnetic Spectrum (Inductiveload, via Wikimedia Commons)

• Water vapour is the source of precipitation and clouds.

• On condensation, it releases latent heat of condensation — the ultimate driving force behind all storms.

Solid Particles

• The Solid Particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles (from weathered rocks and also de-
rived from volcanic ash), pollen grains, small organisms, soot, ocean salts; the upper layers of the atmos-
phere may even have fragments of meteors which got burnt up in the atmosphere.
• These solid particles perform the function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the radiation.
• The solid particles are, consequently, responsible for the orange and red colours at sunset and sunrise
and for the length of dawn (the first appearance of light in the sky before sunrise) and Twilight (the soft
glowing light from the sky when the sun is below the horizon, caused by the refraction of the sun's rays by
the atmosphere. Dusk: the darker stage of twilight.).
• The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust particles.
• Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic (i.e. readily absorbing moisture from air) in character, and as
such, act as nuclei of condensation.
• Thus, dust particles are an important contributory factor in the formation of clouds and different
forms of precipitation, fog and hailstones, etc.

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Mains 2015: How far do you agree that the behaviour of the Indian monsoon has been changing due to
humanising landscapes? Discuss.

• Humanising landscapes refers to the large-scale interaction of humans with the natural environment and
the consequent changes brought upon due to such interactions.
• Examples of such interactions include urbanisation, industrialisation, deforestation and desertification, de-
pletion of water resources, etc.
• Consequences of such interactions include rapid increase in concentration of greenhouse gases and aero-
sols in the atmosphere, global climate change, changes in sea surface temperature, alarming rate of deple-
tion of natural resource, imbalances in the ecosystems, etc.

Impact on Monsoons

• The increasing incidence of El Nino, La Nina, El Nino Modoki, IOD, due to climate change post-industrial
revolution has an overarching effect on the overall mechanism of the Indian Monsoons.
• Localised pollution (condensation nuclei), deforestation, on the other hand, cause a change in regional
monsoon patterns.
• The impact of El Nino, La Nina, El Nino Modoki, etc. will be discussed in the chapter on ‘Indian Monsoons’.
• Here let us focus on the impact of condensation nuclei on the behaviour of the Indian monsoons.

High concentration of condensation nuclei disrupts regional patterns of Indian monsoons

• Increase in the number of condensation nuclei due to increased availability of pollutants and dust particles
will increase condensation of water vapour.
• As the urban atmosphere tends to have greater concentration of condensation nuclei due to vehicular pol-
lution and construction activity, the monsoonal rainfall is disproportionately high in the urban areas.
• As a consequence, the agriculture-dependent rural areas tend to receive disproportionately low rainfall.

3.3 Structure of Atmosphere

• The atmosphere can be studied as a layered entity – each layer having its peculiar characteristics. These lay-
ers are systematically discussed below.
1. Troposphere: 0 to 12 km
2. Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km
3. Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km
4. Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km

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5. Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km

Layers of the atmosphere (Wikimedia Commons)

Layers of the atmosphere (Kelvinsong, Wikimedia Commons)

Troposphere

• Its altitude is 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator.

• The thickness is greater at the equator because of the heated air that rises to greater heights.
• The troposphere ends with the Tropopause.

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• The temperature in this layer, as one goes upwards, falls (positive lapse rate) at the rate of 6.5 °C per kilo-
metre.
• It is -45 °C at the poles and -80 °C over the equator at Tropopause (greater fall in temperature above
equator is because of the greater thickness of troposphere – 18 km).
• The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence and eddies.
• It is also meteorologically the most significant zone in the entire atmosphere (all weather phenomena like
cyclones, rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer).
• It is also called the convective region since all convection stops at Tropopause.

Tropopause

• Topmost layer of troposphere.

• It acts as a boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
• This layer is marked by constant temperatures.

Stratosphere

• It lies beyond tropopause, up to an altitude of 50 km from the earth’s surface.

• The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance but then rises (negative lapse rate) to
reach a level of 0 °C at 50 km altitude.
• This rise is due to the presence of ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone).
• This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal
for flying aeroplanes.
• So, the aeroplanes fly in lower stratosphere, sometimes in upper troposphere where weather is calm.
• Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.

Ozonosphere

• It lies at an altitude between 20 km and 55 km from the earth’s surface and spans the stratosphere and
lower mesosphere. But the highest concentration occurs between 20 km and 30 km.
• Because of the presence of ozone molecules, this layer absorbs and reflects the harmful ultraviolet ra-
diation.
• The temperature rises (negative lapse rate) at a rate of 5° C per kilometre through the ozonosphere.
• The ozonosphere is also called chemosphere because of a lot of chemical activity taking place.
• Ultraviolet light splits O2 into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines
with unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3.

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• The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits
ozone it splits into a molecule of O2 and an individual atom of oxygen (ozone-oxygen cycle).
• Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by chlorofluorocarbons, bromofluorocarbons and other ozone-
depleting substances that increase the concentrations of chlorine and bromine radicals.
• Each of these radicals initiate and catalyse a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone
molecules.

Mesosphere

• Most of the meteors burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
• Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause.
• Mesopause is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C.
• Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapour at this altitude can be
sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds.
• These are the highest clouds and may be visible to the naked eye during sunset and sunrise.

Thermosphere

• In thermosphere temperature rises (negative lapse rate) very rapidly with increasing height because of ra-
diation from the sun.
• Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km.
• Though temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely rarefied – gas molecules are spaced hundreds
of kilometres apart. Hence a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel the heat.
• The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer.
• Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of this layer.
• The Kármán line, located within the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define
the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
• By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travellers are considered as-
tronauts.

The mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:

✓ 50% is below 5.6 km.

✓ 90% is below 16 km.
✓ 99.99997% is below 100 km, the Kármán line.

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Speed of sound follows temperature profile

• This is because speed of sound is directly proportional to temperature as we move away from earth.
• Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on
the gas pressure or density.

Speed of sound follows temperature profile

Exosphere

• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of about
400 km.
• The air is extremely rarefied, and the temperature gradually increases through the layer.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.

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• Temperature gradually increases through the layer (as it is exposed to direct sunlight).
• This layer coincides with space.

Atmospheric escape

• Certain light gases like hydrogen are constantly lost into space from exosphere due to atmospheric escape.
• Atmospheric escape of gases (atmospheric stripping) happens when gas molecules achieve escape veloci-
ty due to low gravity or due to energy received from the sun (heat, solar wind).
• Jovian planets retain gases with low molecular masses because of low temperatures and higher gravity.
• Titan, a moon of Saturn, and Triton, a moon of Neptune, possess significant nitrogen-rich atmospheres.
• Earth's magnetic field reduces atmospheric escape by protecting the atmosphere from solar wind that
would otherwise greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen.

3.4 Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere

• Earth is unique among plants as it has life and life on earth would not have been possible if not for the pre-
sent state of atmosphere.

Life-giving gases

• Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while animals and many other organisms need oxygen for their
survival.
• Nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides
and amino acids.

Regulates the entry of solar radiation

• All life forms need a particular range of temperature and a specific range of frequencies of solar radiation
to carry out their biophysical processes.
• The atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies and lets through some other frequencies of solar radiation. In
other words, the atmosphere regulates the entry of solar radiation.

Temperature balance

• The atmosphere also keeps the temperature over the earth’s surface within certain limits.
• In the absence of the atmosphere extremes of temperature would exist between day and night.

Blocks harmful radiation

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• The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar
wind and cosmic rays.

Shields the earth from impact objects

• The atmosphere also takes care of extra-terrestrial objects like meteors which get burnt up while passing
through the atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) due to friction.

Weather and climate

• Weather is another important phenomenon which dictates the direction of many natural and human-made
processes like plant growth, agriculture, soil-formation (weathering and erosion), human settlements, etc.
Various climatic factors join together to create weather.

Water on earth exists in liquid state due to Atmosphere

• Since liquids cannot exist without pressure, an atmosphere allows liquid to be present at the surface, re-
sulting in lakes, rivers and oceans.
• Earth and Titan are known to have liquids at their surface and terrain on the planet suggests that Mars had
liquid on its surface in the past.

Scattering of light

• When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering.
• On an overcast, there is no direct radiation as it has all been scattered by the clouds.
• Due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than
longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light.
• This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more
atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red
light in a sunset.

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Scattering by atmosphere (Credits)

4. Temperature Distribution on Earth

• The differential amount of sun’s energy received by various latitudinal zones on earth is the primary rea-
son behind the occurrence of seasonal patterns of weather and climate.
• Thus, understanding the patterns of distribution of temperature in different seasons is important for under-
standing various climatic features like wind systems, pressure systems, precipitation etc.

4.1 Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy

Radiation

• Radiation doesn’t require a medium for heat transfer.

• Heat is transferred from one body to another without actual contact or movement in the medium.
• E.g. Heat transfer from sun to earth through space.

Insolation

• Insolation is the amount of sun’s energy received in the form of radiation by the earth.
• It is measured as the amount of solar energy received per square centimetre per minute.
• Earth intercepts less than a billionth of solar radiation.
• Earth receives sun’s radiation in the form of short waves (visible light or wavelengths below visible light
– most of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are electromagnetic.

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• The earth absorbs short wave radiation during daytime and reflects the heat received into space as long-
wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation which is nothing but heat) during night.

Conduction

• The heat transfer through conduction happens due to molecular activity in a conducting medium. There is
no actual movement of the medium itself.
• Generally, denser materials like iron, water are good conductors, and lighter medium like air are bad con-
ductors of heat.

Convection

• Convection is the transfer of heat energy by actual transfer of matter or substance from one place to an-
other. E.g. heat transfer by convection cells in a boiling pot of water, atmosphere or oceans.

Heat from the interior

• Some heat from within the earth’s interior is transferred to the surface through volcanoes, springs and gey-
sers. But this heat received at the surface is negligible compared to that received from sun.
• However, the heat received from the interior at the ocean bottom is key to the survival of deep ocean
lifeforms that depend on bacteria that grow near the volcanic vents.
• At ocean depths, as sunlight is non-existent, photosynthesis is impossible. The bacteria rely on chemosyn-
thesis, a process in which microbes use chemicals in the vent fluid to produce energy.

4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution

• The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays

• Duration of Sunshine
• Transparency of Atmosphere
• Albedo
• Land-Sea Differential
• Prevailing Winds
• Ocean Currents
• Altitude
• Aspects of Slope
• Earth’s Distance from Sun

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The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays

• The area lying close to the equator receive the maximum heat due to near vertical rays of the sun.
• The sun’s rays get progressively slanting as one moves away from the equator towards poles.
• As a result, the heat received from the sun decrease as the distance increases from the equator.
• Areas lying close to the poles receive the least of sun’s energy as the sun’s rays are near horizontal.

Duration of Sunshine

• Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or overcast, summer or winter etc.
• Earth’s atmosphere plays an important role in moderating the temperatures between seasons and between
days and nights.

Transparency of Atmosphere

• Aerosols (smoke, sooth, pollen), dust, water vapour, clouds etc. effect transparency.
• If the wavelength of the radiation is more than the radius of the obstructing particle (such as a gas),
then scattering of radiation takes place.

Scattering of Sun’s light (NASA)

• If the wavelength is less than the obstructing particle (such as a dust particle), then reflection takes place.
• Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules or clouds (Greenhouse effect).
• Most of the light received by earth is scattered light.

Albedo

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• Albedo of a surface is the proportion of sunlight that the surface can reflect back into space.
• Albedo of land is much greater than albedo of oceans and water bodies.
• Snow-covered areas reflect up to 70-90% of insolation.

Land-Sea Differential

• The specific heat of water is 2.5 times higher than landmass; therefore water takes longer to get heated
up and to cool down.
• Average penetration of sunlight is more in water – up to 20 metres than in land – where it is up to 1 metre
or less. Therefore, land cools or becomes hot more rapidly compared to oceans.
• In oceans, continuous convection cycle helps in heat exchange between layers keeping diurnal and annu-
al temperature ranges low.

Temperature Anomaly

• The difference between the mean temperature of a place and the mean temperature of its parallel (latitude)
is called the temperature anomaly or thermal anomaly.
• The largest anomalies occur in the northern hemisphere and the smallest in the southern hemi-
sphere.

Prevailing Winds

• Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. E.g. Poles would have been much colder if it is not for the
moderating effect by the atmospheric circulation.
• Winds also help in exchange of heat between land and water bodies. E.g. Land breeze and sea breeze.

Aspects of Slope

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Insolation along a sloping surface

• The direction and the steepness of the slope control the amount of solar radiation received locally.
• Slopes more exposed to the sun receive more solar radiation than those away from the sun’s direct rays.
• Slopes that receive direct Sun’s rays are dry due to loss of moisture through excess evaporation. These
slopes remain barren if irrigational facilities are absent.
• But slopes with good irrigational facilities are good for agriculture due to abundant sunlight available. They
are occupied by dense human settlements.
• Slopes that are devoid of direct sunlight are usually well forested.

Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents influence the temperature of adjacent land areas considerably.

• For example, U.K., considering its latitudinal location, has a relatively moderate climate due to the warm
North Atlantic Drift.

Altitude

• With increase in height, pressure falls, the effect of greenhouse gases decreases and hence temperature
decreases (applicable only to troposphere).
• The normal lapse rate is roughly 1 °C for every 150-155 metres of ascent (in troposphere).

Earth’s Distance form Sun

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• During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (~152 million km) near 4th July.
This position of the earth is called aphelion.
• Near 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (~147 million km). This position is called perihelion.
• Therefore, the annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount re-
ceived on 4th July.
• However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the distribution of
land and sea and the atmospheric circulation.
• Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather changes on the surface
of the earth.

4.3 The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution

• The horizontal or latitudinal distribution of temperature is shown with the help of a map with isotherms.
• The Isotherms are imaginary lines joining places having equal temperature.
• Effects of altitude is not considered while drawing an isotherm (temperatures are reduced to sea levels).

General characteristics of isotherms

Generally, follow the parallels

• Isotherms have close correspondence with the latitude parallels mainly because the same amount of insola-
tion received by all the points located on the same latitude.
• The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea contrast.
• The thermal equator (ITCZ) generally lies to the north of geographical equator.

Sudden bends at ocean-continent boundaries

• Due to differential heating of land and water and due to ocean currents, temperatures above the oceans
and landmasses vary even on the same latitude.

Spacing between isotherms

• Narrow spacing between isotherms indicate high thermal gradient (rapid change in temperature).
• Wide spacing between isotherms indicate low thermal gradient (small or slow change in temperatures).

General Temperature Distribution

• The highest temperatures occur over tropics and subtropics.

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• The lowest temperatures occur in polar and sub-polar regions and the interiors of large continental subpo-
lar regions due to the effect of continentality (far from the moderating effect of the seas).
• Diurnal (daily) and annual range of temperatures are highest in the interiors of continents due to continen-
tality.
• Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are least in oceans because of high specific heat and mixing.
• The northern hemisphere is warmer because of the predominance of land over water in the north.
• Low-temperature gradients are observed over tropics (sun is almost overhead the entire year).
• High-temperature gradients are observed over middle and higher latitudes (sun’s apparent path varies sig-
nificantly from season to season).
• Temperature gradients are usually low over the eastern margins of continents because of warm ocean cur-
rents.
• While passing through an area with warm ocean currents, the isotherms show a poleward shift.
• E.g. North Atlantic Drift and Gulf Stream in Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and North Pacific current
combined in Northern Pacific.
• Temperature gradients are usually high over the western margins of continents because of cold ocean cur-
rents.
• Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For example, the Himalayas insulate India
from the cold winds of Siberia, the Rockies and the Andes block the oceanic influence from going inwards
into North and South America.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution

• In general, the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the isotherms are
generally parallel to the latitude.
• The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the northern
hemisphere because of the land surface area which is much larger than in the southern hemisphere.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

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Isotherm map for the month of January

• During January, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere.

Northern Hemisphere

• The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern counterparts since the Westerlies are
able to carry high temperature (from the oceans) into the landmasses.
• The isotherms are closer on the eastern margins as temperature gradient is high because of the less mod-
erating effect of the oceans (westerlies flow from west to east).
• The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean.
• For example, the presence of warm Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift make the Northern Atlantic
warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indicating that the currents are able to carry high temper-
atures poleward.
• The isotherms deviate to the south over the continents (due to continentality) as the cold polar winds are
able to penetrate southwards into the interiors.
• Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland.

Southern Hemisphere

• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in, and the isotherms exhibit a more regular behaviour.

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• The isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes, and the variation in temperature is gradual.
• The high-temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30° S latitude (subtropics
are devoid of cloud cover due to anticyclonic circulation at the surface).
• The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical equator (because the Intertropical Convergence Zone
or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward movement of the sun).

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July

Isotherm map for the month of July

• During July, it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern hemisphere.
• The isotherms generally run parallel to the latitudes.
• Thermal equator lies to the north of the geographical equator.
• The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27 °C.
• Over the land more than 30 °C is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N lati-
tude.

Northern Hemisphere

• The highest annual range of temperature is more than 60° C over the Siberian region (continentality).
• The least range of temperature, 3° C, is found between 20° S and 15° N.

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The range of temperature between January and July. It is highest in the Siberian region

• Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the isotherms indicates that the landmasses are over-
heated, and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
• The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equatorward shift indicating that the oceans are cooler
and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors.
• The lowest temperatures are experienced over Greenland.
• The highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, West Asia, north-west India arid south-eastern
USA.
• The temperature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path over the northern hemisphere.

Prelims Practise: The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the subtropics in
the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is:

a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.
b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the equatorial.
c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced “greenhouse effect” compared to equatorial areas.
d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial locations.

Explanation:

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• There is no cloud cover in the subtropics because of the subsiding air and the consequent divergence (anti-
cyclonic circulation) at the surface.
• Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the equatorial, but the difference is not sub-
stantial.
• Moreover, the weather in the equatorial region is turbulent with dense overcast skies and most of the heat
is lost in the form of latent heat of vaporisation.

Answer: a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.

Southern Hemisphere

• The gradient becomes regular over the southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards the equator
at the edges of continents.

4.4 Latitudinal Heat Balance

• Regions within the equator and 40° N and S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and hence more heat will
be gained than lost. Hence, they are energy surplus regions.
• Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence, they are en-
ergy deficit regions (because of slant sunlight and high albedo of polar regions).
• Going by this logic, the tropics should have been getting progressively hotter and the poles progressively
cooler. And the planet would have been inhospitable except for few regions near mid-latitudes.
• But this is not the case as the atmosphere and the oceans transfer excess heat from the tropics (energy sur-
plus region) towards the poles (energy deficit regions) making up for heat loss at higher latitudes.
• And most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50), and hence much of the
stormy weather (jet stream and temperate cyclones) is associated with this region.
• Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the higher
latitudes maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface.

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Latitudinal Heat Balance (Credit: NASA)

4.5 Heat Budget

• The earth receives a certain amount of Insolation (short waves – UV and visible part of the electromag-
netic spectrum) and gives back heat into space by terrestrial radiation (longwave or infrared radiation).
• Through this give and take, or the heat budget, the earth maintains a constant temperature.

Prelims Practise: The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:

a) Short wave solar radiation

b) Long wave terrestrial radiation
c) Reflected solar radiation
d) Scattered solar radiation

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Explanation:

• 51 units of the incoming shortwave (daytime) radiation is directly absorbed by the earth’s surface.
• 35 units are lost even before reaching the surface due to albedo (2 units), reflection by atmosphere (6
units) and reflection by the clouds (27 units).
• The remaining 14 units of the incoming shortwave (daytime) radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere.
• Hence, the incoming shortwave radiation is responsible for only 14 units out of the total 48 units ab-
sorbed by the atmosphere.
• The remaining 34 units are received from the outgoing longwave (infrared) terrestrial radiation.

Answer: d) Long wave terrestrial radiation

Answer in 30 words

1) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space and time cause variations in
weather and climate?
2) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface of the earth?
3) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after the summer solstice? (Hint: By
June 21st Monsoons cover more than half of India)
4) Why is the annual range of temperature high in the Siberian plains? (Hint: Continentality)

Answer in 150 words

1) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis of rotation of the earth affect the amount of radiation received
at the earth’s surface?
2) Discuss the processes through which the earth-atmosphere system maintains heat balance.

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3) Compare the global distribution of temperature in January over the northern and the southern hemisphere
of the earth.

4.6 Vertical Distribution of Temperature

To understand the vertical distribution of temperature we need to know about latent heat, lapse rate and adia-
batic lapse rate
The terms ‘Adiabatic Lapse Rate’ and ‘Latent Heat of Condensation’ frequently occur in climatology. Understand-
ing these terms once for all will help immensely in understanding the subsequent topics of climatology.

Latent Heat of Condensation

• Adiabatic lapse rate determines the rate of condensation in the atmosphere which in turn determines the
amount of latent heat of condensation released.
• The heat released in the form of latent heat of condensation supplies the energy necessary for the for-
mation of towering cumulonimbus thunderstorm cloud and the formation of tropical cyclones.

Latent Heat

• Latent heat is the amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical
state (phase change) that occurs without changing its temperature.
• For example, when a pot of water is kept boiling, the temperature remains at 100 °C until the last drop
evaporates because all the heat being added to the liquid is absorbed as latent heat of vaporisation and
carried away by the escaping vapour molecules.
• Similarly, while ice melts, it remains at 0 °C, and the liquid water that is formed with the latent heat of fu-
sion is also at 0 °C.

Explanation

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Graph: On X – axis: Heat supplied to the system; On Y – Axis: Temperature change in the system

• From the above graph, we can observe that there is no change in temperature in the system during change
of state or phase change. Then where did the heat supplied go?
• Initially, the heat supplied is used to raise the temperature of the system (A-B and then C-D)
• During phase change, the heat supplied is consumed to turn solid into liquid (B-C: latent heat of fusion –
heat absorbed) and then liquid into gas (D-E: latent heat of vaporisation – heat absorbed).
• Thus, the heat supplied in used in phase change. Hence temperature of the system remains constant during
phase change process. (B-C & D-E)
• But when gas turns into liquid (latent heat of condensation – heat released) or liquid into solid (latent
heat of fusion – heat released), heat is released (this heat is the heat that was used during the phase
change process).
• Thus, latent heat of condensation is the heat released when gases turn into liquid.

When water vapour in atmosphere condenses into raindrops latent heat of condensation is released.
Water evaporates from the ocean surface by absorbing latent heat of vaporisation.

Lapse Rate

• Lapse rate (Temperature Lapse or Temperature Lapse Rate) is the rate of change in temperature of the
atmosphere with altitude (elevation).
• The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero when the tem-
perature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature increases with elevation (temper-
ature inversion).

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• Hence, the lapse rate of troposphere below tropopause is positive, the lapse rate of tropopause is zero, and
the lapse rate of stratosphere is negative.
• The fall in temperature with altitude is primarily due to the following reason:
✓ Atmosphere is mostly transparent to in the incoming shortwave radiation but actively absorbs the out-
going terrestrial (longwave) radiation.
✓ Greenhouse house gases like CO2, water vapor, are the primary absorbers of the terrestrial radiation and
their concentration is highest at the earth’s surface and goes on decreasing with altitude. Hence, tem-
perature falls with altitude.
• The lapse rate of non-rising air (environmental lapse rate) is highly variable, being affected by radiation,
convection, condensation and concentration of greenhouse gases.
• It averages about 6-6.5 °C per kilometre (1 °C for every 153-165 metres) in the lower atmosphere (trop-
osphere).

Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)

• Lapse rate is the rate of fall in temperature of atmosphere with elevation.

• Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel adiabatically.
• Adiabatic change refers to the change in temperature with pressure.
• Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas law.

Adiabatic or adiabatically: Heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All temperature changes are internal.
Gas law: According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is directly proportional to Temperature ‘T’ when Volume ‘V’ is a con-
stant.

Relation between pressure, temperature and volume

Example 1: A balloon

• When we blow air into a balloon, pressure increases but temperature doesn’t increase due to proportionate
increase in volume (here V is not constant).
• When excess air is blown, balloon bursts as it cannot withstand the pressure.

Example 2: Vehicle tube

• In a vehicle tube, volume remains constant. When air is blown, pressure increases and hence the tempera-
ture.

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• We are usually advised not to have full-blown tubes because when vehicle travels on a road, the friction
between the tire and the road increases the temperature of the air in the tube.
• As temperature is directly proportional to pressure, increase in temperature leads to increase in pressure
and at certain pressure threshold, the tire bursts.

The above examples explain the relation between Pressure, Temperature and Volume.
But the processes are non-adiabatic as there is (will be) heat exchange between the system and the external
environment.

Adiabatic Process: Temperature changes in a parcel of rising or falling air

• An air bubble rises in water whereas stone sinks. This is obvious. The stone is denser (heavier than water),
and it sinks whereas the air bubble is less dense (lighter than water) and it rises.
• Similarly, a parcel of air rises when it is less dense than the surrounding environment, and it falls when its
density becomes greater than the surrounding environment.
• When an air parcel is subjected to differential heating compared to the surrounding air, it becomes lighter
(less dense) or heavier (denser) depending on whether the air parcel is heated or cooled.

A parcel of rising or falling air

• When an air parcel receives more heat than the surrounding air, its temperature increases leading to an in-
crease in volume (increase in volume implies the air parcel is getting less dense).
• The air parcel becomes lighter than the surrounding air, and it starts to rise. This process is non-adiabatic
(there is heat exchange between the air parcel and the external environment).
• But when the air parcel starts to rise, the ambient pressure on it starts to fall (the atmospheric pressure de-
creases with height, so the pressure on the air parcel decreases with height).
• With the fall in ambient pressure, the volume of the air parcel increases and the hence the temperature of
the air parcel falls (gas law).
• This is an adiabatic process as there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and the external environ-
ment. Temperature changes are only due to change in pressure or volume or both.
• This fall in temperature with the rising of the air parcel is called adiabatic temperature lapse.
• And the rate at which it happens is called adiabatic lapse rate (this is positive adiabatic lapse rate as the
temperature is falling).
• The fall in temperature aids condensation of water vapour. Condensation of water vapour releases latent
heat of condensation in the process.
• The latent heat of condensation is the major driving force behind tropical cyclones, convectional rain.

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• Rising of a parcel of air (and associated positive adiabatic lapse rate) is the first step in the formation of
thunderstorms, tornadoes and cyclones.

A parcel of falling air

• When an air parcel is in the upper levels, it gets cooled due to lower temperatures (because of lapse Rate).
• Its volume falls, and its density increases. When it becomes denser than the surroundings, it starts to fall.
• This also happens when an air parcel is in contact with cooler surfaces like mountain slopes.
• The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic process as there is an exchange of heat between the air parcel and
the surrounding environment.
• When an air parcel is falling, the atmospheric pressure acting on it will increase, and its internal tempera-
ture will increase adiabatically (this is negative adiabatic lapse rate as the temperature is rising).

Lapse Rate ➔ change in temperature with height.

Adiabatic Lapse Rate ➔ change in temperature of a rising parcel of air without either losing heat to the exter-
nal environment or gaining heat from the external environment.
Rising parcel of air ➔ On ascent, the air expands as pressure decreases. This expansion reduces the temperature
and aids condensation of water vapour. Condensation of water vapour releases the latent heat of condensation
in the process.
Falling parcel of air ➔ On descent through atmosphere, the lower layers are compressed under atmospheric
pressure. As a result, the temperature increases.
Katabatic Wind ➔ a hot dry wind that blows down a mountain slope. It is an example for a falling parcel of air
in which the temperature changes happening adiabatically.

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Adiabatic Lapse Rate and Lapse Rate

Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate (DALR)

• The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate of fall in temperature with altitude for a parcel of dry or
unsaturated air (air with less moisture) rising under adiabatic conditions.
• Unsaturated air has less than 100% relative humidity.

Saturated air ➔ The air cannot hold any more moisture. Its stomach is full.
Unsaturated air ➔ Its stomach is not full. It can accommodate some more moisture.

• When a rising air parcel has little moisture (below normal), condensation during upliftment is low, the latent
heat of condensation released is low (less additional heat from inside).
• As a result, the fall in temperature with height is greater compared to the adiabatic lapse rate of a normal
parcel of air.
• The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s atmosphere is around 9.8 °C per kilometre.
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with stable conditions (because it has less moisture).

Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)

• When an air parcel that is saturated (stomach full) with water vapour rises, some of the vapour will con-
dense and release latent heat (additional heat from inside).
• This process causes the parcel to cool more slowly than it would if it were not saturated.

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• The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water vapour in the air is highly
variable.
• The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate (because the condensation process
keeps on adding more latent heat of condensation). On an average, it is taken as 4 °C per kilometre.
• Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly associated with unstable conditions (because it has more moisture).
• As an air parcel rises and cools, it may eventually lose its moisture through condensation; its lapse rate then
increases and approaches the dry adiabatic value.

Significance in meteorology (weather forecasting)

• The difference between the normal lapse rate in the atmosphere and the dry and moist adiabatic lapse
rates determines the vertical stability of the atmosphere.
• For this reason, the lapse rate is of prime importance to meteorologists in forecasting certain types of cloud
formations, the incidence of thunderstorms, and the intensity of atmospheric turbulence.

Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates

Weather conditions at different adiabatic lapse rates

LR = 6 °C/km
DALR ➔ ALR > 6 °C/km
WALR ➔ ALR < 6 °C/km

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Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR ➔ Little moisture in the air parcel (it won’t rain)
Conditional stability: WALR < ALR < DALR ➔ Normal moisture conditions (it may or may not rain)
Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR ➔ Excess moisture in the air parcel (it will rain)

Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > DALR

• The above condition means that there is little moisture in air.

• When there is little moisture, condensation of water vapour is low, so latent of condensation released will
be low, and the rising parcel of air gets cold quickly, and it falls to the ground once it becomes denser.
• So, there will be no cloud formation, and hence there will be no rain (thunderstorms).
• This simply means that the condition is stable.

Conditional stability: WALR < ALR < DALR

• The above condition means that there is enough moisture in air and there are chances of thunderstorms.
• When there is considerable moisture in the air parcel, condensation of water vapour will be reasonably
high, so latent of condensation released will be adequate to drive a thunderstorm.
• The occurrence of thunderstorm depends on external factors.
• So, the weather will be associated with conditional stability (it may rain, or it may not rain)

Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < WALR

• The above condition means that there is more moisture in air and there will be thunderstorms.
• When there is unusually high moisture in the air parcel, condensation of water vapour will be very high, so
latent of condensation released will be great enough to drive a violent thunderstorm.
• So, the weather will be associated with absolute instability.

Temperature Inversion

UPSC mains 2013: What do you understand by phenomenon of “temperature inversion” in meteorolo-
gy? How does it affect weather and habitants of the place?

• Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with altitude (positive lapse rate).
• Temperature inversion is a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the troposphere, in which a
layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air (temperature increases with altitude ―
negative lapse rate).
• In other words, the vertical temperature gets inverted during temperature inversion.

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Temperature Inversion

Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion

1. Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming radiation.
2. Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
3. Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.

Types of Temperature Inversion

Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion)

• Sometimes, the temperature along a sloping surface increases instead of decreasing with elevation.
• Here, the top part of the sloping surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools the surrounding air
making it denser.
• The cold air sinks towards the bottom along the slope and settles as a zone of low temperature at the bot-
tom while the upper layers are relatively warmer.
• This kind of temperature inversion is very strong in the middle and higher latitudes and regions with high
mountains or deep valleys.

Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of Inversion)

Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)

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• This type of inversion occurs when air in contact with a colder surface becomes cooler than the overlying
atmosphere.
• This occurs most often on clear nights when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation.
• If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
• This kind of temperature inversion is very common in the higher latitudes.
• In the lower and middle latitudes, this kind of inversion gets destroyed easily during daytime.

Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)

Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)

• A subsidence inversion develops when a widespread layer of air descends.

• As it descends, the ambient atmospheric pressure increases and the layer is compressed and heated.
• If the air mass sinks low enough, it forms a warm intermediate layer which is at a higher temperature com-
pare to the layers below, producing a temperature inversion.
• Subsidence inversions are common over areas located under large high-pressure centres.
• Such conditions occur in the northern continents in winter and over the subtropical oceans.
• This temperature inversion is also called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes place in the
upper parts of the atmosphere.

Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)

Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature Inversion)

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• A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft.
• This kind of inversion has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal.
• Also, humidity may be high, and clouds may be present immediately above it.
• This type of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.

Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature Inversion)

Effects of Temperature Inversion

• Convection is inhibited: An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below.
• Convection is limited to levels below the inversion, and the rainfall is below normal.
• In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high
enough to produce rain.
• Pollution is exacerbated: diffusion of dust, smoke, and other pollutants is limited due to stable conditions.
• Visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion due to the accumulation of dust and smoke particles.
• Because air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently present there. Fog lowers visi-
bility affecting vegetation and human settlements.
• Inversions also affect diurnal variations in temperature. Diurnal variations tend to be very small.

Effect on intermontane valley regions

• The temperature of the air at the valley bottom can go below freezing whereas the air at higher altitude
remains comparatively warm.
• The trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at higher levels are free from it.
• Houses and farms in intermontane valleys are usually situated along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold
and foggy valley bottoms.
• For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and apple growers and hoteliers of mountain states of Himala-
yas in India avoid lower slopes.
• Air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not disperse in the valley bottoms.

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5. Pressure Systems and Wind Systems

5.1 Atmospheric pressure

• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmos-
phere is called the atmospheric pressure.
• The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square centimetre.
• Atmosphere (atm) is an internationally recognised unit for measuring atmospheric pressure at a place.
• The units used by meteorologists are millibars (mb) and Pascal (Pa).
• One millibar is equal to the force of one gram on a square centimetre.
• A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight of 1.053 kilograms per square centimetre.
• The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 1013.25 millibars (equal to the weight of a column of
mercury 75 cm high).

1 atm = 1013.25 millibars (mb) = 101325 pascals (Pa) = 101.325 kilopascals (kPa)

• Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place due to differences in topography, sun’s insolation and re-
lated weather and climatic factors.

5.2 Atmospheric pressure cells

• When heated, the volume of a parcel of air increases (air expands) and hence the pressure within the air
parcel falls creating a low-pressure cell (low-pressure centre).
• When cooled, the volume of the air parcel decreases (air is compressed) and hence the pressure within the
air parcel increases creating a high-pressure cell (high-pressure centre).
• A combination of atmospheric pressure cells give rise to distinct pressure systems within the atmosphere.
• Distribution of continents and oceans have a marked influence over the distribution of pressure.
• In winter, the continents are cooler than the oceans and tend to develop high-pressure centres,
whereas, in summer, they are relatively warmer and develop low pressure. It is just the reverse with the
oceans.

5.3 Isobars

• Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure.

• The spacing of isobars expresses the rate of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient.

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• Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests weak
gradient.
• The pressure gradient may thus be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in
which the pressure decreases most rapidly.

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centres

• Low-pressure system (low-pressure cell) is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the
centre.
• High-pressure system (high-pressure cell) is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure
in the centre.

Closed Isobars

5.4 Vertical Variation of Pressure

• In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height.

• The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is not constant because of the factors that control air den-
sity (temperature and amount of water vapour) are highly variable.
• Since air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in either tem-
perature or density will cause a corresponding change in the pressure.
• In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on an average at the rate of about 34 millibars every 300
metres of height.
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. However, it
is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience
strong upward winds.

Standard Pressure and Temperature at Selected Levels

Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C

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Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2

1 km 898.76 8.7

5 km 540.48 -17. 3

10 km 265.00 -49.7

• At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about two-thirds less than what it is at the sea level.

5.5 Factors affecting Wind Movement

Wind: horizontal movement of air

Currents: vertical movement of air.

• The factors that affect wind movement are pressure gradient force, buoyant force, friction, Coriolis
force, gravitational force and centripetal acceleration.

Pressure Gradient Force

• The pressure gradient (difference in pressure) between atmospheric pressure cells and the surroundings
causes the movement of air from relatively high-pressure centres to relatively low-pressure centres.
• This movement (motion) of air is called as wind. Greater the pressure difference, greater is the wind speed.
• Small differences in pressure are highly significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
• The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the isobars are
apart.
• The wind direction follows the direction of pressure gradient, i.e. perpendicular to the isobars.

Buoyant force

• The atmospheric pressure cells also determine whether the air sinks or rises at a place.
• The surrounding atmosphere exerts buoyant force on low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-
pressure cell rises.
• On the other hand, the air within a high-pressure cell sinks as it is denser than the surrounding atmosphere.
• Rising air is associated with convergence and unstable weather (cyclonic conditions) whereas the sinking
(subsiding) air is associated with divergence and stable conditions (anticyclonic conditions).
• A rising pressure indicates increasing stability, while a falling pressure indicates the weather becoming
more unstable.
• The converging wind movement around a low is called cyclonic circulation.
• Around a high, the wind diverges, and the movement is called anti-cyclonic circulation.

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• The wind circulation at the earth’s surface is associated with an exactly opposite wind circulation above in
the upper troposphere.
• Apart from convergence, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the rising of
air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.

Divergence and Convergence. Cyclonic and Anticyclonic conditions

Pressure System Pressure Condition Pattern of Wind Direction

Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise

Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise

Frictional Force

• The irregularities of the earth’s surface resist the wind movement in the form of friction.
• The influence of friction generally extends up to an elevation of 1-3 km.
• Over the sea surface, the friction is minimal.
• At the surface, due to high friction, the wind direction makes high angles with isobars.

Coriolis force

• Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient force
directs but get deflected from their original path.
• This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect.

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Farrell’s Law: winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right

• Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their path and those
in the southern hemisphere to their left (Farrell’s Law).
• This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases with wind velocity
and an increase in latitude.

Cyclones in the northern hemisphere rotate anti-clockwise due to Coriolis force

Coriolis effect

• The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of objects (such as aeroplanes, wind, missiles, sniper bullets
and ocean currents) moving in a straight path relative to the earth's surface.

Causes of the Coriolis Effect

• As the earth spins in a counter-clockwise direction on its axis any object flying over a long distance appears
to be deflected.

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• This occurs because as something moves freely above the earth's surface, the earth is moving east under
the object at a faster speed.
• As the object moves away for the equator the speed of the earth's rotation decreases and Coriolis effect
(deflection) increases.
• A plane flying along the equator itself would be able to continue flying on the equator without any appar-
ent deflection. A little to the north or south of the equator, the plane would be deflected.

Myth about Coriolis Effect: One of the biggest misconceptions associated with the Coriolis effect is that it causes
the rotation of water down the drain of a sink or toilet. But such rotation is result of shape and orientation of the
container. Coriolis effect is negligible to cause any deflection at such minor distances.

• The Coriolis effect is related to the motion of the object, the motion of the Earth, and the latitude.
• For this reason, the magnitude (Coriolis force) of the effect is given by 2νω sin ϕ, in which ν is the velocity
of the object, ω is the angular velocity of the Earth, and ϕ is the latitude.
• At the equator, ϕ = 0° and at the poles, ϕ = 90°. Thus, the Coriolis force is zero at the equator but in-
creases with latitude, reaching a maximum at the poles.

Geostrophic Wind

• The Coriolis force acting on a body increases with increase in its velocity.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2-3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the surface
and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force, and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar (deflection of the wind is maximum).
• This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.

Geostrophic wind vector parallel to the isobars

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Centripetal Acceleration

• It acts only on air that is flowing around centres of circulation.

• Centripetal acceleration creates a force directed at right angles to the wind movement and inwards towards
the centres of rotation.
• This force produces a circular pattern of flow (vortex) around centres of high and low pressure.

Centripetal acceleration produces a circular flow

Why are there no tropical cyclones at the equator?

• The low pressure close to the equator gets filled instead of getting intensified, i.e., there is no spiralling of
air due to zero Coriolis effect. The winds directly get uplifted vertically to form thunderstorms.

Vertical movement of air with and without Coriolis effect

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5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

• Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels by eliminating the effect
of altitude on pressure.
• There are seven distinctly identifiable zones of horizontal pressure systems or pressure belts.
1. equatorial low,
2. the sub-tropical highs (along 30° N and 30° S),
3. the sub-polar lows (along 60° N and 60° S), and
4. the polar highs.
• Except the equatorial low, all others form matching pairs in the northern and southern hemispheres.

Major Pressure Belts and Wind Systems

• The pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent movement of the sun. In
the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer northwards.

Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’

• Th equatorial low-pressure belt lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.

• The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun.

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• Its width may vary seasonally between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.
• This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds (Intertropical Convergence Zone or
ITCZ) from two hemispheres from sub-tropical high-pressure belts.
• This belt is also called the doldrums, because of the extremely calm air movements.

Zone of convergence of trade winds - ITCZ

Formation

• As this region lies along the equator, it receives highest amount of insolation.
• Due to intense heating, the air gets heated up creating a low-pressure region (thermally formed).

Climate

• The air at the margins of the low-pressure region rises (convection) giving rise to clouds and turbulent
weather along the margins.
• Only vertical currents are found, and the surface winds are almost absent since winds rise near the
margin itself.
• Hence the region within the belt is characterised by extremely low pressure yet calm weather conditions.
• As the larger part of the low-pressure belt passes along the oceans, the winds obtain huge amount of
moisture.
• Vertical winds carrying moisture from cumulonimbus thunderstorm clouds (convectional rainfall).
• The rising air loses all its moisture by the time it reaches the upper parts of the troposphere.
• In spite of high temperatures and moisture, cyclones are not formed 5°N and 5°S of the equator be-
cause of negligible Coriolis force.

Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes

• The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35°N and S.

Formation

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• After complete loss of moisture, the air moving away from the equatorial low-pressure belt and the sub-
tropical low-pressure belt in the upper troposphere is dry and cold.
• The blocking effect of air at upper levels because of the Coriolis force forces the cold, dry air to sub-
side at 30°N and S.
• So, the high pressure (dynamically formed) along this belt is due to subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region and the subpolar region.

Climate

• The subsiding air is warm (heated due to increases in ambient pressure) and dry, therefore, most of
the deserts are present along this belt, in both hemispheres.
• A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in this high-pressure belt.
• The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards adjoining low-pressure belts.
• This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical disturbances.

Horse Latitudes

• The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high-pressure belt are called horse latitudes.
• In early days, the sailing vessels with cargo of horses found it difficult to sail under calm conditions of this
high-pressure belt.
• They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.

Mains 2013: Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on
the western side of the continents. Why?

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Major Deserts of the World

Why between 20 – 30 degree?

• The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most of the deserts are present along this belt, in both hemi-
spheres.

Why on western side of the continents?

• We will get answer for this while studying ocean currents.

Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt

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• The subpolar low-pressure belts are located between 45°N and the Arctic circle (66.5° N) and 45°S and
the Antarctic circles (66.5° S) respectively.
• Owning to low temperatures the subpolar low-pressure belts are not very well pronounced year long.

Formation

• These are dynamically produced due to

1. Coriolis Force (produced by rotation of the earth on its axis) and.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence of westerlies (coming from the subtropical high-pressure
regions) and polar easterlies (coming from the polar regions).
• Subpolar low-pressure belts are mainly encountered above oceans.

Seasonal behaviour

• During winter, because of a high contrast between land and sea, this belt is broken into two distinct low
centres – one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the other between Iceland and Greenland.
• During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and regular belt.
• The belt in the southern hemisphere is not as well differentiated.

Climate

• The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet streams which encircles the
earth at 60 degrees latitudes and is focused in these low-pressure areas.

Polar High-Pressure Belt

• The polar highs are small in area and extend around the poles.
• They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.

Formation

• The air from sub-polar low-pressure belts after saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold while
moving towards poles through upper troposphere.
• The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles subsides creating a high-pressure belt at the surface of earth.

Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

Thermal Factors

• When air is heated, it leads to low pressure, and when it is cooled, it leads to high pressure.

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• Formation of equatorial low and polar highs are examples of thermal lows and thermal highs.

Dynamic Factors

• Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic factors
arising out of pressure gradient forces, apparent movement of sun and rotation of the earth (Coriolis
force).

Example

• The rate of deflection of wind increases with distance from the equator (Coriolis force).
• The defection is higher in the upper troposphere due to less friction.
• As a result, by the time the poleward directed winds in the upper troposphere reach 25° latitude, they are
deflected into a nearly west-to-east flow.
• Similarly, equatorward directed winds in the upper troposphere are deflected into a nearly east-to-west
flow.
• This produces a blocking effect and the air piles up. This causes a general subsidence in the areas between
the tropics and 35°N and S, and they develop into high-pressure belts.

Pressure belts in July

• In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent northward shift of the sun, the thermal
equator (belt of highest temperature) is located north of the geographical equator.
• The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average locations.

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Pressure belts in July

Pressure belts in January

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Pressure belts in January

• During winter, the conditions are reversed, and the pressure belts shift south of their mean locations.
• Opposite conditions prevail in the southern hemisphere. The amount of shift is, however, less in the south-
ern hemisphere due to predominance of water.

5.7 Pressure systems and General Circulation

• The pattern of planetary winds depends on:

✓ latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
✓ emergence of pressure belts;
✓ the migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;
✓ the distribution of continents and oceans;
✓ the rotation of earth.
• The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds (permanent winds) is called the general circulation of
the atmosphere.
• The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which influences
the earth’s climate.

General Circulation

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Hadley Cell

• The air at the equatorial low-pressure belt rises because of the convection currents.
• The air reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km and moves towards the poles.
• This causes accumulation of air at about 30° N and S.
• Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
• At the surface a component of the diverging wind from the subtropical high flows towards the equator as
the easterlies (northeast to southwest).
• The easterlies from either side of the equator converge at the equatorial low pressure and the cycle repeats.
• Such circulations of wind is called a cell. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.

Ferrel Cell

• In the middle latitudes, the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
• At the surface, these winds are called westerlies, and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.

Polar Cell

• At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the po-
lar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.

These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat energy from
lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.

5.8 Classification of Winds

Permanent winds or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds

❑ The trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

❑ Seasonal winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. E.g. Monsoons in South Asia.
❑ Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze etc.

Local winds

❑ These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
❑ Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora etc.

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Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or Planetary Winds

• The winds blowing almost in the same direction throughout the year are called prevailing or permanent
winds.
• These are also called as invariable or planetary winds because they involve larger areas of the globe.
• The two most significant winds for climate and human activities are trade winds and westerly winds.

The Trade Winds

• The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards the equatorial
low-pressure belt.
• Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S throughout the earth’s surface.
• They flow as the north-eastern trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-eastern trades in the
southern hemisphere.
• Trade winds are descending and stable in areas of their origin (sub-tropical high-pressure belt), and as
they reach the equator, they become humid and warmer after picking up moisture on their way.
• The trade winds from two hemispheres meet near the equator, and due to convergence, they rise and
cause heavy rainfall.
• The eastern parts of the trade winds associated with the cool ocean currents are drier and more stable than
the western parts of the ocean.

The Westerlies

• The westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the sub-polar
low-pressure belts.
• They blow from southwest to northeast in the northern hemisphere and northwest to southeast in the
southern hemisphere.
• The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent due to the vast expanse of water,
while those of the northern hemisphere are irregular because of uneven relief of vast land-masses.
• The westerlies are best developed between 40° and 65°S latitudes. These latitudes are often called Roar-
ing Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded terms for sailors.
• The poleward boundary of the westerlies is highly fluctuating.
• These winds produce wet spells and variability in weather.

The Polar easterlies

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• The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to south-west direction in
Northern Hemisphere and south-east to north-west in Southern Hemisphere.
• They blow from the high-pressure polar areas of the sub-polar lows.

Secondary or Periodic Winds

• These winds change their direction with change in season.

• Monsoons are the best example of large-scale modification of the planetary wind system.
• Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze, cyclones
and anticyclones, and air masses.

Monsoons

• Monsoons were traditionally explained as land and sea breezes on a large scale.
• They were earlier considered as a convectional circulation on a giant scale.
• The monsoons are characterized by seasonal reversal of wind direction.
• During summer, the trade winds of southern hemisphere are pulled northwards by an apparent northward
movement of the sun and by an intense low-pressure core in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent.
• While crossing the equator, these winds get deflected to their right under the effect of Coriolis force.
• These winds now approach the Asian landmass as south-west monsoons.
• During winter, these conditions are reversed, and a high-pressure core is created to the north of the Indian
subcontinent.
• Divergent winds are produced by this anticyclonic movement which travels southwards towards the
equator. This movement is enhanced by the apparent southward movement of the sun.
• These are north-east or winter monsoons which are responsible for some precipitation along the east coast
of India.

Indian Monsoon seasonal wind direction

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• The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea,
Bay of Bengal, south-eastern Asia, northern Australia, China and Japan.
• Outside India, in the eastern Asiatic countries, such as China and Japan, the winter monsoon is stronger
than the summer monsoon.

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

• During the day the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea.
• Therefore, over the land, the air rises giving rise to a low-pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool
and the pressure over sea is relatively high.
• Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created, and the wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea
breeze.
• In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
• The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze (Ingwik, via Wikimedia Commons)

Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze

• In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up, and air moves upslope.
• The air from the valley blows up the valley to fill the resulting gap. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
• During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
• The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley, is called katabatic wind (high-
density air flowing down the slope).

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Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze (Credits)

Tertiary or Local Winds

• Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds.

• Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere. Some examples of
local winds are discussed below.

Loo

• In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the west in
May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo.
• Its temperature invariably ranges between 45 °C and 50 °C. It may cause sunstroke to people.

Foehn or Fohn

• Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps.

• It is a strong, gusty, dry and warm wind which develops on the leeward side of a mountain range.
• As the windward side takes away whatever moisture there is in the incoming wind in the form of orographic
precipitation, the air that descends on the leeward side is dry and warm (katabatic wind).
• The temperature of the wind varies between 15°C and 20°C.
• The wind helps animal grazing by melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.

Chinook

• Chinooks are foehn like winds in USA and Canada move down the west slopes of the Rockies.
• It is beneficial to ranchers east of the Rockies as it keeps the grasslands clear of snow during much of the
winter.

Mistral

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• Mistral is one of the local names given to such winds that blow from the Alps over France towards the
Mediterranean Sea.
• It is channelled through the Rhone valley. It is very cold and dry with a high speed.
• It brings blizzards into southern France.

Sirocco

• Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and reaches hurricane speeds in North Afri-
ca and Southern Europe.
• It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air mass that is pulled northward by low-pressure cells moving eastward
across the Mediterranean Sea, with the wind originating in the Arabian or Sahara deserts.
• The hotter, drier continental air mixes with the cooler, wetter air of the maritime cyclone, and the counter-
clockwise circulation of the low propels the mixed air across the southern coasts of Europe.
• The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa, storms in the Mediterranean
Sea, and cool, wet weather in Europe.

Major Local Winds across the world

Cold Wind Warm Wind

Pampero Foehn

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Gregale Chinook
Bora Zonda
Tramontane Loo
Mistral Sirocco

Loo Hot Harmful Plains of northern India and Pakistan

Mistral Cold Harmful Rhine valley – Southern France

Sirocco Hot Harmful Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara

Fohn Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Alps

Chinook Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Rockies

Prelims Practise

1. If the surface air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure at 1 km above the surface will be: (a) 700 mb (c) 900
mb (b) 1,100 mb (d) 1,300 mb
2. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone normally occurs: (a) near the Equator (b) near the Tropic of Cancer (c)
near the Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic Circle
3. The direction of wind around a low pressure in northern hemisphere is: (a) clockwise (c) anti-clockwise (b)
perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to isobars

Answers: 1) c. 900 mb; 2) a. Equator 3) c. anti-clockwise

30 words

1. While the pressure gradient force is from north to south, i.e. from the subtropical high pressure to the
equator in the northern hemisphere, why are the winds north easterlies in the tropics? (Hint: Coriolis force)
2. What are the geostrophic winds?
3. Explain the land and sea breezes.

150 words

• Discuss the factors affecting the speed and direction of wind.

• Draw a simplified diagram to show the general circulation of the atmosphere over the globe. What are the
possible reasons for the formation of subtropical high pressure over 30° N and S latitudes?

6. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

• There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through
the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.

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• The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants
through transpiration (evapotranspiration).
• Evaporated water undergoes condensation and forms clouds.
• When saturation is reached, clouds give away water in the form of precipitation.
• Since the total amount of moisture in the entire system remains constant, a balance is required between
evapotranspiration and precipitation. The hydrological cycle maintains this balance.

Water Cycle

6.1 Water Vapour in Atmosphere

• Water vapour in air varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere (averaging around 2%
in the atmosphere).
• Amount of water vapour in atmosphere (humidity) is measured by, an instrument called hygrometer.

Significance of Atmospheric Moisture

• Water vapour absorbs both incoming and outgoing radiation and hence plays a crucial role in the earth’s
heat budget.
• The amount of water vapour present decides the quantity of latent energy stored up in the atmosphere
for development of storms and cyclones.
• The atmospheric moisture affects the human body’s rate of cooling by influencing the sensible tempera-
ture.

Humidity

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• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity.

Absolute Humidity

• The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity.
• It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre.
• The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the surface of the earth.
• The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
• Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.
• Absolute humidity is greater over oceans because of greater availability of water for evaporation.

Relative Humidity

• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given tempera-
ture is known as the relative humidity.

Relative Humidity = [Actual amount of water vapour in air (absolute humidity)/humidity at saturation point (the
maximum water vapour air can hold at a given temperature)] X 100

• With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative
humidity is also affected.
• The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation, and hence it is an important climatic
factor.
• Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
• At this temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture. Thus, relative humidity of the
saturated air is 100%.
• If the air has half the amount of moisture that it can carry, then it is unsaturated, and its relative humidity is
only 50%.
• Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and least over the continents (absolute humidity is great-
er over oceans because of greater availability of water for evaporation).

Change in Relative humidity

Relative humidity can be changed in either of the two ways:

1. By adding moisture through evaporation (by increasing absolute humidity): if moisture is added by
evaporation, the relative humidity will increase and vice versa.

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2. By changing temperature of air (by changing the saturation point): a decrease in temperature
(hence, decrease in moisture-holding capacity/decrease in saturation point) will cause an increase
in relative humidity and vice versa.
• Consider 1 m3 of air at a temperature ‘T’.
• Let us assume that saturation occurs when 0.5 kg of water vapour is present in 1 m3 of air.
• That is, relative humidity will be 100% if 1 m3 of air contains 0.5 kg of water vapour at temperature T (satu-
ration temperature or saturation point).
• Assume that 1 m3 of air at a given time consists of 0.2 kg of water vapour at a temperature ‘T’.

Here,
Absolute Humidity = 0.2 kg/m3 and
Relative Humidity = 40% (0.2/0.5 X 100)
Relative humidity is expressed as % whereas absolute humidity is expressed in absolute terms.

• Now to make the air saturated (100% relative humidity),

1. we can add that additional 0.3 kg of water vapour by evaporation. OR
2. we can decrease the temperature.
• If we decrease the temperature, the saturation point will come down.

Explanation:

• Let us assume that the temperature of 1 m3 of air is decreased by 2 °C.

• The water holding capacity will fall due to decrease in temperature.
• Let us assume that the water holding capacity decreases by 0.1 kg/m3 for 1 °C fall in temperature.
• So, for 2 °C fall in temperature, the fall in water holding capacity is 0.2 kg/m3.
• Hence the new saturation point occurs at 0.3 kg/m3 of air [0.5 kg/m3 – 0.2 kg/m3].
• So now we can saturate 1 m3 of air by adding just 0.1 kg instead of 0.3 kg as in the earlier case.

[because, initially, we assumed that 1 m3 of air at a given time consists of 0.2 kg of water vapour at a tempera-
ture ‘T’.]

Dew point

• The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
• It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture.
• The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.
• Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.

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Specific Humidity

• It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air (grams of water vapour per kilogram
of air).
• Specific humidity is not affected (does not vary) by changes in pressure or temperature (because weight of
water vapour in atmosphere is not significantly influenced by temperature).
• The only way of changing specific humidity is by adding (evaporation) or removing (precipitation) of mois-
ture.

6.2 Evaporation

• Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.

• The oceans contribute 84% of the annual total and the continents 16%.
• The highest annual evaporation occurs in the sub-tropics of the western North Atlantic and North Pacif-
ic because of the influence of the Gulf Stream and the Kurishino Current, and in the trade wind zone of
the southern oceans.
• The land maximum occurs in equatorial region because of high insolation and luxuriant vegetation.

Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation

• Amount of water available.

• Area of evaporating surface.
• Temperature.
• Relative humidity: air with low relative humidity has more space for moisture and hence evaporation in-
creases.
• Wind: Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, greater the wind
speed, the greater is the evaporation.
• Whenever there is a combination of high temperature, very low relative humidity and strong winds, the
rate of evaporation is exceptionally high. This leads to dehydration of soil to a depth of several inches.
• Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the evaporating surface.
Lower pressure over open surface of the liquid results in a higher rate of evaporation.
• Composition of water: Evaporation is inversely proportional to salinity of water.
• Rate of evaporation is always greater over fresh water than over salt water. [Because of the reduction in the
vapour pressure (ability of the water molecules to bounce off the surface) at the water surface due to salini-
ty.]

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• Under similar conditions, ocean water evaporates about 5% more slowly than fresh water.
• More evaporation by plants: Water from plants generally evaporates at a faster rate than from land.

6.3 Condensation

• The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.

• Condensation is caused by the loss of heat (latent heat of condensation, opposite of latent heat of
vaporisation).
• When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases (Saturation
Point = 100% Relative Humidity = Dew Point reached).
• Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid form, it is
known as sublimation.

Phase change

• In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic conden-
sation nuclei.
• Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because they absorb
water.
• Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it may also
take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
• Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air.
• Condensation takes place:
1. when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant (adia-
batically),
2. when both the volume and the temperature are reduced (brings down saturation temperature),
3. when moisture is added to the air through evaporation (increase in relative humidity),

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• After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following forms
— dew, frost, fog and clouds.
• Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as well as higher than
the freezing point.

Processes of Cooling for Producing Condensation

Adiabatic Temperature Changes

• When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat available per unit volume is reduced and, therefore, the tempera-
ture is also reduced.
• Such a temperature change which does not involve any subtraction of heat, and cooling of air takes place
only by ascent and expansion, is termed ‘adiabatic change’.
• The vertical displacement of the air is the major cause of adiabatic and katabatic (cold, dense air flowing
down a slope) temperature changes.
• Near the earth’s surface, most processes of change are non-adiabatic because horizontal movements of-
ten produce mixing of air and modify its characteristics.

Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes

• Non-adiabatic processes include cooling by radiation, conduction or mixing with colder air. The air may
be cooled due to loss of heat by radiation.
• The non-adiabatic processes of cooling produce only dew, fog or frost. They are incapable of producing a
substantial amount of precipitation.
• In case there is direct radiation from moist air, the cooling produces fog or clouds, subject to presence of
hygroscopic nuclei in the air.
• Cooling by contact with a cold surface produces dew, frost or fog depending on other atmospheric condi-
tions.

6.4 Forms of Condensation

• The forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of temperature at which the dew point is reached.
• Condensation can take place when the dew point is
✓ lower than the freezing point,
✓ higher than the freezing point.
• White frost, snow, hailstones and some clouds (cirrus clouds) are produced when the temperature is
lower than the freezing point.

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• Dew, fog and clouds result even when the temperature is higher than the freezing point.
• Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their location, i.e. at or near the earth’s surface
and in free air.
• Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas clouds are in the second category.

Dew

• When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather
than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
• The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long
nights.

For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.

Dew

White Frost

• Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point.
• The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets.
• The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same as those for the formation of dew, except
that the air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

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White Frost

Fog

• When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden
(mostly due to temperature inversion), condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles.
• So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
• Because of the fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero.

Fog

• In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and mist.
Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke is described as smog.
• Radiation fog results from radiation, cooling of the ground and adjacent air. These fogs are not very thick
and are usual in winters.
• Fogs formed by condensation of warm air when it moves horizontally over a cold surface, are known as
advectional fog. These fogs are thick and persistent. Occurs over warm and cold water mixing zones in
oceans.
• Frontal or precipitation fog is produced due to convergence of warm and cold air masses where warm air
mass is pushed under by the heavier cold air mass.

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• Precipitation in the warm air mass condenses to produce fog at the boundary of the two air masses. These
are called frontal or precipitation fog.
• In fog visibility is less than one kilometre.

Mist

• The difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than fog.
• In mist, each nucleus contains a thicker layer of moisture.
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meet a cold surface.
• Water droplets also form mist, but with less merging or coalescing. This means mist is less dense and
quicker to dissipate.
• Fogs are drier than mist, and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold cur-
rents.
• In mist, visibility is more than one kilometre but less than two kilometres.

Mist

Smog

• Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular emission
and industrial fumes (primary pollutants).
• Smog contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other components.
• At least two distinct types of smog are recognised: sulphurous smog and photochemical smog.

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Smog

Primary and secondary pollutants

• A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a source.

• A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants)
react in the atmosphere.
• Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is formed
✓ when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight;
✓ when NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
✓ due to acid rain (sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with rainwater to form acid rain).

Sulphurous smog

• Sulphurous smog is also called London smog (first formed in London due to industrial revolution).
• Sulphurous smog results from a high concentration of sulphur oxides in the air and is caused by the use of
sulphur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal (coal was the mains source of power in London during
nineteenth century. The effects of coal burning were observed in early twentieth century).
• This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate mat-
ter in the air.

Sulphurous smog

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Photochemical smog

• Photochemical smog is also known as summer smog or Los Angeles smog.

• Photochemical smog occurs most prominently in urban areas that have large numbers of automobiles (ni-
trogen oxides are the primary emissions).
• Photochemical smog forms when nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and volatile organic compounds
(primary pollutants) react together in the presence of sunlight to form ozone (secondary pollutant).

NO + VOC (volatile organic compounds) –––––→ NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide)

NO2 + UV (sunlight) –––––→ NO + O (Nitrogen Oxide + atomic oxygen)
O + O2 –––––→ O3 (Ozone)
NO2 + VOC –––––→ PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate), etc.
Final result: NO + VOC + O2 + UV –––––→ O3, PAN, and other oxidants
Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but near the earth’s surface it results in global warming as it is a
greenhouse gas

• The resulting smog causes a light brownish colouration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant damage,
irritation of the eyes, and respiratory distress.

Photochemical smog

Effects of Smog

Toxic Chemical Sources Environmental Effects

Nitrogen Oxides • combustion of oil, coal, gas • decreased visibility due to yellowish colour of
(NO and NO2) • bacterial action in soil NO2
• forest fires, volcanic action • NO2 can suppress plant growth
• lightning

Volatile Organic • evaporation of fuels • eye irritation

Compounds (VOCs) • incomplete combustion of • respiratory irritation
fossil fuels • some are carcinogenic

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• decreased visibility due to blue-brown haze

Ozone (O3) • formed from photolysis of • decreased crop yields

NO2 • retards plant growth
• sometimes results from strat- • damages plastics
ospheric ozone intrusions • breaks down rubber

Peroxyacetyl Ni- • formed by the reaction of NO2 • eye irritation

trates (PAN) with VOCs • high toxicity to plants
• damaging to proteins

• Smog is a combination of airborne particulate matter, like soot, and invisible toxic gases including ozone
(O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), which are carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
• The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Mexico City and other cities are increased
by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground.
• It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, shortened life or death.
• Temperature inversions are accentuated, and precipitation is reduced.
• Smog-related Haze lowers visibility.

Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of the country, but the air pollution is
much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so? (200 words)

• In spite of similar urbanisation, air pollution is much more severe in Delhi compared to that in Mumbai and
Kolkata. This is because of

Geography and Climate

• This the most detrimental factor. Delhi is a continental city while the other two are coastal. Land and See
Breezes in Mumbai and Kolkata carry pollutants away from the city. There is no such advantage to Delhi as
it is land locked.
• Also, the duration of monsoon winds is short in Delhi compared to the other two.
• Delhi faces severe cold wave in winter compared to the other two. Cold climate here creates temperature
inversion which traps the pollutants, mainly smog, for a longer duration.

Polluting Industry in close vicinity in Delhi.

• Delhi and its immediate neighbourhood are the hotbed of polluting industries which are primarily coal-
fuelled. Burning coal releases oxides of sulphur which forms sulphurous smog.
• This type of smog is more pronounced in Delhi than in the other two cities due to geography and climate.

Vehicular Emissions
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• All the three cities contribute nearly equal vehicular emissions rich in CO2 and NO2. NO2 results in photo-
chemical smog. Here again, Delhi is worst hit due to its geography and climate.

Farm Straw Burning

• Delhi is at the heart of major agricultural region. Burning of farm straw in the surrounding regions also adds
to Delhi’s pollution levels.
• 226 words.

Haze

• In a haze dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky.
• There is no condensation in haze. Smog is similar to haze, but there is condensation in smog.
• Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires.

Haze

Clouds

• Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
• Clouds are caused mainly by the adiabatic cooling of air below its dew point.
• As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.
• According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
types: (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.

Cirrus Clouds

• Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000-12,000m). They are made of ice crystals.
• They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white.

Cumulus Clouds

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• Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height of 4,000-7,000 m.
• They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.

Stratus Clouds

• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
• These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different tem-
peratures.

Nimbus Clouds

• Nimbus clouds are black or dark grey. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.
• These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
• Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
• Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:

• High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;

• Middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;
• Low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus (long duration rainfall cloud; rain bands in tropical
cyclones) and
• Clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)

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Types of clouds (Valentin de Bruyn / Coton, from Wikimedia Commons)

Types of Clouds

Sun’s halo is produced by the refraction of light in: [2002]

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a) water vapour in Stratus clouds

b) ice crystals in Cirro-Cumulus clouds
c) ice crystals in Cirrus clouds
d) dust particles in Stratus clouds
• Halos (22° halo) are caused by both refraction and reflection of sunlight by ice crystals in cirrus clouds.

Sun’s halo

• Just like a rainbow (caused due to reflection, refraction, dispersion and total internal reflection of light
by water droplets), halos around the sun (or moon ― moon ring or winter halo) are personal.
• Everyone sees their particular halo, made by particular ice crystals, which are different from the ice crystals
making the halo of the person standing next.

Formation of a rainbow (Credits: Rebecca McDowell)

Answer: b) ice crystals in Cirrus clouds

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6.5 Precipitation

• Condensation of water vapour followed by release of moisture is known as precipitation.

• The process of continuous condensation in air helps the condensed particles to grow in size.
• When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s sur-
face as different forms of precipitation. Precipitation may happen in liquid or solid form.
• Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall when the drop size is more than 0.5 mm.
• It is called Virage when raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth while passing through dry air.
• Drizzle is light rainfall with drop size being less than 0.5 mm, and when evaporation occurs before reaching
the ground, it is referred to as mist.
• When the temperature is lower than the 0° C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals.
• Besides rain and snow, other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail, though the latter are limited in oc-
currence and are sporadic in both time and space.
• Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water. When a layer of air with the temperature above
freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
• Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the colder air below. As a result, they solidify and reach
the ground as small pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which they are formed.
• Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded solid
pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.
• These are formed by the rainwater passing through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric
layers of ice one over the other.
• Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
• Virage: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
• Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.
• Mist: evaporation drizzle occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy weather.
• Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less than 0° C.
• Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; mixture of snow and rain or merely partially melted
snow.
• Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets (5 to 50 mm) is known as hail.

6.6 Types of Rainfall

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• On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types – the convectional, orographic or
relief and the cyclonic or frontal.

Convectional Rainfall

• The air on being heated, becomes light and rises in convection currents.
• As it rises, it expands and loses heat, and consequently, condensation takes place, and cumulous clouds are
formed (when convection is rapid and intense cumulonimbus clouds are formed).
• This process releases latent heat of condensation which further heats the air and forces the air to go
further up.
• Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is associated with mini-
mum amount of cloudiness.
• It occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums in the Congo basin, the Ama-
zon basin and the islands of south-east Asia.

Convectional rainfall

Orographic Rainfall

• This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain range).
• Because of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture-laden air gains height, it expands
(because of fall in ambient pressure) and the temperature falls (adiabatic).
• Condensation sets in, and soon saturation (dew point) is reached. The surplus moisture falls as orographic
rainfall along the windward slopes.
• After giving rain on the windward side, the winds are relatively dry and cold. They reach the leeward slope
and descend (katabatic wind), and their temperature rises due to increase in ambient pressure.

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• Their capacity to take in moisture increases (relative humidity decreases) and hence the leeward slopes
remain rainless and dry.
• The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area (some arid
and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian Desert in Ar-
gentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, etc.).
• The rainfall in rain shadow area is known as the relief rain. Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the wind-
ward side of Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall, whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow
area, receives only about 70 cm.

Orographic rainfall

Frontal Rainfall

• When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions are produced.
• Along the front convection occurs and causes precipitation (we will study this in Fronts).
• For instance, in north-west Europe, cold continental air and warm oceanic air converge to produce heavy
rainfall in adjacent areas.

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Frontal Rainfall

Cyclonic Rain

• Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale (we will see this in detail later).
• The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that in a temperate cyclone is because
of frontal activity.

Cyclonic Rainfall in Tropical Cyclones

Monsoonal Rainfall

• This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic moisture (es-
pecially the south-west monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south and southeast Asia.

World Distribution of Rainfall

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World Distribution of Rainfall

• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in different
seasons. In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
• The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great sources of
water.
• Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts (because
of warm ocean currents) and goes on decreasing towards the west.
• But, between 45° and 65° N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the
western margins of the continents, and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
• Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward side
and it decreases towards the leeward side. E.g. Rainfall along Western Ghats.
• On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are
identified as follows.
• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool temperate
zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum.
• Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100-200 cm per annum.
• The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.

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• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive rain-
fall varying between 50-100 cm per annum.
• Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very low
rainfall ― less than 50 cm per annum.
• In some region’s rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions.
• In the other regions, the rainfall distribution is variable seasonally.

Prelims Practise

1. Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid into vapour? (a) Condensation (b)
Transpiration (c) Evaporation (d) Precipitation
2. The air that contains moisture to its full capacity: (a) Relative humidity (b) Specific humidity (c) Absolute
humidity (d) Saturated air
3. Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky? (a) Cirrus (b) Stratus (c) Nimbus (d) Cumulus

Answers: 1. c) Evaporation; 2. d) Saturated air 3. c) Cirrus

30 words

• Name the three types of precipitation.

• Explain relative humidity.
• Why does the amount of water vapour decrease rapidly with altitude? (Hint: Lapse rate ➔ Condensation)
• Why is winter air dry compared to the summer air? (Hint: Low temperature aids condensation)
• How are clouds formed? Classify them

150 words

• Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.

• What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost formation.

7. Thunderstorm

• Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe local storms that involve rapid convection or upliftment of
air.
• They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent.
• Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder and lightning and typically also heavy rain or hail.

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• Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the temperature is high.

• Thunderstorms are less frequent on water bodies due to low temperature.
• Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment, there are
roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.

How does a thunderstorm form?

Formation of a Thunderstorm

Stage 1: Cumulus stage

• Ground is significantly heated due to solar insolation.

• A low pressure starts to establish due to intense upliftment of an air parcel (convention).
• Air from the surroundings start to rush in to fill the low pressure.
• Intense convection of moist hot air builds up a towering cumulonimbus cloud.

Stage 2: Mature stage

• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer.

• It becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
• Intense updraft of rising warm air causes the cloud to grow bigger and rise to greater height.
• The space is filled by fresh moisture-laden air.
• Condensation occurs in this air, and the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.

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• Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and rain.
• The incoming of thunderstorm is indicated by violent gust of wind. This wind is due to the intense
downdraft.

Motion of a thunderstorm

• Path of a thunderstorm is erratic. Motion is primarily due to interactions of its updrafts and downdrafts.
• The speed of isolated storms is typically about 20 km (12 miles) per hour, but some storms move much
faster.
• In extreme circumstances, a supercell storm may move 65 to 80 km (about 40 to 50 miles) per hour.

Downbursts

• Downdrafts are referred to as macrobursts or microbursts.

• Macroburst is more than 4 km in diameter and can produce winds as high as 60 metres per second, or 215
km per hour.
• A microburst is smaller in dimension but produces winds as high as 75 metres per second, or 270 km per
hour
• They are seriously hazardous to aircraft, especially during take-offs and landings.

Downburst (Credits)

Stage 3: Dissipating stage

• When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed, and they come
down as hailstorm. Intense precipitation occurs.
• In a matter of few minutes, the storm dissipates, and clear weather starts to prevail.

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7.2 Types of Thunderstorms

Types of Thunderstorms

• Convectional, Frontal, Orographic Thunderstorms.

• Isolated Thunderstorms, Multiple-Cell Thunderstorms, Supercell thunderstorms.

Thermal thunderstorm

• Caused due to intense heating of ground during summer (cumulonimbus cloud and convectional rain).

Orographic thunderstorm

• Forceful upliftment of warm moist air parcel when it passes over a mountain barrier creates cumulonimbus
cloud causing heavy precipitation on the windward side.
• Orographic cloudbursts are common in Jammu and Kashmir, Cherrapunji and Mawsynram.

Frontal thunderstorm

• Thunderstorms occurring along cold fronts.

Single-cell thunderstorm (Isolated thunderstorm)

• Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief, weak storms that grow and die within an hour or so. They are
typically driven by heating on a summer afternoon.

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• Single-cell storms may produce brief heavy rain and lightning.

• They are very common in India during summers, mostly April, May.
• In Kerala, they are called Mango Showers and in Karnataka Blossom showers.

A multi-cell thunderstorm

• A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in which new updrafts form along the leading edge of rain-cooled air
(the gust front).
• Individual cells usually last 30 to 60 minutes, while the system as a whole may last for many hours.
• Multicell storms may produce hail, strong winds, brief tornadoes, and flooding.

A supercell thunderstorm

• A supercell is a long-lived (greater than 1 hour) and highly organised storm feeding off an updraft (a rising
current of air) that is tilted and rotating.
• Most large and violent tornadoes come from supercells.

Supercell (Wikipedia)

Mesocyclone

• A mesocyclone is a rotating vortex of air within a supercell thunderstorm.

• Mesocyclones sometimes produce tornadoes.

7.3 Tornado

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• Tornado is a small-diameter column of violently rotating air developed within a convective cloud and in
contact with the ground.
• Tornados occur most often in association with thunderstorms during the spring and summer in the mid-
latitudes of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
• Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes because of convergence of warm and cold air masses.

Formation

• When warm, humid air meets a cold airmass, horizontally spinning winds are created.
• As the warm air rises, it begins rotating vertically forming a mesocyclone in the centre of the Cumulonim-
bus cloud. This is a supercell.
• The rotating warm air condenses into rain which in turn pulls the mesocyclone closer to the ground; then
the tornado begins to form.

Composite of five shots of Tornadogenesis (Wiki)

• Heavy rains in front of the tornado cause downdrafts.

• These whirling atmospheric vortices can generate the strongest winds known on Earth: wind speeds in the
range of 500 km (300 miles) per hour.
• They are often referred to as twisters.

Waterspout

• Waterspout is an intense columnar vortex (usually appearing as a funnel-shaped cloud) that occurs over a
body of water.

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Waterspout

• They are connected to a towering cumulonimbus cloud.

• They are weaker than most of its land counterparts, i.e. tornadoes.
• Most waterspouts do not suck up water; they are small and weak rotating columns of air over water.

Distribution of tornadoes

• The temperate and tropical regions are the most prone to thunderstorms and tornadoes.
• Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica.
• United States has the most violent tornadoes.
• Canada reports the second largest number of tornadoes.
• In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh is the most prone country to tornadoes.

Distribution of tornadoes

7.4 Lightning and thunder

• Water vapour condenses into small ice crystals when it moves upward in the cumulonimbus cloud.
• The ice crystals continue to move up until they gather enough mass that can overcomes the buoyant force.
• This leads to a system where smaller ice crystals move up while bigger crystals come down.
• The resulting collisions trigger the release of electrons, in a process very similar to the generation of elec-
tric sparks (this is called as ionisation)

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In ionisation, an electron in the outer shell is peeled out of the atom, and the atom become an ion.
There are two types of ions based on charge – cation and anion.
Cation: A cation is an atom or a molecule which is positively charged, i.e. it has a greater number of protons than
electrons.
Anion: An anion is an atom or molecule which is negatively charged, i.e. it has a greater number of electrons than
protons.

• The moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons are released and a chain reaction en-
sues.
• The process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged (cations)
while the middle and bottom layers are negatively (anions) charged.

Lightning (Credits)

• The electrical potential difference between the top and the bottom layers is huge, of the order of 109 or
1010 volts.
• In little time, a huge current, of the order of 105 to 106 amperes, starts to flow between the layers.
• It produces heat, leading to the heating of the air column between the two layers of cloud.
• It is because of this heat that the air column looks red during lightning.
• The heated air column expands and produces shock waves that result in thunder.

Thunder

• Thunder is the sound caused by the discharge of atmospheric electrical charge (plasma ― ionised gas me-
dium ― 30,000 °C) by lightning.

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• The channel pressure of the electric charge greatly exceeds the ambient (surrounding) pressure, and the
channel expands at a supersonic rate (speed of sound).
• The resultant shock wave decays rapidly with distance and is eventually heard as thunder once it slows to
the speed of sound.
• Thunderbolt is a flash of lightning accompanied by a crash of thunder.

Lightning from cloud to Earth

• Earth is a good conductor of electricity but is electrically neutral.

• In comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, however, it becomes positively charged.
• As a result, a flow of current (about 20-15%) gets directed towards the Earth as well.
• It is this current flow that results in the damage to life and property.
• Once about 80-100 m from the surface, lightning tends to change course to hit the taller objects (guess
why very tall buildings have a vertical pole above).
• This is because travelling through air, which is a bad conductor of electricity, electrons try to find a better
conductor, and also the shortest route to the relatively positively charged Earth’s surface.

Lightning strikes the metallic tower of the building

• The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela.

Lightning deaths

• Several thousand thunderstorms occur over India every year.

• Incidents of lightning have been showing an increasing trend over the last 20 years, especially near the
foothills of the Himalayas.
• People are rarely hit directly by lightning. But such strikes are almost always fatal.
• The most common way in which people are struck by lightning are by ground currents.
• The electrical energy, after hitting a tree or any other object, spreads laterally on the ground for some dis-
tance, and people in this area receive electrical shocks.

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• It becomes more dangerous if the ground is wet, or there is conducting material like metal on it.

Precautions

• Moving under a tree or lying flat on the ground can increase risks.
• Even indoors, electrical fittings, wires, metal and water must be avoided.

(Source)

7.5 Hailstorm

• Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a cumulonimbus cloud.
• Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.
• A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with lay-
ers that are thin, white and opaque.
• Hailstones are produced in almost all thunderstorms, but in most of the cases, they don’t reach the surface.

Favourable conditions for hail formation

• Strong, upward motion of air (updraft) within the parent thunderstorm.

• High liquid water content.
• Great vertical extent of the cumulonimbus cloud.
• Good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C.
• High surface temperatures. Hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures.

Formation of hail

• Hail begins as water droplets in a cumulonimbus cloud. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes be-
low freezing, they freeze on contact with condensation nuclei.
• The storm's updraft with great wind speeds (180 kmph) blows the forming hailstones up the cloud.
• When the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of supercooled water droplets, it acquires
new opaque layer.
• The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft.
• It doesn’t fall immediately to the surface because of melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with rain
and other hailstones that slow its descent. In the process, it acquires more layers.
• It then falls toward the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the
cloud.

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• Finally, it may fall to the surface as hailstone if it can overcome the frictional force of the wind and ground
temperature.

Hailstorm formation

• Hailstones can grow up to 15 centimetres and weigh more than 0.5 kg. Generally, the larger hailstones will
form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing.
• Hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-
latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude.

Feb 2019: Severe hailstorm in Delhi-NCR

• Delhi and the surrounding regions experienced a very severe hailstorm in February 2019.
• A hailstorm is not unusual in the winter months. However, a hailstorm this severe was unprecedented.
• A number of factors contributed to making it severe.
1. Western disturbance supplied enough moisture for the formation of thundercloud and hail formation.
2. Confluence of winds from Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea met over northern India (confluence of air
masses with varying physical properties can cause severe thunderstorms).

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3. At the same time, jet streams were passing over the northern plains and helped in deep cloud for-
mation at the lower level (upper-level divergence will cause convergence at the surface).

7.6 Hazards posed by thunderstorms and associated phenomenon

• Many hazardous weather events are associated with thunderstorms.

• Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding (cloudburst).
• Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year and causes fatalities.
• Hail damages crops, vehicle windshields, windows, and kills livestock caught out in the open.
• Strong (120 mph) winds associated with thunderstorms knock down trees, power lines and mobile homes.
• Downbursts pose a huge risk to aircraft during take-off and landing (especially in the ITCZ zone).
• Tornadoes (with winds up to about 300 mph) can destroy all but the best-built human-made structures.

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Climatology Part II
PDF

1. Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone ............................................................... 4
Good Source of Latent Heat ................................................................................................................................... 4
Coriolis Force .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
Low-level Disturbances........................................................................................................................................... 6
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses .......................................................................................................... 7
Wind Shear ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Upper Air Disturbance ............................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones) ................................................................ 9
Mechanism – Early stage ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Mechanism – Mature stage .................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones ................................................................................................ 15
Regional names for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................. 16
1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................... 17
Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds? ................................................................................ 18
1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? ................ 18
1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale ............................................................................................................................ 20
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department ............................................................................ 20
1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones ........................................................................................... 21
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Wind ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Storm surge .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
States Vulnerable to Cyclones .............................................................................................................................. 23
1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 24
1.9 Naming of Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 25
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................. 26
1.10Warning of Tropical Cyclones................................................................................................................. 26
4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones .............................................................................................. 26

2. Jet streams ......................................................................................................................................... 27

2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams ..................................................................................................................... 28
Geostrophic Wind ................................................................................................................................................. 28
Upper tropospheric westerlies ............................................................................................................................. 29

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High velocity ......................................................................................................................................................... 31

Meandering .......................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.2 Permanent jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 32
Subtropical jet stream (STJ) .................................................................................................................................. 33
Polar front jet (PFJ) ............................................................................................................................................... 33
2.3 Temporary jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 34
The Somali Jet ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ................................................................................................... 34
2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather..................................................................................................... 34
Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions ................................................................................................. 35
2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation ........................................................................................................................ 36

3. Temperate Cyclones ........................................................................................................................... 36

3.1 Air Masses .............................................................................................................................................. 37
Source regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 37
Conditions for the formation of Air Masses ......................................................................................................... 37
Air masses based on Source Regions.................................................................................................................... 37
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ......................................................................................................... 40
3.2 Fronts ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
Front Formation.................................................................................................................................................... 41
Classification of Fronts ......................................................................................................................................... 41
3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones .................................................................................. 47
Polar Front Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 47
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 49
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones ..................................................................................................................... 49
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................ 49

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison .................................................................. 51

5. Polar Vortex ....................................................................................................................................... 53
5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave ......................................................................................................................... 54
How it slips............................................................................................................................................................ 54
5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole .................................................................................. 55
Ozone depletion ................................................................................................................................................... 56

6. El Nino ................................................................................................................................................ 59
6.1 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................................................. 59
Walker circulation (Normal Years) ....................................................................................................................... 60
6.2 During El Nino year................................................................................................................................. 61
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)..................................................................................................................... 63
Effects of El Nino................................................................................................................................................... 63
El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons..................................................................................................................... 64
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India) .................................................................. 65
6.3 El Niño Modoki ....................................................................................................................................... 66
6.4 La Nina .................................................................................................................................................... 67
Effects of La Nina .................................................................................................................................................. 68

7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate ...................................................................................... 69

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7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates .................................................................................................................. 71

Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ................................................................................... 72
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon).............................................................................. 79
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ..................................................... 85
7.3 B – Dry Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)........................................................................ 91
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ........................................................ 92
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude) ........................................ 95
7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates..................................................................................... 100
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ............................................................... 101
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa) ................................................................................................ 105
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf) ............................................................. 111
7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates ............................................................................................................. 116
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer)....................................................... 117
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) .............................................................. 121
7.6 E – Cold Climates .................................................................................................................................. 127
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate ............................................................................................ 127
7.7 Questions ............................................................................................................................................. 129
Previous prelims questions................................................................................................................................. 129
Descriptive questions ......................................................................................................................................... 133

1. Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in tropical areas in late summers.

• They are rapidly rotating violent storms characterised by
✓ a closed low-pressure centre with steep pressure gradients (category 1 cyclones have a barometric
pressure of greater than 980 millibars; category 5 cyclones can have central barometric pressure of less
than 920 millibars),

Closed Isobars in a Tropical Cyclone

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✓ a closed low-level atmospheric circulation (winds converging from all directions ― cyclonic circula-
tion),
✓ strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent gust of wind), and
✓ a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce very heavy rain (torrential rainfall).
• The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for the wind speeds.
• The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is a result of rapid upward movement of hot moist air
which is subjected to Coriolis force.

1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.

• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex.
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
• Low wind shear.
• Upper-level divergence.

Good Source of Latent Heat

• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m deep supply
enough moisture, and hence latent heat of condensation, to generate and drive a tropical storm.
• Thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep convection currents within the water do not churn and mix
the cooler water below with the warmer water near the surface.

Why tropical cyclones form mostly on the western margins of the oceans?

• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly trade winds drag ocean waters towards west) that flow from
east towards west forming a thick layer of warm water with temperatures greater than 27°C.

Why are tropical cyclones very rare on the eastern margins of the oceans?

• The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans making them
unfit for the breeding of cyclonic storms.

Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years, strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is due to the
accumulation of warm waters in the eastern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell.

Why do tropical cyclones weaken on landfall?

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• On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate moisture supply and hence it is deprived of latent heat of
condensation. Thus, the storm dissipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall.

Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on the air parcel decreases with altitude ➔ adiabatic lapse rate
(fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔ condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low temperature ➔ latent
heat of condensation is released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further due to the release of latent heat of
condensation and becomes less denser ➔ air parcel is further uplifted ➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new
moisture is available for condensation ➔ latent heat of condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long as
there is enough supply of moisture.

Coriolis Force

• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but it increases with latitude.
• Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough to create a storm (cyclonic vortex).
• About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.
• The cyclonic circulation is anti-clockwise (counterclockwise) in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
in the southern hemisphere.

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Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers?

1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing, the ocean waters in northern hemisphere attain maxi-
mum temperatures in August (in contract continents attain maximum temperatures in June-July).
2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over oceans are far-
thest from the equator (Coriolis force increases with distance from the equator).

Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere?

• As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the winds to the right
in the Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere).
• So, when a low-pressure starts to form over north of the equator, the surface winds will flow inward trying
to fill in the low and will be deflected to the right, and a counter-clockwise rotation will be initiated.
• The opposite (a deflection to the left and a clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equator.

Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in water that is going down the drains of sinks and toilets.
The rotation in those will be determined by the geometry of the container and the original motion of the water.

Low-level Disturbances

• Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough (an extended region of low-pressure) that moves from
east to west in the form of easterly wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms with heavy rains and strong wind gusts.
Easterly wave disturbances: it is a convective trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of thunderstorms
travelling together in east to west direction (westward traveling disturbances) under the influence of trade winds.

Easterly wave disturbances

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• Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling circulations (birthplace) for a large number of tropical cy-
clones. However, not all disturbances develop into cyclones.

Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses

• The convergence of air masses of different temperatures results in instability causing low-level disturbances
which are a prerequisite for the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.
• Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Temperature contrasts
between these air masses must exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator so that the low-level dis-
turbances can intensify into a depression (intensifying low-pressure cell).

Wind Shear

• Wind Shear is the difference between wind speeds at different altitudes.

• Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uniform.

Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical cyclogenesis) confined to tropics?

• Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone formation processes are limited to latitude
equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.
• In the temperate regions, wind shear is high due to westerlies, and this inhibits convective cyclogenesis.

Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones during southwest monsoon season?

Large vertical wind shear

• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the presence of strong westerly winds (south-west monsoon
winds) in the lower troposphere (below 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the upper troposphere (above 9
km). This results in large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical wind shear inhibits cyclone development.

Less time for development

• The potential zone for the development of cyclones shifts to North Bay of Bengal during southwest mon-
soon season.
• Low-pressure system up to the intensity of depressions form along the monsoon trough (along ITCZ),
which extends from northwest India to the north Bay of Bengal.
• The Depression forming over this area crosses Orissa-West Bengal coast in just a day or two as the bay is
narrower to the north.

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• These systems thus have shorter oceanic stay (they make landfall very quickly) and hence cannot intensify
beyond the depression stage.

Upper Air Disturbance

• An upper tropospheric cyclone usually moves slowly from east to west and is prevalent in summer.
• Its circulations generally do not extend below 6000 m in altitude.
• The remains of this cyclone (upper tropospheric westerly trough or tropical upper tropospheric
trough) from the westerlies move deep into the tropical latitude regions.

Troughs may be at the surface, or aloft. They may be convective (thermal origin ― tropics), or frontal (dynamic
origin ― temperate regions).

• These troughs can assist tropical cyclogenesis and intensification by providing additional forced ascent.

Upper tropospheric westerly trough assisting convective cyclogenesis

• As divergence prevails (upper tropospheric divergence) on the eastern side of the troughs, a rising motion
occurs at the surface; this leads to the development of thunderstorms or intensification of existing storms.
• Further, these abandoned troughs (remnants of temperate cyclones) usually have cold cores, suggesting
that the environmental lapse rate is steeper. Such instability encourages thunderstorms.
• An upper tropospheric westerly trough is important for tropical cyclone forecasting. This is because,

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1. Fast moving upper tropospheric westerly troughs can create large vertical wind shear over tropical
disturbances and tropical cyclones which may inhibit their strengthening.
2. Slow moving upper tropospheric westerly troughs can drive the tropical cyclones eastward or north-
eastward.

Upper tropospheric trough can influence the Direction of a tropical cyclone

1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones)

• Cyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of cyclonic circulation in the atmosphere.

• Cyclogenesis involves any of these three processes:
1. Convective cyclogenesis or tropical cyclone formation.
2. Frontal cyclogenesis of extratropical cyclone formation.
3. Mesocyclones forming as warm core cyclones giving rise to tornadoes and waterspouts.
• The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during late summers
(August to mid-November).
• At these locations, under favourable conditions, multiple thunderstorms (strong local convectional cur-
rents) merge and create an intense low-pressure system (low-level disturbance).

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Multiple thunderstorms

Tropical depression (maximum sustained wind speed < 63 kmph)

• The intense low-pressure system might acquire a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force giving rise
to a tropical depression.
• A tropical depression has sustained winds below 63 kmph.

Tropical storm (63 kmph < maximum sustained wind speed < 119 kmph)

• Tropical depression develops into a tropical storm when the cyclonic circulation becomes more organised
with maximum sustained winds at or above 63 kmph but below 119 kmph.
• At this point, the distinctive cyclonic shape starts to develop, although an eye is not usually present.

Tropical cyclone (maximum sustained wind speed > 119 kmph)

• As the tropical storm intensifies and acquires a maximum sustained wind speed of 119 kmph it develops
into a tropical cyclone.
• A cyclone of this intensity (119 kmph) tends to develop an eye, an area of relative calm (lowest surface
atmospheric pressure in a tropical cyclone) at the centre of circulation.

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Stages of Cyclone Formation (Credits)

Maximum sustained wind speed

• India Meteorological Department (IMD) uses a 3 minutes averaging for the sustained wind.
• Maximum sustained wind is the highest 3 minutes surface wind occurring within the circulation of the
system.

Mechanism – Early stage

• In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At certain height, due to lapse rate and adia-
batic lapse rate, the temperature of air falls, and moisture in the air undergoes condensation.
• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air warmer. It becomes much lighter and is
further uplifted.
• The space is filled by fresh moisture-laden air. Condensation occurs in this air, and the cycle is repeated as
long as the moisture is supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air at much faster rate.
• The air from surroundings rushes in and undergoes deflection due to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic
vortex (spiralling air column).
• Due to centripetal acceleration, the air in the vortex is forced to form a region of calmness called an eye
at the centre of the cyclone.

Centripetal force pulling towards the centre is countered by an opposing force called centrifugal force.

• The eye is created due to the tangential force acting on the high-speed wind that is flowing in a curvy path
(intense low-pressure ➔ greater wind speeds ➔ greater Coriolis force ➔ greater deflection).
• The diameter of the eye depends on the wind speed. Greater the wind speed, larger the eye region.

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In a cyclonic vortex, the intense low-pressure acts as the string that holds the vortex in place

• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes cold and dense.
• It descends to the surface through the cylindrical eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
• If the storm doesn’t make landfall and if the ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature
stage.

Characteristics of the eye

• The eye is a roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather.
• There is little or no precipitation, and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
• Along the eye, the air is slowly sinking and is heated due to compressional warming (adiabatic).

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• The eye temperature may be 10°C warmer or more at an altitude of 12 km than the surrounding environ-
ment, but only 0-2°C warmer at the surface in the tropical cyclone.
• Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 km across, but most are approximately 30-60 km in diameter.

Characteristics of eyewall

• The eye is surrounded by an eyewall, the most violent region of the cyclone.
• It is a roughly circular ring of deep convection (heaviest rainfall in a cyclone).
• Eyewall region experiences the maximum sustained winds, i.e. fastest winds in a cyclone.

Mechanism – Mature stage

A tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere (anti-clockwise circulation) (Kelvinsong, Wikipedia)

Tropical cyclones have symmetrical elliptical shapes.
They have a compact size can span in the range of 300 km to 1500 km.

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A tropical cyclone in the southern hemisphere (clockwise circulation)

• At this stage, the spiralling winds create multiple convective cells called rain bands with successive calm
and violent regions.
• Cloud formation is dense at the centre. The cloud size decreases from centre to periphery.

Central Dense Overcast (CDO)

• CDO is the cirrus cloud shield (mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals) that results from the thunder-
storms in the eyewall of a tropical cyclone and its rainbands.
• Before the tropical cyclone reaches very severe cyclonic storm (119 kmph), typically the CDO is uniformly
showing the cold cloud tops of the cirrus with no eye apparent.
• The dry air flowing along the central dense overcast descends at the periphery and the eye region.

Rain bands (Spiral bands)

• Convection in tropical cyclones is organized into long, narrow rain bands which are oriented in the same
direction as the horizontal wind.
• A direct circulation develops in which warm, moist air converges at the surface, ascends through these
bands, diverges aloft, and descends on both sides of the bands.

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• Because these bands seem to spiral into the centre of a tropical cyclone, they are called spiral bands.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds (highest rainfall).
• The ones at the periphery are made up of nimbostratus (prolonged rainfall) and cumulus clouds (least).

Vertical Structure of a Tropical Cyclone

There are three divisions in the vertical structure of tropical cyclones.

• The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km and known as the inflow layer, is responsible for driving the storm.
• The middle layer, extending from 3 km to 7 km, is where the main cyclonic storm takes place.
• The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The maximum outflow is found at 12 km and above. The movement of
air is anticyclonic in nature.

1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones

The breeding grounds for tropical cyclones coincide with tropical regions with warm ocean currents.

• Western Pacific (highest number of tropical cyclones): Philippines islands, eastern China and Japan
where they are called typhoons.
• Western Atlantic (South-east Caribbean region) and Eastern Pacific where they are called hurricanes.
• Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
• Around south-east African coast and Madagascar-Mauritius islands.
• North-west Australia.

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Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones

Regional names for Tropical Cyclones

Regions What they are called

Indian Ocean Cyclones

Atlantic Hurricanes

Western Pacific and South China Sea Typhoons

Western Australia Willy-willies

Regional names for various categories

Category Australian name US NW Pacific Arabian Sea /Bay of Bengal

― Tropical low Tropical depression Tropical depression Depression or severe depression

1 Tropical cyclone Tropical storm Tropical storm Cyclonic storm

2 Tropical cyclone Tropical storm Severe tropical storm Severe cyclonic storm

3 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm

4 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Very severe cyclonic storm

5 Severe tropical cyclone Hurricane Typhoon Super cyclonic storm

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1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones

• Tropical cyclones generally follow a parabolic path with the parabolic axis being parallel to the isobars.
• Coriolis force, easterly and westerly winds, and upper tropospheric westerly trough influence the path of
tropical cyclones.
• In the northern hemisphere, tropical cyclones start with a westward movement as the zone of formation
is under the influence of easterlies (trade winds). The average speed is 15-20 kmph (360-480 km per day).
• They then turn northwards around 20° latitude because of the Coriolis force that deflects the path of the
storm to its right. Their speed decreases to 10 kmph or even less.
• They turn further north-eastwards at around 25° latitude (Coriolis force deflects it further).
• They then turn eastwards around 30° latitude (because of westerly winds).
• The westward movement is the fastest and they attain speeds of 25 kmph or more.
• They then lose energy and subside beyond 30° latitude because of cool ocean waters and increasing
wind shear due to westerlies.
• In some instances, a tropical cyclone may avoid the general path and continue with its westward move-
ment.
• Sometimes tropical cyclones are stalled near the coastline, dropping unprecedented amounts of rainfall.
• This could happen due to weak prevailing winds linked to a greatly expanded subtropical high-pressure
system and northward migration of westerlies.

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Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds?

• Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more in right side of the storm (in most of the cases it is the poleward
margin of the storm) than at centre and is moreover oceans than over landmasses.
• The "right side of the storm" is defined with respect to the storm's motion: if the cyclone is moving to the
west, the right side would be to the north of the storm; if the cyclone is moving to the north, the right side
would be to the east of the storm, etc.
• The strongest wind on the right side of the storm is mainly due to the fact that the motion of the cyclone
also contributes to its swirling winds.
• A cyclone with a 145 kmph winds while stationary would have winds up to 160 kmph on the right side and
only 130 kmph on the left side if it began moving (any direction) at 16 kmph.

1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to
the Bay of Bengal?

• The average annual frequency of tropical cyclones in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea) is about 5 (about 5-6 % of the global annual average), and about 80 cyclones form around the
globe in a year. (Most of them occur in Western Pacific and Western Atlantic)
• The frequency is more in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, the ratio being 4:1.

More low-level disturbances in Bay of Bengal

• Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal are either those that develop in-situ over southeast Bay of Ben-
gal or remnants of typhoons over Northwest Pacific that move across south China sea to Indian Seas.
• As the frequency of typhoons over Northwest Pacific is quite high (about 35% of the global annual aver-
age), the Bay of Bengal also gets its increased quota.
• The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either originate in-situ over southeast Arabian Sea or remnants of cy-
clones from the Bay of Bengal that move across south peninsula.
• As the majority of Cyclones over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land after landfall, the frequency of migra-
tion into Arabian Sea is low.

The surface temperature of Bay of Bengal is higher

• Surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal is usually between 22 °C and 31 °C. It is cooler by 1-2 °C in the
Arabian Sea because of the monsoon winds.

Arabian Sea surface has higher salinity

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• Salinity near the surface in the northern Bay of Bengal can be as low as 31 ppt because the bay receives
lots of freshwater from the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Godavari, and others.
• Salinity near the surface in the Arabian Sea is much higher than in the Bay of Bengal because evapouration
over the Arabian Sea is much greater than precipitation and river runoff (it loses more freshwater than it
receives).

Vapour pressure of water and rate of evapouration

• The rate of evapouration is controlled by vapour pressure of water.

• Just like air molecules exert pressure on water, water molecules exert a counter-pressure on the air mole-
cules. This counter pressure is called as vapour pressure of water.
• Higher the vapour pressure of water, higher is the rate of evapouration and vice versa.
• The vapour pressure of water can be modified by:
1. Changing the air pressure: higher wind speeds decreases air pressure and hence increase evapoura-
tion.
Bernoulli's principle: Within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less pressure than
points of slower fluid speed. Practical examples: Swinging Cricket Ball; Lift achieved by aeroplane wings.
2. Changing the temperature of water: when temperature of water is increased, the water molecules at-
tain higher kinetic energy and hence the vapour pressure of water increases. This increases evapoura-
tion.
3. Changing salinity: Increased salinity reduces the kinetic energy of the water molecules. This decreases
evapouration.

Vapour Pressure and Rate of Evapouration (Credits)

Higher stratification in Bay of Bengal

• If all the freshwater that the bay receives during a year is accumulated and spread uniformly over its entire
surface, it would form a layer over a metre thick.

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• Freshwater is less dense compared to saline water. Hence vertical mixing is inhibited in Bay of Bengal.
• On the other hand, high evapouration and low inflow of fresh water increases salinity (water becomes
denser) at the surface in the Arabian Sea, and this increases vertical mixing.

Monsoon winds drive away moisture

• Though the monsoon winds increase evapouration in the Arabian Sea, the moisture is constantly driven
away by the winds towards India.

1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale

Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale

Cyclone Category Wind Speed in Kmph Damage Capacity

01 120-150 Minimal

02 150-180 Moderate

03 180-210 Extensive

04 210-250 Extreme

05 250+ Catastrophic

Values rebounded off to make it easy to remember

Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department

S. No. Intensity Strength of wind Wave height (m)

1. Depression (L) 31- 49 kmph (17-27 knots) 1-4

2. Deep Depression (DD) 50 - 61 kmph (28-33 knots) 4-6

3. Cyclonic Storm (CS) 62 - 87 kmph (34-47 knots) 6-9

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4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) 88-117 kmph (48-63 knots) 9-14

5. Very Severe Cyclonic Storm (VSCS) 118-166 kmph (64-89 knots) 14+

6. Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm (ESCS) 167-221 kmph (90-119 knots) 14+

7. Super Cyclonic Storm (SuCS) 222+ kmph (120+ knots) 14+

Source

• The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour.
• A vessel travelling at 1 knot along a meridian travels approximately one minute of geographic latitude in
one hour.

1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = 1.852 kilometres per hour = 0.514 metres per second

1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones

• The dangers associated with cyclonic storms are generally three fold.
1. Floods
2. Winds
3. Storm Surge

Intensity Damage expected Measures to be taken

Depression • Minor damage to unsecured structures • Fishermen advised not to

Deep Depression venture into the open seas.

Cyclone • Damage to thatched huts. • Total suspension of fishing

• Breaking of tree branches. operations

• Minor damage to power and communication lines.

Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to thatched huts. • Coastal hutment dwellers to

• Flooding of escape routes. be moved to safer places.

Very Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to kutcha houses. • Mobilise evacuation from

• Minor disruption of rail and road traffic. coastal areas.

• Potential threat from flying debris.

Extremely Severe Cyclone • Extensive damage to kutcha houses. • Extensive evacuation from

• Large-scale disruption of power and coastal areas.

communication lines. • Diversion or suspension of
• Disruption of rail and road traffic due to extensive rail and road traffic.

flooding.

Super Cyclone • Extensive structural damage to residential and in- • Large-scale evacuation of

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dustrial buildings. coastal population.

• Total disruption of communication and power • Total suspension of rail and

supply. road traffic.

• Extensive damage to bridges causing large-scale

disruption of rail and road traffic.
• Large- scale flooding and inundation of sea water.

Floods

• Precipitation of about 50 cm/day is quite common within a cyclonic storm.

• Record rainfall in a cyclonic storm has been as low as trace to as high as 250 cms.
• The intensity of rainfall is about 85 cms/day within a radius of 50 km and about 35 cms/day between 50 to
100 km from the centre of the storm.

Wind

• The strong wind speed associated with a cyclonic storm (60-90 kmph) can result into some damage to
kutcha houses and tree branches likely to break off.
• Winds of a severe Cyclonic storm (90-120 kmph) can cause uprooting of trees, damage to pucca houses
and disruption of communications.
• The wind associated with a very severe Cyclonic storm and super cyclonic storm can uproot big trees, cause
widespread damages to house and installations and total disruption of communications.
• The maximum wind speed associated with a very severe Cyclonic storm that hit Indian coast in the past 100
years was 260 kmph in Oct 1999 (Paradeep Super cyclone).

Storm surge

• Storm Surge (tidal wave ― long wavelength) is an abnormal rise of sea level as the cyclone makes landfall.
• The rise of sea level occurs due to the convergence of winds at great speeds that drag water and cause ac-
cumulation of high water column just below the centre of the cyclone.

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Storm surge

• The destructive power of the storm surge depends on intensity of the cyclone and coastal bathymetry
(shallower coastlines face surges of greater heights).
• Seawater inundates the coastal strip causing loss of life, large scale destruction to property & crop.
• Increased salinity in the soil makes the land unfit for agricultural use for two or three seasons.

What is storm tide?

• The storm tide is the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide.
• Storm surge is accentuated if the landfall time coincides with that of high tides.

Cyclone Strength Region affected Damage

1970 Bhola cyclone Extremely Severe Cyclone West Bengal and • Deadliest tropical cyclone

Bangladesh • 5,00,000+ fatalities

1999 Odisha Cyclone Super Cyclone Odisha • Strongest recorded tropical cy-
(Paradeep Super cyclone) Maximum sustained clone in the North Indian Ocean

wind speed of 260 kmph • 30,000+ fatalities

2008 Nargis Cyclone Extremely Severe Cyclone Irrawaddy delta • 1,00,000+ fatalities

(Myanmar) • Costliest cyclone in the region

High number of fatalities in all these cyclones was due to storm surge. The delta regions are always at higher risk because

of low gradient.

States Vulnerable to Cyclones

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Most number of severe cyclonic storms strike Andhra Pradesh.

Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are at greater risk of receiving strong cyclones

1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones

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Tropical cyclones bring rainfall to rain shadow and other parched regions

• Rainshadow regions of Western Ghats ad semi-arid regions in south India (Telangana, Rayalaseema, Hyder-
abad-Karnataka, Vidarbha) sometimes receive copious rain during the cyclone season.

Break up Red Tide

• Red tide is a phenomenon which involves discolouration of coastal waters caused by algal blooms.
• The algal bloom deplete oxygen in the waters and release harmful toxins.
• As tropical cyclones move across the ocean, winds and waves mix and break up patches of bacteria and can
bring an earlier end to the red tide.

Replenish Barrier Islands

• Tropical cyclones have the power to pick up substantial amounts of sand, nutrients and sediment on the
ocean’s bottom and bring it towards barrier islands.
• Storm surge, wind and waves will often move these islands closer to the mainland as sand is pushed or
pulled in that direction.

Speed dispersal to faraway locations

• Tropical cyclone wind blow spores and seeds further inland from where they would normally fall; this effect
can be seen a thousand miles inland as storms move away from the shoreline.
• These seeds can replenish lost growth after fires and urbanisation.

1.9 Naming of Cyclones

Mains 2013: The recent cyclone on east coast of India was called ‘Phailin’. How are the tropical cyclones
named across the world? Elaborate.

• WMO (World meteorological organisation) divided the world Oceans into Basins and assigned the respon-
sibility of naming the Cyclones to the respective regional bodies.
• Each regional body has its own rules in naming cyclones.
• In most regions, pre-determined alphabetic lists of alternating male and female names are used.

Why name them?

• Since the storms can often last a week or even longer and more than one cyclone can be occurring in the
same region at the same time, names can reduce the confusion about what storm is being described.
• Naming them after a person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier for quick information exchange.

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Northern Indian Ocean Region

• The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are not allocated in alphabetical order but are arranged by the name
of the country which contributed the name.
• It is usual practice for a storm to be named when it reaches tropical storm strength (63 kmph).
• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) which issues cyclone advisories to eight countries has a list of
names contributed by each of them.
• Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is picked in the order of the names that are already submitted.
• Each country gets a chance to name a cyclone. After all the countries get their turn, the next list of names is
followed.

Names contributed by countries in the Northern Indian Ocean Region

1.10 Warning of Tropical Cyclones

• Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has three main parameters: fall in
pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the direction and movement (track) of storm.
• Monitoring is also done by aircraft which carry a number of instruments including a weather radar.
• Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done through very high-resolution radiometers to obtain an image of
the cloud cover and its structure.
• Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone right from its genesis in the high seas and follow its course, giving a
warning at least 48 hours before a cyclone strike.
• However, the predictions of a storm course made only 12 hours in advance do not have a very high rate of
precision.

4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones

IMD and Cyclone Disaster Management

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• 1999, IMD introduced a 4-Stage warning system to issue cyclone warnings to the disaster managers.

Pre-Cyclone Watch

• Issued when a depression forms over the Bay of Bengal irrespective of its distance from the coast.
• The pre-cyclone watch is issued at least 72 hours in advance of the commencement of adverse weather.
• It is issued at least once a day.

Cyclone Alert (Colour code Yellow)

• Issued at least 48 hours before the commencement of the bad weather when the cyclone is located beyond
500 Km from the coast.
• It is issued every three hours.

Cyclone Warning (Colour code Orange)

• Issued at least 24 hours before the commencement of the bad weather when the cyclone is located within
500 Km from the coast.
• Information about time/place of landfall are indicated in the bulletin.
• Accuracy in estimation increases as the cyclone comes closer to the coast

Post-landfall outlook (Colour code Red)

• It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone landfall when the cyclone is located within 200 km from the coast.
• More accurate information about time/place of landfall and associated bad weather are indicated in the
bulletin.

2. Jet streams

Jet streams are

✓ Circumpolar (circle around the earth with poles as their centres),

✓ narrow, concentrated bands of (the air in the stream is directed towards the axis of the stream mak-
ing it very narrow ― 50-150 km across)
✓ upper tropospheric,
✓ westerly,
✓ geostrophic streams,
✓ flowing at high velocity,

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✓ with a degree of meandering.

2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams

Geostrophic Wind

• The Coriolis force acting on a body increases with increase in its velocity.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2-3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the surface
and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force, and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar (deflection of the wind is maximum).
• This wind is known as the geostrophic wind. Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind.

Geostrophic wind vector parallel to the isobars

Why don’t winds flow from tropical high-pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar low (in up-
per troposphere) directly as shown in figure below?

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General air circulation when the effect of Coriolis force is ignored

• Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e., they flow at great speeds due to low friction and are subjected
to greater Coriolis force.
• Thus, they are deflected greatly giving rise to three distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell and Polar
cell.
• That is, instead of one big cell we have three small cells that combinedly produces the same effect.
• Hadley Cell and Polar Cell are thermal in origin (convection). Ferrel Cell is dynamic in origin (Coriolis Force
and blocking effect of converging winds). These cells are part of general circulation.
• Jet Streams are formed due to pressure difference between air masses and Coriolis Force.

Upper tropospheric westerlies

• Jet streams are produced due to winds flowing from tropics towards poles in the upper troposphere (just
below the tropopause).
• Jet stream produced between polar and temperate air masses is called as polar jet stream or polar jet.
• Jet stream produced between temperate and tropical air masses is called as subtropical jet stream.
• In polar jet streams wind flows from temperate region towards polar region, and in subtropical jet
streams, winds flow from subtropics towards temperate region.
• In the upper troposphere, the wind flows from less denser air mass towards the poles due to thermal effect
(poles receive less heat and equator receives more heat. So, at the surface the winds flow from pole towards
the equator whereas at an altitude the winds flow from equator towards poles).
• The high-pressure gradient force is directed from south to north.

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Polar Jet Stream is formed between temperate and polar air masses

Polar jet is stronger; Subtropical jet is higher

• Anything moving from tropics towards poles deflects towards their right in the northern hemisphere and
towards their left in the southern hemisphere due to Coriolis effect.
• Thus, jet streams flow from west to east in both the hemispheres and hence they are called westerlies or
upper-level westerlies.
• Both the Northern and Southern hemispheres have jet streams, although the jet streams in the north are
more forceful due to greater temperature gradients.

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Why does polar jet and subtropical jet flow at different altitudes?

• Polar jet streams flow 6 – 9 km above the ground and Sub-tropical jet streams flows 10 – 16 km above the
grounds.
• This is because the troposphere is thicker at equator (17 to 18 km) than at poles (8 to 9 km).

High velocity

• The friction in the upper troposphere is also quite low due to less dense air.
• Temperature also influences the velocity of the jet stream.
• The greater the difference in air temperature, the faster the jet stream.
• Jet stream can reach speeds of up to 400 kmph or greater.
• The jet streams have an average velocity of 120 kmph in winter and 50 kmph in summer.
• These jet streams also have cores where the speed is much greater.

Winds are highest in the core

Meandering

• When the temperature contrast is maximum, jet stream flows in near straight path.
• But when temperature contrast reduces (jet stream is weak), the jet stream starts to follow a meandering
path (wavy, irregular manner with a poleward or equatorward component).
• Thus, meandering depends on temperature contrast (temperature gradient).
• High temperature gradient ➔high-pressure gradient ➔ greater wind speed ➔ greater Coriolis force ➔ geo-
strophic stream ➔ wind direction is parallel to isobars (perfect west-east flow).
• Low temperature gradient ➔ low variable Coriolis force ➔ winds start to meander

Rossby Waves

• The meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.

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• Rossby waves are natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans due to rotation of earth.
• In Rossby waves are polar air moves toward the equator while tropical air moves poleward.
• A meander is called peak or ridge if it is towards poles and trough if it is towards equator.
• The existence of these waves explains the low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-pressure cells (anticy-
clones).

Meandering Jet Streams or Rossby Waves

2.2 Permanent jet streams

• Polar jet and subtropical jet are permanent jet streams that breeze through the upper troposphere for
most part of the year.

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Permanent and Temporary Jet Streams

Subtropical jet stream (STJ)

• During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in both hemispheres.

• The STJ exists all year in the southern hemisphere. However, it is intermittent in the northern hemisphere
during summer when it migrates north.
• The STJ can be temporarily displaced when strong mid-latitude troughs (remnants of temperate cyclones)
extend into subtropical latitudes.
• When these displacements occur, the subtropical jet can merge with the polar front jet (related to cloud-
bursts. We will study this in Indian Monsoons).
• STJ is closely connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons (we will study this in Indian Mon-
soons).

Polar front jet (PFJ)

• The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and subtropical jets are somewhat weaker.
• The northern Polar jet stream follows the sun, i.e., it slowly migrates northward in summer, and southward
in winter.
• The polar front jet is closely related to the polar front (frontogenesis process in mid-latitudes).
• It has a more variable position than the sub-tropical jet.
• In summer, its position shifts towards the poles and in winter towards the equator.
• The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
• It greatly influences climates of regions lying close to 60° latitude.

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• It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate cyclones.

2.3 Temporary jet streams

• Other than polar jet and subtropical jet, there are temporary jet streams which appear only in a particular
season.
• They are few. Important ones are Somali Jet and The African Easterly Jet.
• They are major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere, and hence they are called low-level jets (LLJs).

The Somali Jet

• The Somali Jet is a south-westerly jet.

• The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the coast of Somalia.
• The jet is most intense from June to August.
• The jet remains relatively steady from June to September before moving southward to the southern Indian
Ocean during the winter.

(More details about Somali Jet is given under Indian Monsoons)

The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet

• The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern Asia and
northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
• It is fairly persistent in its position, direction, and intensity from June through the beginning of October.
• During the South Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ induces secondary circulations that enhance convection
over South India and nearby ocean.
• The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ is not fully understood, but it is believed that the jet may be
caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights over the Tibetan Plateau during summer (dry air en-
counters more humid air at high altitudes).
• The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the strong southwest monsoon.
• In recent years due to the decrease in the temperature contrast between the land and sea over the Indian
subcontinent, the TEJ has shown a decreasing trend (not good).

2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather

• Jet streams help in maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass exchange of air.

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• Sub-tropical jet stream and some temporary jet streams together influence Indian Monsoon patterns.
(more about this while studying India Monsoons in Indian geography)
• Jet streams also exercise an influence on movement of air masses which may cause prolonged drought or
flood conditions.

Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions

• PFJ play a key role in determining the weather because they usually separate colder air and warmer air.
• Jet streams generally push air masses around, moving weather systems to new areas and even causing
them to stall if they have moved too far away.
• PFJ play a major role in determining the path and intensity of frontal precipitation and frontal cyclones.
• Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar vortex into temperate regions.

Explanation

• The jet stream drives temperate weather through phenomena called troughing, ridging, and jet streaks.
• Ridges occur where the warm air (at high-pressure) pushes against the cold air.
• Troughs occur where cold air (at lower pressure) drops into warm air.
• This condition occurs due to weak jet stream (lesser temperature contrast between air masses).

Trough and ridge (Credits)

Jet Streak; Ridge and Trough

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• Troughs and ridges are analogous to low-pressure (troughs) and high-pressure (ridges).
• Active weather occurs ahead of a trough and quiet weather beneath a ridge.
• The ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks.
• They form in response to localised but major temperature-gradients.
• The process of winds exiting a trough or a jet streak, known as divergence, creates a void in the upper at-
mosphere. Air will rush up from lower altitudes to fill the void.
• This upward rush of air from the surface creates a low-pressure system.
• The Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation that is associated with depressions.
• The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly converging, creating a high-pressure at the upper level in the
atmosphere. This leads to divergence (high-pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic condition).
• The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic rotation that is associated with clear weather.

2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation

• Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the flow of the jet streams and avoid
them when flying in opposite direction.

• Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight because the jet stream is sometimes unpredictable and can cause
sudden movement, even when the weather looks calm and clear.
• During volcanic eruptions plumes of volcanic ash tend to get sucked into the same jet stream that
aeroplanes use for travel.

3. Temperate Cyclones

• Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and high latitude (35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemi-
spheres), beyond the tropics are called temperate cyclones.
• They are known as mid-latitude cyclones, extratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or wave cyclones.

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• Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cyclogenesis) which have a thermal origin, the temperate cy-
clones (frontal cyclogenesis) have a dynamic origin (complex interaction of air masses under the influ-
ence of Coriolis force).
• To understand the mechanism of frontal cyclogenesis (origin and development of temperate cyclones) it is
important for us to understand the concepts of air masses and fronts.

3.1 Air Masses

• An air mass is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
• Air masses are an integral part of the planetary wind system and are associated with one or other wind belt.
• They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are across thousands of kilometres.

Source regions

• When a large parcel of the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area.
• The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and plateaus.
• The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
• The main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical air mass-
es) and around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
• Source region establishes heat and moisture equilibrium with the overlying air mass.
• When an air mass moves away from a source region, the upper level maintains the physical characteristics
for a longer period.
• This is possible because air masses are stable with stagnant air which do not facilitate convection.
• Conduction and radiation in such stagnant air is not effective.

Conditions for the formation of Air Masses

• Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation (gentle anticyclonic circulation).
• Areas with high-pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal source regions.
• There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions are dominated by frontal cyclones
and other disturbances.

Air masses based on Source Regions

There are five major source regions. These are:

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1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;

2. The subtropical hot deserts;
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised:

1. Maritime tropical (mT);

2. Continental tropical (cT);
3. Maritime polar (mP);
4. Continental polar (cP);
5. Continental arctic (cA).

The first letter describes moisture properties of the air mass.

• c: continental air masses (dry)

• m: maritime air masses (moist)

The second letter describes source region of the air mass.

• T: Tropical
• P: Polar
• A: Arctic or Antarctic

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Air masses (Wikipedia)

• Tropical air masses are warm, and polar air masses are cold.
• The heat transfer processes that warms or cools the air takes place slowly.

Cold Air Mass

• A cold air mass is one which is colder than the underlying surface.

Cold source regions (polar air masses)

• Arctic Ocean – cold and moist

• Siberia – cold and dry
• Northern Canada – cold and dry
• Southern Ocean – cold and moist

Warm Air Mass

• A warm air mass is one which is warmer than the underlying surface.

Warm source regions (tropical air masses)

• Sahara Desert - warm and dry

• Tropical Oceans - warm and moist

Continental Polar Air Masses (cP)

• Source regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and Antarctica.
• Dry, cold and stable conditions characterize these air masses.
• The weather during winter is frigid, clear and stable. During summer, the weather is less stable with lesser
prevalence of anticyclonic winds, warmer landmasses and lesser snow.

Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)

• The source region of these air masses are the oceans between 40° and 60° latitudes.
• These are those continental polar air masses which have moved over the warmer oceans, got heated up
and have collected moisture.
• The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist and unstable.
• The weather during winters is characterized by high humidity, overcast skies and occasional fog and precip-
itation. During summer, the weather is clear, fair and stable.

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Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT)

• The source regions of the air masses include tropical and sub-tropical deserts of Sahara in Africa, and of
West Asia and Australia.
• These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the source.
• They are dry throughout the year.

Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT)

• The source regions of these air masses include the oceans in tropics and sub-tropics such as Mexican Gulf,
the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
• These air masses are warm, humid and unstable.
• The weather during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
• During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous clouds and
convectional rainfall.

Influence of Air Masses on World Weather

• The properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather are vertical temperature distri-
bution (indicating its stability and coldness or warmness) and the moisture content.
• The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents.
• They transport latent heat, thus contributing to latitudinal heat balance.
• Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms originate at the contact zone
between different air masses called as fronts.
• Characteristics of the air masses involved determine the weather associated with the disturbances.

3.2 Fronts

• Understanding front formation and types of fronts is important to understand the formation of mid-
latitude cyclones and the dominant weather patterns of mid-latitudes.
• Fronts are the typical features of mid-latitudes weather (temperate region – 30° - 65° N and S). They are
uncommon (unusual) in tropical and polar regions.
• Front is a three-dimensional boundary zone formed between two converging air masses with different
physical properties (temperature, humidity, density).
• The two air masses don’t merge readily due to the effect of the converging atmospheric circulation, dif-
ferent physical properties, relatively low diffusion coefficient and a low thermal conductivity.

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Front Formation

• The process of formation of a front is known as frontogenesis (war between two air masses), and dissi-
pation of a front is known as frontolysis (one of the air masses win against the other).
• Frontogenesis involves convergence of two distinct air masses.
• Frontolysis involves overriding of one of the air masses by another.
• In northern hemisphere frontogenesis (convergence of air masses) happens in anti-clockwise direction
and southern hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is due to Coriolis force.
• Mid-latitude cyclones (temperate cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones) occur due to frontogenesis.

General Characteristics

• The temperature contrast influences the thickness of frontal zone in an inversely proportional manner.
• That is, two air masses with higher temperature difference do not merge readily.
• Thus, the front is less thick when it is formed between two air masses with higher temperature difference.
• With a sudden change in temperature through a front, there is a change in pressure also.
• The frontal activity is invariably associated with cloudiness and precipitation because of ascent of warm
air which cools down adiabatically, condenses and causes rainfall.
• The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope of ascent and amount of water vapour present in
ascending air.
• Front experiences wind shift since the wind motion is a function of pressure gradient and Coriolis force.

Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained wind speeds
of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
1 knot = 1.852 kmph
1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 km

Classification of Fronts

• Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis and the associated weather, the fronts can be studied under the
following types.

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Symbols to indicate various fronts, frontogenesis and frontolysis.

Stationary Front

• When the surface position of a front does not change (when two air masses are unable to push against
each other; a draw), a stationary front is formed.
• The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to the front.
• Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary front.
• Once this boundary resumes its forward motion, it becomes a warm front or cold front.

Stationary Front

Weather along a stationary front

• Cumulonimbus clouds are formed.

• Overrunning (uplifted air) of warm air along such a front causes frontal precipitation.
• Frontal cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump heavy amounts of precipitation, resulting in
significant flooding along the front.

Cold Front

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• Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a warm air mass by advancing into it or that the warm
air mass retreats and cold air mass advances (cold air mass is the clear winner).
• In such a situation, the transition zone between the two is a steep sloped cold front.
• Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts.
• Frontolysis begins when the warm air mass is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.

Cold Front

Weather along a cold front

• The weather depends on a narrow band of cloudiness and precipitation (because the slope is steep).
• Severe storms can occur. During the summer months, thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
• In some regions, tornadoes occur in warm sector.
• Cold fronts produce sharper changes in weather (because upliftment of air is quite rapid).
• Temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.

Cloud formation along a cold front

• The approach of a cold front is marked by increased wind activity in warm sector and the appearance of
cirrus clouds, followed by lower, denser altocumulus and altostratus.
• At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy showers.
• A cold front passes off rapidly, but the weather along it is violent.

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Cloud formation along a cold front

Warm Front

• It is a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of warm air over cold air takes place (warm air
mass is too weak to beat the cold air mass).
• Frontolysis (front dissipation) begins when the warm air mass makes way for cold air mass on the ground,
i.e. when the warm air mass completely sits over the cold air mass.

Warm front; There is no cumulonimbus cloud formation along a warm front

Weather along a warm front

• As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the
temperature and wind direction changes are gradual.
• Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a large area, over several hours.
• The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature and pressure.

Clouds along a warm front

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• With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus, stratus and nimbus (no cumulonimbus clouds as
the gradient is gentle).
• Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo around sun and moon.

Occluded Front

• Occlusion: a process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up the warm front
so that the warm air between them is forced upwards.
• Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes underneath it.

• Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes, and the cold air mass completely undertakes the warm sec-
tor on ground.
• Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is formed which could be a warm front type or cold
front type occlusion.

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Weather along an occluded front

• Weather along an occluded front is complex — a mixture of cold front type and warm front type
weather. Such fronts are common in western Europe.
• The formation mid-latitude cyclones involve the formation of occluded front.

Clouds along an occluded front

• A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm front.

• Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite side of the occlusion.

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Stationary Front • Tie – No clear Winner

Cold Front • Cold Air mass is the clear winner.

Warm Front • The warm air mass picks up a fight but fails to beat the cold air mass.
• Cold Air mass is the winner.

Occluded Front • Cold Front + Warm Front

• Double win for cold air mass

Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.

3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones

The isobars are not closed in a temperate Cyclones

Polar Front Theory

• According to this theory, the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from
the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity.
• Such conditions occur over sub-tropical high, sub-polar low-pressure belts and along the tropopause.

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Explanation

• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front.
• When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards, and the cold air move towards
south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation (Coriolis Force; northern hemisphere).

Convergence of air masses

• The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the warm front
and cause precipitation.
• The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up. As a result, cumulus
clouds develop along the cold front.
• This leads to a well-developed extratropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold front.
• There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged between the warm front and the cold front.
• The cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front.
• The wedged warm air is completely uplifted (frontolysis), and the front is occluded (occluded front), and
the cyclone dissipates.
• Thus, temperate cyclone is intense frontogenesis involving mainly occlusion type fronts.

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Cold front moves faster

• Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for about 3 to 10 days moving in a generally west to east direc-
tion.
• Precise movement of this weather system is controlled by the orientation of the polar jet stream in the
upper troposphere.

Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones

• The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring.
• They are generally associated with rainstorms and cloudy weather.
• During summer, all the paths of temperate cyclones shift northwards, and there are only few temperate cy-
clones over sub-tropics and the warm temperate zone, although a high concentration of storms occurs over
Bering Strait, USA and Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zone.

Distribution of Temperate Cyclones

1. USA and Canada – extend over Sierra Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian Rockies and the Great Lakes re-
gion,
2. the belt extending from Iceland to Barents Sea and continuing over Russia and Siberia,
3. winter storms over Baltic Sea,
4. Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia and even up to India in winters (called western disturbances)
and the Antarctic frontal zone.

Distribution of Temperate Cyclones and Tropical Cyclones

Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones

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Size and Shape

• The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and shaped like an inverted ‘V’.
• They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
• They may spread over 2500 km over North America.
• They have a height of 8 to 11 km.

Shape of a Temperate Cyclone

Wind Velocity and Strength

• The wind strength is more in eastern and southern portions, moreover North America compared to Europe.
• The wind velocity increases with the approach but decreases after the cyclone has passed.

Orientation and Movement

• Polar jet stream plays a major role in the formation and hence influences the path of temperate cyclones.

Westerly Path of a Frontal Cyclone System

• Since these cyclones move with the westerlies, they are oriented east-west.

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• If the storm front is east-west, the centre moves swiftly eastwards.

• If the storm front is directed northwards, the centre moves towards the north, but after two or three days,
the pressure difference declines and the cyclone dissipate.
• In case the storm front is directed southwards, the centre moves quite deep southwards-even up to the
Mediterranean region (sometimes causing the Mediterranean cyclones or Western Disturbances ― they
are very important as they bring rains to North-West India – Punjab, Haryana).

Structure

• The north-western sector is the cold sector and the north-eastern sector is the warm sector (Because cold
air masses in north and warm air masses in south push against each other and rotate anti-clockwise in
northern hemisphere).

Associated Weather

• The approach of a temperate cyclone is marked by fall in temperature, fall in the mercury level, wind shifts
and a halo around the sun and the moon, and a thin veil of cirrus clouds.
• A light drizzle follows which turns into a heavy downpour. These conditions change with the arrival of the
warm front which halts the fall in mercury level and the rising temperature.
• Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails until the cold front of an anticyclonic character arrives which caus-
es a fall in temperature, brings cloudiness and rainfall with thunder. After this, once again clear weather is
established.
• The temperate cyclones experience more rainfall when there is slow movement and a marked difference in
rainfall and temperature between the front and rear of the cyclone. Anticyclones generally accompany
these cyclones.

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison

Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

Origin • Thermal Origin. • Dynamic Origin: Coriolis Force, Move-

ment of air masses.

Latitude • Confined to 10-30º N and S of equator. • Confined to 35-65º N and S of equator.

• More pronounced in Northern hemisphere
due to greater temperature contrast.

Frontal system • Absent. • The very cyclone formation is due to fron-

togenesis. (Occluded Front).

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Formation • They form only on seas with temperature • Can form both on land as well as seas.

more than 26-270 C.

• They dissipate on reaching the land.

Season • Seasonal: Late summers (Aug-Nov). • Irregular. But few in summers and more in
winters.

Size • Limited to small area. • They cover a larger area.

• Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in diameter. • Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in diameter.

• Varies with the strength of the cyclone. Varies from region to region.

Shape • Elliptical • Inverted ‘V’

Rainfall • Heavy but does not last beyond a few hours. • In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is slow and
• If the cyclone stays at a place, the rainfall continues for many days, sometimes even

may continue for a few days. weeks.

Wind Velocity and • Much greater. • Comparatively low.

destruction • 100 – 250 kmph • Typical range: 30-150 kmph.

• 200 – 1200 kmph in upper troposphere) • Less destruction due to winds but more
• Greater destruction due to winds, storm destruction due to flooding.

surges and torrential rains.

Isobars • Complete circles and the pressure gradient • Isobars are usually ‘V’ shaped and the
is steep pressure gradient is low.

Lifetime • Doesn’t last for more than a week • Lasts for 2-3 weeks.

Path • East – West. Turn North at 200 latitude and • West – East (Westerlies; Jet Streams).
west at 300 latitude. • Move away from equator.

• Move away from equator.

• The movement of Cyclones in Arabian Sea

and Bay of Bengal is a little different.

• Here, these storms are superimposed upon
the monsoon circulation of the summer

months, and they move in northerly direc-

tion along with the monsoon currents.

Temperature dis- • The temperature at the centre is almost • All the sectors of the cyclone have differ-
tribution equally distributed. ent temperatures

Calm region • The centre of a tropical cyclone is known as • In a temperate cyclone, there is not a sin-

the eye. The wind is calm at the centre with gle place where winds and rains are inac-
no rainfall. tive.

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Driving force • The tropical cyclone derives its energy from • The energy of a temperate cyclone de-

the latent heat of condensation, and the pends on the temperature, humidity and

difference in densities of the air masses does density differences of air masses.

not contribute to the energy of the cyclone.

Influence of Jet • The relationship between tropical cyclones • The temperate cyclones, in contrast, have a

streams and the upper level air-flow is not very clear. distinct relationship with upper level air

flow (jet streams, Rossby waves etc.)

Clouds • The tropical cyclones exhibit fewer varieties • The temperate cyclones show a variety of

of clouds – cumulonimbus, nimbostratus, cloud development at various elevations.

etc.

Surface anti- • The tropical cyclones are not associated with • The temperate cyclones are associated

cyclones surface anticyclones and they have a greater with anticyclones which precede and suc-

destructive capacity. ceed a cyclone.

• These cyclones are not very destructive.

Influence on India • Both coasts affected. But east coast is the • Bring rains to North-West India.

hot spot. • The associated instability is called ‘West-

ern Disturbances’.

Weather Prediction • Tough as the movement can be erratic due • Easy because of the general westerly path

to a lot of factors. of the cyclone, less variable jet stream path

and simple frontal system.

• Titbit: In certain instances, two cyclones move toward each other and revolve around one another, with the
smaller and less intense one moving more quickly. This phenomenon is called the Fujiwhara effect.

5. Polar Vortex

• Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex) is a polar cyclone.

• Arctic or polar cyclones occur in polar regions and can reach up to 2,000 km wide.
• Polar cyclones differ with others because they are not seasonal. They can occur at any time of the year.
• Polar cyclones can also form quickly (sometimes less than 24 hours), and their direction or movement
cannot be predicted.
• They can last from a day up to several weeks.
• Most frequently, polar cyclones develop above northern Russia and Siberia.
• A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold air, typically the coldest air in the Northern Hemisphere, which
sits over the polar region during the winter season.
• Polar Vortex is a

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✓ Cold;
✓ Circumpolar;
✓ Upper tropospheric low-pressure: sometimes extending till the lower levels of stratosphere (at poles,
the troposphere extends only up to 8-9 km);
✓ Large cyclonic parcel of air (about 1000 km across) (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere)
• Polar vortex is closely associated with jet streams (Rossby waves).
• It is formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in summer.
• It surrounds polar highs and lie within the polar front (boundary separating the temperate and polar air
masses).

5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave

Polar Vortex slipping into Mid-latitudes,

Breakdown of the polar vortex,
Sudden stratospheric warming,
Polar vortex event.
All the above terms mean the same ― Polar Vortex Cold Wave.

• The polar vortex will remain in its place when the westerlies along with the polar jet are strong (strong polar
vortex means that there is huge temperature contrast between the temperate and polar regions).
• When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes into the mid-latitude regions by buckling the general wind flow
pattern. This leads to significant cold outbreaks in the mid-latitude regions.
• The vortex is capable of delivering sub-zero temperatures to the United States and Canada where is occurs
the most.

How it slips

• The Polar jet traverses somewhere over 65º N and S latitudes. When the temperature contrast between po-
lar and temperate regions is maximum, the jet is very strong, and the meandering is negligible.
• But when the temperature contrast is low, the jet starts to meander (Rossby waves).
• Meandering jet creates alternating low and high-pressure cells.
• High-pressure cells are created below the ridges and the low-pressure cells below the troughs (this is be-
cause of the upper air circulations created by the jet).
• With severe meandering, the high-pressure cells push over to north and displace the polar cyclone from its
normal position i.e. the cyclone moves away from the pole and slips into the temperate regions.

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• With the strengthening of the jet, the high-pressure cells become weak and retreat to their normal latitudi-
nal positions.
• With the retreat of the high-pressure cells, the polar cyclone moves back to its normal position.

Polar Vortex slipping into temperate regions

5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole

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• Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two distinct but related phenomena.

Ozone depletion

• There is a steady decline of about 4% in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere.
• Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is observed around Earth's polar regions.
• Depletion of ozone is due to increase in halocarbons in the atmosphere.

Ozone Hole at the South Pole

Halocarbon: a compound in which the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is replaced by halogens like chlorine,
bromine, iodine etc.
Halogen: group of reactive non-metallic elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.

Halogen atoms like chlorine destroy ozone

• Photodissociation (under the influence of sunlight) of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like halocar-
bon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride
and trichloroethane, freons, halons) creates free chlorine atoms that destroy ozone.

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Photodissociation of ozone-depleting substances break O3 into O2

But how does a chlorine atom reach to such high levels of atmosphere?

Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)

• They are nacreous clouds that extend from 12-22 km above the surface.
• Nacreous clouds are rare clouds in frigid regions of the lower stratosphere.
• They are mostly visible within two hours after sunset or before dawn.
• They are bright even after sunset and before dawn because at those heights there is still sunlight.
• They are seen mostly during winter at high latitudes.
• PSCs or nacreous clouds contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid.
• They are formed mainly during the event of polar vortex in winter; more intense at south pole.
• The Cl-catalysed ozone depletion is enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds.
• PSCs convert reservoir compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO) thereby significantly increas-
ing the reactive halogen radicals. These free radicals accelerate depletion of ozone.
• Thus, polar vortex, in the form of PSCs, accelerate ozone depletion.

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Ozone Depletion is Enhanced by PSCs

Prelims question: The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of con-
cern. What could be the reason for ozone depletion at poles?

a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric Clouds and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons
c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons
d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming

Explanation:

• Ozonosphere lies at an altitude between 20 km and 55 km from the earth’s surface and spans the strato-
sphere and lower mesosphere. But the highest concentration occurs between 20 km and 30 km.
• To destroy ozone, ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like CFCs, HCFCs, etc. needs to be carried up to
the lower levels of stratosphere.
• And the only weather phenomenon that can reach to this level are Polar Vortex and towering tropical
cumulus clouds.
• But towering cumulus clouds do not occur at the poles.

Question: The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What could be the
reason for ozone depletion at poles?

• Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence: they don’t reach the stratosphere.

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• Presence of prominent polar front: essential to keep polar vortex in its place. Polar vortex gives rise to
stratospheric Clouds.
• Presence of stratospheric Clouds: they have the necessary ingredients (nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid) to
amplify ozone depletion.
• Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds: polar vortex slips into the temperate region.
• Inflow of methane: methane (CH4) is not in the list of ozone-depleting substances.
• It doesn’t contain a halogen like chlorine, bromine, fluorine, etc. But it reacts with halogens to create reser-
voir compounds.
• Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming: this doesn’t have any direct impact on ozone
depletion at the poles.

6. El Nino

• Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general atmospheric circulation.

6.1 Normal Conditions

• In a normal year, a surface low-pressure develops in the region of northern Australia and Indonesia and
a high-pressure system over the coast of Peru.
• As a result, the trade winds over the Pacific Ocean move strongly from east to west.
• The easterly flow of the trade winds carries warm surface waters westward, bringing convective storms
(thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal Australia.
• Along the coast of Peru, cold bottom cold nutrient-rich water wells up to the surface to replace the warm
water that is pulled to the west.

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Normal Conditions: Warm water accumulation in Western Pacific and cold water upwelling in Eastern Pacific

Walker circulation (Normal Years)

• The Walker circulation (Walker cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high-
pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean, and a low-pressure system over Indonesia.
• The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador. This brings nutrient-
rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks.

Normal Conditions: Thunderstorms in equatorial western Pacific and calm conditions in equatorial eastern Pacific

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Atmospheric circulation typically found at the equatorial Pacific. (Photo: W.S. Kessler, NOAA/PMEL)
Thermocline: a temperature gradient in a body of water, separating layers at different temperatures.

6.2 During El Nino year

• El Niño is the name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters along the coast
of Ecuador and Peru.
• In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large areas of the central Pacific and along the coast of South
America.
• The normal low-pressure system is replaced by a weak high in the western Pacific (the southern oscilla-
tion).
• This change in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be reduced ― Weak Walker Cell. Sometimes
Walker Cell might even get reversed.
• This reduction allows the equatorial counter current (west to east current along calm doldrums) to ac-
cumulate warm ocean water along the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador replacing the cool Peruvian current.

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El Nino conditions: Equatorial counter current flows along calm doldrums in west-east direction

El Nino conditions: Drought in Northern Australia and floods in Central America

• The accumulation of warm water causes the thermocline to drop in the eastern part of Pacific Ocean which
cuts off the upwelling of cold deep ocean water along the coast of Peru.

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• Climatically, the development of an El Niño brings drought to the western Pacific, rains to the equatorial
coast of South America, and convective storms and hurricanes to the central Pacific.
• El Niño normally occurs around Christmas and usually lasts for a few weeks to a few months.
• Sometimes an extremely warm event can develop that lasts for much longer periods.
• In the 1990s, strong El Niños developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995.

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long-range forecasting in major parts of the world.
• The formation of an El Niño (circulation of surface ocean current) is linked with Pacific Ocean circulation
pattern known as the southern oscillation (circulation of atmospheric pressure).
• Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and climatology, is a coherent inter-annual fluctuation of atmos-
pheric pressure over the tropical Indo-Pacific region.
• El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide most of the times hence their combination is called ENSO – El
Nino Southern Oscillation.
• In the years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world.
• The arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in
India and floods in China.

Only El Nino == Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific.
Only SO == Low-pressure over Eastern Pacific + High-pressure over Western Pacific
ENSO = (Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low-pressure over Eastern Pacific) + (Cold water in Western
Pacific + High-pressure over Western Pacific).

Effects of El Nino

• The warmer waters had a devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of Peru and Ecuador.
• Fish catches off the coast of South America were lower than in the normal year.
• Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
• Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico.

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Normal Conditions

• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing.
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Ocean Water == Plenty of rains.

El Nino

• Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
• Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water == Drought.

El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons

• El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely related.

• The location of low-pressure and hence the rising limb over Western Pacific is considered to be conducive
to good monsoon rainfall in India.
• Its shifting eastward from its normal position, such as in El Nino years, reduces monsoon rainfall in India.
• The most prominent droughts in India have been El Nino droughts, including the recent ones (2014-16).
• However, not all El Nino years led to a drought in India. For instance, 1997/98 was a strong El Nino year,
but there was no drought (this is because of Indian Ocean Dipole – IOD).
• On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in 2002 resulted in one of the worst droughts.
• El Nino directly impacts India's agrarian economy as it tends to lower the production of summer crops such
as rice, sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds.
• The ultimate impact is seen in the form of high inflation, and low gross domestic product growth as agricul-
ture contributes around 14 per cent to the Indian economy.

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Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons

• Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is used to measure the intensity of the Southern Oscillation.
• This is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French Polynesia (Central Pacific), representing the
Central Pacific Ocean and Port Darwin, in northern Australia representing the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
• The positive and negative values of the SOI, i.e. Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure are pointers towards
good or bad rainfall in India.

Positive SOI Negative SOI

Tahiti (eastern Pacific) pressure greater than that of Port Darwin (western Pacific) Reverse

Drought conditions in Eastern Pacific and good rainfall in Western Pacific Reverse

Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian Monsoons

Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India)

• In the recent decades, the ENSO-Monsoon relationship seemed to weaken in the Indian subcontinent. For
e.g. the 1997, strong ENSO failed to cause drought in India.
• It was discovered that just like ENSO was an event in the Pacific Ocean, a similar seesaw ocean-atmosphere
system in the Indian Ocean was also at play.
• It was discovered in 1999 and named the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two ar-
eas (or poles, hence a dipole) ― a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern
pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• IOD starts to develop in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean in April and is best devolved in October.
• With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of Bengal towards
Arabian Sea).
• This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) being much warmer and eastern
Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
• In the negative dipole year (negative IOD), reverse happens making Indonesia much warmer and rainier.

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Indian Ocean Dipole

• It was demonstrated that a positive IOD index often negated the effect of ENSO, resulting in increased
Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994 and 1997.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD was later discovered and named as Equatorial
Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO: oscillation of warm water and atmospheric pressure between
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).

Impact of IOD on Cyclogenesis in Northern Indian Ocean

• Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea.
• Negative IOD results in stronger than usual cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal. Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is
suppressed.

6.3 El Niño Modoki

• El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is slightly different from El Niño.
• Conventional El Niño is characterised by strong anomalous warming in the eastern equatorial Pacific.

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• Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central tropical Pacific
and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.
• Such zonal gradients result in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacific, with a wet
region in the central Pacific and dry region in the western and eastern Pacific.

El Niño Modoki: Droughts in Western and Eastern Pacific; copious rainfall in the Central Pacific

6.4 La Nina

• After an El Niño event weather conditions usually return to normal.

• However, in some years the trade winds can become extremely strong, and an abnormal accumulation of
cold water can occur in the central and eastern Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.

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La Nina: Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia

Effects of La Nina

• A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and scientists believe that it may have been responsible for the summer
drought over central North America.
• During this period, the Atlantic Ocean has seen very active hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.
• One of the hurricanes that developed, named Mitch, was the strongest October hurricane ever to develop
in about 100 years of record keeping.

Some of the other weather effects of La Niña include

• Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia,

• Cool and wet winter weather in south-eastern Africa, wet weather in eastern Australia,
• Cold winter in western Canada and north-western United States,
• Winter drought in the southern United States.

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7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate

• The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by V.
Koppen.
• Empirical: verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic. E.g. when dropped
stone falls to the ground – logic. Drop a stone to confirm that it falls to the ground – empirical.
• Koppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.

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• He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of veg-
etation and used these values for classifying the climates.

• Koppen recognized five major climatic groups; four of them are based on temperature and one on precipi-
tation.
• The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
• The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of precipi-
tation and temperature characteristics.
• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w and s.

f no dry season

m monsoon climate

w winter dry season

s summer dry season

• The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.

• The small letters h and k refer to tropical and mid-latitude regions respectively.
• The B - Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for deserts.

S Steppe

W Desert

Climatic Groups According to Koppen

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Characteristics
Climatic Group

A – Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18 °C or higher

B – Dry Climates Potential evapouration exceeds precipitation

C – Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3 °C but below 18 °C (-3 °C to 18 °C)

D – Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3 °C or below

E – Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10 °C

H – High Land Cold due to elevation

Climatic Types According to Koppen

Climatic Group Type Code Characteristics

A-Tropical Humid Climate Tropical wet Af No dry season

Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal. Short dry season

Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season

B-Dry Climate Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi-arid or dry

Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry

Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi-arid or dry

Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry

C-Warm temperate (Mid-latitude) Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
Climates Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer

Marine west coast Cf No dry season, warm and cool summer

D-Cold Snow-forest Climates Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter

Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe

E-Cold Climates Tundra ET No true summer

Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice

H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates

• Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
• The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid.
• Annual range of temperature is very low, and annual rainfall is high.

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• The tropical group is divided into three types, namely

1) Af – Tropical wet climate;
2) Am – Tropical monsoon climate;
3) Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate.

ITCZ in summer and winter

Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season)

• Also known as The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate, Equatorial Rainforest Climate.
• The regions are generally referred as Equatorial Rainforests, Equatorial Evergreen Forests, Tropical
Moist Broadleaf Forest, Lowland Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest.

Evergreen forest

Distribution

• Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator. (little or no Coriolis Force == no tropical cyclones)

• Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.

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Distribution of tropical wet climate

Equatorial Climate

• The climate is dominated by maritime tropical air masses (high humidity).

Temperature

• Temperature is uniform throughout the year.

• The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27°C with very little variation.
• There is no winter (typical to equatorial rainforest climate).
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderate the daily temperature.
• Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable climate.
• The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.

Precipitation

• Heavy thunderstorms occur almost every day in the afternoons.

• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm.
• In some regions, the annual average may be as high as 250-300 cm.
• There is no month without rain (distinct dry season is absent).
• The monthly average is above 6 cm most of the times.
• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October (shortly after the equinox).
• Least rainfall occurs in June and December (solstice: sun is farthest from the equator).
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes is typical to equatorial climates (not found in
any other type of climate).
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Climate Graphs

Climate Graphs for regions with tropical wet climate

Equatorial Vegetation

• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
• In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense that it is called selvas.

Selvas: A dense tropical rainforest usually having a cloud cover (dense canopy).

• The growing season here is all the year round ― seeding, flowering, and decaying do not take place in a
seasonal pattern.
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, e.g. ma-
hogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
• Many parts of the tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or shifting cultivation.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.

Canopy

• From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is crossed
by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.

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Canopy

• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement.

Epiphytes
Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its mois-
ture and nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.

• The tallest trees attain a height close to 50 m.

• The smaller trees beneath form the next layer.
• The ground is rooted with ferns and herbaceous plants which can tolerate shade.
• Because the trees cut out most of the sunlight, the undergrowth is not dense.

Multiple species

In spite of dense forests, countries in equatorial regions are net importers of timber. Comment.

• Though the tropics have great potential in timber resources, commercial extraction is difficult.
• Multiple species of trees occur in a particular area (trees do not occur in homogenous stands or pure
stands) making commercial exploitation a difficult task.

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• Many of the tropical hardwoods (very heavy) do not float readily on water, and this makes transportation
an expensive matter.
• It is therefore not surprising that many tropical countries are net timber importers.

Life and Economy

Agriculture

• The forests are sparsely populated.

• In the forests, most primitive people live as hunter-gatherers.
• The more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation.
• Food is abundantly available. People generally don’t stock food for the next day.

Commercial

• In the Amazon Basin, the Indian tribes collect wild rubber.

• In the Congo Basin, the Pygmies gather nuts.
• In the jungles of Malaysia, the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products.

The names of the tribes come under Social Geography – Prelims

Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn Cultivation.

• This type of cultivation is followed in many parts of the world where dense forests are common (In India,
North-East is known for this type of cultivation).
• Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them and cultivate the plot till the fertility is exhausted.
• Once the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned, and they move on to a new plot.
• In the clearings for shifting cultivation, crops like, maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.

Plantation Boom

• With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been established, especially in Java, Su-
matra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central America.
• The climate is very Favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly valued in the industrial
West. The most important is natural rubber.
• Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers. The home country, Brazil exports practically no natural
rubber.

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• Cocoa is another important crop which is cultivated in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The two
most important producers are Ghana and Nigeria. All the cocoa here goes into American and European
chocolate industry.
• From the same area another crop, oil palm, has done equally well and many countries like Indonesia have
now taken to its cultivation.

Palm plantations in Indonesia

• Other important crops include coconuts, sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices, etc.
• The plantations destroyed nearly half of equatorial forests.

Plantations Region(s)

Palm Malaysia, Indonesia

Sugarcane Brazil

Coffee Brazil

Rubber Malaysia, Indonesia

Cocoa Ghana, Nigeria

Factors Affecting the Development of Equatorial Regions

Equatorial climate and health

• Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high humidity creates serious physical and mental handicaps.
• High humidity feeds many tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.
• Communicable diseases are rampant as germs and bacteria are transmitted through moist air.
• Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.

Jungle hinders development

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• The construction of roads and railways is a risky business as workers are exposed to wild animals, poison-
ous snakes, insects and most importantly tropical diseases.
• Once completed, they have to be maintained at a high cost.

Rapid deterioration of tropical soil

Why does restoration of lost forests take decades in equatorial regions?

• The fertility of topsoil in rainforest regions is very poor.

• Torrential downpours leach out most of the topsoil nutrients.

Leaching: percolation and draining way of nutrients due to rainwater action.

• The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment.
• It takes decades to replenish the soil of lost nutrients.
• Thus, a seed doesn’t usually germinate, and even if it does, its development is hindered due to little availa-
bility of sunlight.
• Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the trees are cut. They choke the restora-
tion of forests.
• Indonesian island of Java is an exception because of its rich volcanic ashes.

Difficulties in livestock farming

• Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass.

• The grass is so tall and coarse that it is not nutritious.
• The few animals like buffaloes are kept mainly for domestic use. Their yield in milk or beef is well below
those of the cattle in the temperate grasslands.
• In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, a deadly disease.

Mineral resources

• Gold, copper, diamonds, and other precious metals and gemstones are important resources that are found
in rainforests around the world.
• Extracting these natural resources is a destructive activity that damages the rainforest ecosystem.
• Examples are gold mining in the Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon, rare earth mining in the Congo, and
gold and copper mining in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
• Some of the world’s most promising oil and gas deposits lie deep in tropical rainforests.

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• Oil and gas development often take a heavy toll on the environment and local people (this happened in
Ecuador ― resource curse).
• More than 70 per cent of the Peruvian Amazon is now under concession for oil and gas.

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon)

• Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a much larger scale.

• Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons associat-
ed with seasonal reversal of winds.
• Floods in wet season and droughts in dry season are common.

Tropical Monsoon Climate: Floods in wet season and droughts in dry season

• Usually, there are three seasons namely summer, winter and rainy season.

Distribution

• Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator.

• On-shore (winds flowing from sea to land) tropical monsoons occur in the summer and off-shore (winds
flowing from land to sea) dry monsoons in the winter.
• They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vi-
etnam and south China and northern Australia.

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Tropical Monsoon Climate Distribution

Climate

• The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea
(This is old theory. New theory explained in Indian Climate).

Temperature

• Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C.

• Temperatures range from 30-45 °C in summer. Mean summer temperature is about 30 °C.
• In winters, temperature range is 15-30 °C with mean temperature around 20-25 °C.

Precipitation

• Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some regions, it is around 350 cm.
• Places like Cherrapunji and Mawsynram receive an annual rainfall of about 1000 cm.

Cherrapunji and Mawsynram (wettest places on earth by annual rainfall ― a little over 1150 cm per year) lie
on the windward side of the Meghalaya hills, so the resulting orographic lift (orographic rainfall) enhances
precipitation. Also, they are located between mountains which enhances cloud concentration due to funnelling
effect.

Seasons

• Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.

The cool, dry season (October to February)

• Out blowing dry winds, the North-East Monsoon, bring little or no rain to the Indian sub-continent.

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• However, a small amount of rain falls in Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western Disturbances: Frontal pre-
cipitation brought by jet streams), and this is vital for the survival of winter cereals.
• North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of Bengal acquires moisture and bring rains to the south-
eastern tip of the peninsula at this time of the year (Nov-Dec).

The hot dry season (March to mid-June)

• The temperature rises sharply with the sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer.
• Day temperatures of 35 °C are usual in central India and the mean temperature in Sind, and south India
may be as high as 44 °C.
• Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes.
• There is practically little rain. Hailstorms occurs here and there in April, May.

The rainy season (mid-June to September)

• With the ‘burst’ of the South-West Monsoon in mid-June, torrential downpours sweep across the country.
Almost all the rain for the year falls within this rainy season.
• This pattern of concentrated heavy rainfall in summer is a characteristic feature of the tropical monsoon
climate.

The Retreating Monsoon

• The amount and frequency of rain decreases towards the end of the rainy season.
• It retreats gradually southwards after mid-September until it leaves the continent altogether.
• The skies are clear again and the cool, dry season returns in October, with the out blowing North-East
Monsoon.

Climate Graph

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Climate Graphs of regions with Tropical Monsoon Climate

Tropical Marine Climate

• Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore trade winds all the
year round. This type of climate is called Tropical Marine Climate.
• Such a climate has a more evenly distributed rainfall.
• Such a climate is experienced in Central America, West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts
of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
• The rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and
convectional due to intense heating during the day and in summer.
• Its tendency is towards a summer maximum without any distinct dry period.
• Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine Climate is more favourable for habitation,
but it is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.

Tropical Monsoon Forests

• Also known as drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry-deciduous forest; tropical deciduous forest.
• Broad-leaved hardwood trees are found here. They are well developed in southeast Asia.
• Trees are normally deciduous, because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their leaves to
withstand the drought (they shed their leaves to prevent loss of water through transpiration).
• The forests are more open and less luxuriant than the equatorial jungle, and there are far fewer species.
• Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal regions
with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is luxuriant.

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• With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the forests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna with scattered
trees and tall grass.
• In parts of the Indian sub-continent (rain shadow regions ― regions east of Western Ghats like north Kar-
nataka, Telangana, Vidarbha), rainfall is so deficient that semi-desert conditions are found in summer.
• Monsoonal vegetation is thus most varied, ranging from forests to thickets, and from savanna to scrubland.

Population and Economy in Monsoon Climate

• Monsoon climatic regions support high population density.

• Income levels are low as most of these regions are still developing.
• Subsistence farming is the main occupation.

Subsistence farming: crops grown with an intention to secure food for the season. The crops are not sold as the
production is very low.

• Intensive cultivation is common in regions with irrigational facilities.

• Shifting cultivation is followed in North-East India and South-East countries.
• Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton, jute, spices, etc.
• Cattle and sheep rearing are carried out for domestic and commercial purposes.
• Livestock industry is not as profitable as in temperate regions.

Lumbering

• Most of the forests yield valuable timber and are prized for their durable hardwood.
• Lumbering is undertaken in the more accessible areas. This is particularly important in continental South-
East Asia.
• Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of which Burma is the leading producer (three – quarters of the
world’s production), is the most sought after.
• It is valuable on account of its durability, strength, immunity to shrinkage, fungus attack and insects.
• Teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water. It is therefore necessary to ‘poison’ the tree
several years before actual felling so that it is dry and light enough to be floated down the Chindwin and
the Irrawaddy to reach the sawmills at Rangoon.
• Other kinds of timber include Neem, Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus.
• Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, which often grow to great heights.

Agricultural Development in the Monsoon Lands

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• Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for agriculture to support the very dense population.
• Farms are small, and the people are forever land hungry. Industrialisation makes things worse.
• Farming is the dominant occupation of the Indian sub-continent, China, South- East Asia, eastern Brazil and
the West Indies. The following types of agriculture are recognisable.

Crops

• Rice is the most important staple crop.

• Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or wells is extensively used in the major rice producing countries.
• Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of subsidiary importance. They
are cultivated in the drier or cooler areas where rice cannot be grown.

Lowland cash crops

• The most important crop in this category is cane sugar.

• As much as two-thirds of world’s sugar production comes from tropical countries.
• Some of the major producers include India, Java, Formosa, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
• Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta, in India and Bangladesh.
• Other crops include cotton, a major commercial crop of the Indian sub-continent.

Highland plantation crops

• The colonisation of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a new form of cultivated landscape in the cool-
er monsoonal highlands.
• Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests were cleared to make way for plantation agriculture in which
tea and coffee are the most important crops.

Coffee

• Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia.

• But Brazil accounts for almost half the world’s production of coffee.
• It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian plateau.
• The crop is also cultivated on the highland slopes in the Central American states, India and eastern Java.

Tea

• Tea originated in China and is still an important crop there.

• It requires moderate temperatures (about 15°C), heavy rainfall (over 150 cm) and well-drained highland
slopes.

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• It thrives well in the tropical monsoon zone (highlands).

• The best regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India and Bangladesh, the central highlands of Sri
Lanka and western Java, from all of which it is exported.
• In China, tea is grown mostly for local consumption.

Shifting Cultivation

• This most primitive form of farming is widely practised.

• Instead of rotating the crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen move to a new clearing
when their first field is exhausted.
• Farming is entirely for subsistence.
• As tropical soils are rapidly leached and easily exhausted, the first crop may be bountiful, but the sub-
sequent harvests deteriorate.

Region Name of Shifting Cultivation

Malaysia Lacking

Burma Taungya

Thailand Tamrai

Philippines Caingin

Java Humah

Sri Lanka Chena

Africa and Central America Milpa

North-east India Jhum

Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter)

• Savanna climate has alternate wet and dry seasons

• There is no distinct rainy season like in monsoon climate.
• Rains occur in warm summer months.
• Floods and droughts are common.
• Vegetation, wildlife and human life are quite different from monsoon climate regions.

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Typical savanna climate conditions

Distribution of Savanna Climate

• It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
• It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial rainforests and hot deserts.

Savanna climate distribution: transitional zones between the equatorial rainforests and hot deserts

African Savanna

• The belt includes West African Sudan and then curves southwards into East Africa and southern Africa
north of the Tropic of Capricorn.

South American Savanna

• There are two distinct regions namely the Llanos of the Orinoco basin (north of the equator) and the
Compos of the Brazilian Highlands (south of the equator).

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Australian savanna

• The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip (northern Australia) running from west to east
north of the Tropic of Capricorn.

Indian Savanna

• Certain parts across Northern Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra and Telangana exhibit characteristics of
both semi-arid and savanna climate.
• Irrigational projects that came up after independence have drastically modified the savanna characteristic
of the region.

Savanna Climate

Rainfall

• Savanna climate receives considerably less annual rainfall.

• Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm.
• Rainfall decreases with distance from equator.
• In the northern hemisphere, the rainy season begins in May and lasts till September.
• In the southern hemisphere, the rainy season is from October to March.

Temperature

• Mean annual temperature is greater than 18°C.

• The monthly temperature hovers between 20 °C and 32 °C for lowland stations.
• Highest temperatures do not coincide with the period of the highest sun (e.g. June in the northern
hemisphere) but occur just before the onset of the rainy season, i.e. April in Northern Hemisphere and Oc-
tober in Southern Hemisphere.
• Days are hot and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic
feature of the Sudan type of climate.

Winds

• The prevailing winds of the region are the trade winds, which bring rain to the coastal areas.
• They are strongest in the summer (favourable position of ITCZ) but are relatively dry by the time they reach
the continental interiors or the western coasts (trade winds are easterlies – flow from east to west. Hence,
rainfall decreases from east to west).

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• In West Africa, the North-East Trades blow off-shore (continent to sea) from the Sahara Desert and reach
the Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden winds.

What is the reason for alternating wet and dry seasons in Savanna type climate?

• On-shore winds is summer bring rains.

• Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate dry.

Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate

• The savanna landscape is typified by tall and coarse grass (6 to 12 feet high) and short trees.
• The elephant grass may attain a height of even 15 feet.
• The grasslands are also called as bush-veld.
• Grasses appear greenish and well-nourished in the rainy season.
• Grasses die down in the dry season increasing the risk of forest fires.
• The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent transpiration, e.g. acacias.
• Trees usually have broad trunks, with water-storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought.
• Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds.
• As the rainfall diminishes towards the deserts, the savanna merges into thorny scrub (semi-arid).

Vegetation in the savanna regions

Animal Life of the Savanna

• Rich animal diversity is the characteristic of savanna climate.

• Most of the National Geographic and Animal Planet documentaries on wild animals are shot in savanna re-
gions.
• The herbivorous include the zebra, antelope, deer, elephant etc. and carnivorous animals include the lion,
tiger, leopard, hyena, panther, jaguar, jackal etc.
• Species of reptiles and mammals including crocodiles, alligators, giant lizards live together with the larger
rhinoceros and hippopotamus in rivers and marshy lakes.
• Seasonal migration of animals in search of food is typical characteristic of savanna animal life.

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• The savanna is known as the big game country as animals are hunted down both legally and illegally.

Life and Economy in the Savanna

• Many tribes live in savanna region.

• Tribes like the Masai tribes of the East African plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of northern Nigeria
are settled cultivators.
• The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in the Kenyan Highlands were taken over by the white immigrant
settlers for plantation agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy farming.
• The cattle kept by the Masai are kept entirely for the supply of milk. They don’t slaughter cattle for meat.
Agriculture is barely practised.
• The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators who inhabit the savanna lands of the Nigeria. They are more
advanced in their civilisation.
• They do not practice shifting cultivation. Instead, they clear a piece of land and use it for several years.

Farming

• Droughts are long due to unreliable rainfall.

• Political instability hinders the development of agricultural infrastructure.
• The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods, is also responsible for the rapid deterioration of
soil fertility.
• During the rainy season, torrential downpours of heavy rain cause leaching of nitrates, phosphates and
potash.
• During the dry season, intense heating and evapouration dry up most of the water.
• Many savanna areas, therefore, have poor lateritic soils which are incapable of supporting good crops.

Crops in Savanna

• Settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the savannas have im-
mense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, oil palm, groundnuts
and even tropical fruits.
• Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity of labour force, has been very successful in developing its huge
empty land.
• Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi have already taken to large-scale production of cotton.
• In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually extended
into the savanna lands.

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• In the cooler highlands, temperate crops have been successfully raised.

Cattle rearing

• The savanna is said to be the natural cattle country, and many of the native people are pastoralists.
• But the quality of grass doesn’t support large scale ranching (typical to all tropical climates).
• Grasses here are no match to nutritious and soft grasses of temperate grasslands.
• The cattle varieties are also poor and yield little meat or milk.
• The export of either beef or milk from the tropical grasslands is so far not important.
• Few regions progressed with the adaptation of science and technology.
• Queensland has become Australia’s largest cattle producing state. Both meat and milk are exported.

7.3 B – Dry Climate

• Grasslands and deserts are classified under B – dry climate.

• Grasslands include subtropical savanna grasslands (BSh) and temperate steppe grasslands (BSk).
• Deserts are regions where evapouration exceeds precipitation.
• There are mainly two types:
1. hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type (BWh) and
2. temperate or mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi Desert (BWk).

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Major Deserts of the World

Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade winds; hence they are also
called trade wind deserts.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15°
and 30°N and S.

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• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert, Arabian De-
sert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at different
places, e.g. the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts (driest place on earth ―
rain shadow effect of the Andes, off-shore trade winds, westerlies blow to the south of Tropic of
Capricorn, cold ocean currents: upwelling of cold water due to Walker Circulation) with less than 2 cm
of rainfall annually.

Atacama Desert is the driest place on earth with less than 2 cm annual rainfall.

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude)

• The temperate deserts are rainless because of either continentality (e.g. Gobi Desert) or rain-shadow
effect (e.g. Patagonian Desert due to rain-shadow effect of Andes).
• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateau and are at a considerable distance from the
sea.
• These are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central Asia, drier por-
tions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United States and Patagonian Deserts of Argentina
etc.

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• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than
due to continentality.

Desert Climate

Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)

• Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of less than 25 cm.
• Atacama (driest place on earth) has practically no rain at all.
• Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type occasionally causing flash floods.

Temperature of Hot deserts

• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is high around 30°C.
• The highest temperature recorded is 57.77 °C in 1922 at Al Azizia, Libya.
• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious — a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air and a
rapid rate of evapouration.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have much
lower temperatures.
• The desert interiors, however, experience much higher summer temperatures and the winter months are
rather cold.
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense insolation by day in a region of
dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise with the sun.
• But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses heat very quickly by radiation and the mercury levels drop.
• High diurnal temperature range is a typical feature of hot deserts. Average diurnal range (difference be-
tween maximum and minimum temperature that occur within a day) varies from 14 to 25 °C.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.

Climatic Conditions in the Mid-latitude deserts

• These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea and are sheltered by the high mountains all around
them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter. Due
to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.
• The annual range of temperature is much greater than that of the hot deserts.
• Continentality accounts for these extremes in temperature.

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• Winters are often severe, freezing lakes and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all the time. When the ice
thaws in early summer, floods occur in many places.

Desert Vegetation

• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.
• Trees are rare except where there is abundant groundwater to support clusters of date palms.
• Along the western coastal deserts washed by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert, support a thin cover
of vegetation.
• Intense evapouration increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to accumulate on the
surface forming hard pans (Bajada, Palaya).
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots (in search of groundwater) and are well spaced out to gather moisture.
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either way, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce
the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant for years.

Desert vegetation

Life in the Deserts

• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants.

Tribe Desert Occupation

Bedouin Arabs Arabia nomadic herdsmen

Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen

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Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen

Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters and collectors.

Bindibu Australia primitive hunters and collectors.

The settled cultivators

• Modem concrete dams constructed across the Nile, e.g. Aswan and Sennar Dams improved agriculture.
• In the same way, desert cultivators rely on the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-Euphrates in Iraq, and the
Colorado in the Imperial Valley of California.
• In the deserts, wherever there are oases (depressions where underground water reaches the surface), some
form of settled life is bound to follow.
• Some of them are abnormally large like the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco which measures 5,000 square miles.
• A wall is usually constructed around the oasis to keep out the violent dust storms called simooms.
• The most important tree is the date palm. The fruit is consumed locally and also exported.
• Other crops cultivated include maize, barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits and vegetables.

The mining settlers

• Gold is mined in Great Australian Desert. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have become large towns.
• In the Kalahari Desert (thirstland), the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought many white men.
• In Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining camps have been established for the mining of caliche (ce-
mented gravels) from which sodium nitrate, a valuable fertiliser, is extracted.
• Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. Chuquicamata is the world's largest copper town.
• In the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in Nevada.
• Discovery of oil, in many parts of the Saharan and Arabian Deserts, has transformed the region.

Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude)

• Steppe climate is also known as Temperate Continental Climate.

Steppe grasslands in the Mongolian region

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Distribution

• Most of the temperate grasslands lie in the interiors of the continents in the westerly wind belt.
• Some of the grasslands are formed due to rain shadow effect of the mountains (good rains on the wind-
ward side; on the leeward side deserts or grasslands are formed).
• Grasslands are practically treeless due to continentality (deep within the interiors of the continents where
rain-bearing winds don’t reach) and/or rain shadow effect.
• In Eurasia, they are called the steppes and stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black Sea to the foot-
hills of the Altai Mountains.

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Distribution of temperate and tropical grasslands

Temperate Grassland Region

Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions

Prairies North America (between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great
Lakes)

Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect)

Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa

High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa

Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia

Canterbury New Zealand (rain shadow effect of Southern Alps)

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Climate

Temperature

• Climate is continental with extremes of temperature.

• The summers are hot, and the winters are cold.
• Summers are very warm and over 18-20 °C.
• In the southern hemisphere, the summers are never severe due to very narrow landmasses.

Precipitation

• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm.

• But precipitation varies according to location from 25 cm to 75 cm (below 25 cm it is desert climate).
• The heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early summer).
• Most of the winter months have about 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the occasional depressions of
the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
• The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere causes more rainfall.

Chinook (Snow eaters)

• Chinook is a hot local katabatic wind that blows down the eastern slopes of the Rockies.
• It is similar to the Fohn in Switzerland and comes in a south-westerly direction to the Prairies.
• It comes with the depressions in winter from the Pacific coast ascending the Rockies and then descending
to the Prairies (katabatic wind).
• It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature by 5 °C within a matter of 20 minutes.
• It melts the snow-covered pastures and benefits agriculture and animal ranching.

Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate

Grasses

• Greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that steppes are practically treeless, and the grasses are
much shorter.
• Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious. This is typical of the grass of the wheat-lands in North America, the
rich black earth or chernozem areas of Ukraine and the better-watered areas of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or the soil is poor, as in the continental interiors of Asia the short
steppe type of grass prevails.
• The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry (lean, tough) and sparse (thinly dispersed or scattered).

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• These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for some form of ranching as in the High
Plains of U.S.A.
• The growth of grasses is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or winter cold.

Trees

• Poleward, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where some coni-
fers gradually appear.
• In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of trees are planted around
the house to shield the occupants from the strong wind.

Animals

• Temperate grasslands do not have much animal diversity (Savanna: high animal diversity).
• Horses are common in Asian Steppes.

Economic Development of Steppes

Wheat and Maize Cultivation

• Cultivation was unknown just before a century, and the region was one of the most sparsely populated
parts of the world.
• In recent years, the grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanised wheat cultivation and are
now the ‘granaries of the world’ (Prairies).
• Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in the warmer and wetter areas.

Ranching

• The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa grass for cattle and
sheep rearing.
• These temperate grasslands are now the leading ranching regions of the globe (e.g. Pampas of Argenti-
na).

Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes

• This type of migratory animal grazing has almost disappeared from the major grasslands.
• The herders were wandering tribes, e.g. the Kirghiz, and the Kazakhs.
• Now under the Communist regime, they are being forced to settle down.
• The steppes have been made into huge collective farms and state farms for ranching or producing cereals.

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Extensive mechanised wheat cultivation

• The temperate grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat cultivation.

• The levelness of the Steppes and other temperate grasslands all over the world makes ploughing and har-
vesting a comparatively easy job.
• In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of Australia, agriculture
is completely mechanised.

Pastoral farming

• The natural conditions suit animal farming.

• With the development of refrigerated ships in the late nineteenth century, the temperate grasslands be-
came major pastoral regions, exporting large quantities of beef, mutton, wool, hides.
• Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products are also important in some parts of the North American
grasslands.

Grassland Major Economic Activity

Prairies • Wheat Granaries

• Extensive Ranching

Pustaz • Rich black soil

• Abundant wheat production
• Sugar from Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose root contains a
high concentration of sucrose)
• Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.

Pampas • Alfalfa: nutrient-rich grass

• Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
• Extensive wheat producing region
• Economy depends on wheat and beef export

Downs and Canterbury • Sheep and Cattle rearing,

• Merino sheep: wool production

Veldts • Maize farms

• Sheep and Cattle rearing

7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates

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C-Warm temperate (Mid-latitude) Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
Climates Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer

Marine west coast Cf No dry season, warm and cool summer

Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer)

• Mediterranean Climate is also known as Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate or Warm Temperate
West Coast Climate.

Distribution of Mediterranean Climate

Distribution

• They are confined to the western portion of continents, between 30° and 45° N and S of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts (westerly wind belt).
• Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of winter rain climate (winter maxima).
• The best-developed form of this climatic type is found in central Chile.

Other Mediterranean regions include:

• California (around San Francisco),

• The south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town),
• Southern Australia, and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Climate

• Climate is characterised by clear skies and high temperatures.

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• The summers are hot and dry, and the winters are cool and wet.
• Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35-90 cm.
• Temperature of warmest month is greater than or equal to 10° C.
• Temperature of coldest month is less than 18° C but greater than –3° C.
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling from water bodies.

A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades

• In summer, the belt of influence of the Westerlies is shifted a little poleward.

• Rain-bearing winds are therefore not likely to reach the Mediterranean lands.
• The prevailing trade winds (tropical easterlies) are off-shore, and there is practically no rain.
• Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.

Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies

• The Mediterranean lands receive most of the precipitation in winter when the westerlies shift equatorward.
• In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore westerlies bring much cyclonic rain from the Atlantic
(winter rain is a characteristic feature of Mediterranean Climate).
• The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with bright sunny periods between them.
This is another characteristic feature of the Mediterranean winter rain.
• Though the downpours are infrequent, they are often very torrential, and in mountainous districts, destruc-
tive floods occur.

Climate Graphs

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Climate graphs of cities with Mediterranean climate

Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate

• Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.

Sirocco

• This is a hot, dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert.
• After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption of the water vapour.
• Its scorching heat withers (dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture) vegetation and crops.
• This may be blood rain because the wind is carrying the red dust of the Sahara Desert.

Mistral

• Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley in violent gusts.
• The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funnelling effect in the valley between the Alps and the
Central Massif (Plateau in France).

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Local winds in the Mediterranean

• A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is called the Bora.
• Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evapouration and prolonged droughts.
• They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant).

Mediterranean Climate

Mediterranean evergreen forests

• These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks found only in the climatically most favoured regions.
• The trees are stunted, with massive trunks, small leathery leaves and a wide-spreading root system.
• The cork oaks are valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-bottle corks.
• In Australia, the eucalyptus forests replace the evergreen oak.
• The giant redwood is typical of the Californian trees.

Evergreen coniferous trees

• These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which have evergreen, needle-shaped
leaves and tall, straight trunks.

Mediterranean bushes and shrubs

• This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean vegetation.

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Grass

• Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the cool season
when growth is slow.
• Even if grasses do survive, they are so wiry (lean, tough) and bunchy that they are not suitable for animal
farming. Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the Mediterranean.

Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate

Orchard farming

• The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands.
• The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the world’s exports of citrus fruits.
• The olive tree is probably the most typical of all Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
• A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown.
• Besides citrus fruits, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, and almonds are grown.
• The fruit trees have long roots to draw water from considerable depths during the long summer drought.
• The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration.
• The long, sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.

Crop cultivation and sheep rearing

• Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is the next most popular cereal.
• The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and sometimes cattle.
• Transhumance is widely practised (seasonal movement up and down the hills in search of pastures).

Wine production

• Viticulture is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation.

• The Mediterranean regions account for three-quarters of the world’s production of wine.
• Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.

Economy

• The regions are a net exporter of citric fruits and net importer of dairy products.
• Clear skies in summer and good landscapes encourage tourism (a lot of Indian Songs are shot here).
• European Mediterranean has many ancient cities and are famous for their health and pleasure resorts.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa)

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• Cfa: C – warm temperate, f – no dry season, a – hot summer.

• It is also known as Humid subtropical climate.
• This type of climate is found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude (warm temperate latitudes or subtrop-
ics; hence it is also known as Humid subtropical climate); on the east coast in both hemispheres.

Different variants of Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate include the

a) Temperate monsoon Climate or China Type Climate,

b) Gulf Type Climate and
c) Natal Type Climate.

China Type

• Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate is observed in most parts of China.

• The climate is also observed in southern parts of Japan.

Summer

• Intense heating within interiors (Tibet, desert region) sets up a region of low-pressure in summer attracting
tropical Pacific air stream (South-East Monsoon).
• Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor ‘pour’ as heavily as in India.
• Typhoons form mostly in late summer, from July to September.

Winter

• In winter, there is intense pressure over Siberia, and the continental polar air stream flows outwards as
the North-West Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry.
• There is little rain but considerable snow on the windward slopes.

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Gulf Type

• Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico where continental heating in summer induces
an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
• Monsoonal characteristics are less intense compared to China type.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal.
• Hurricanes occur in September and October.

Natal Type

• Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin
(South America).
• Natal type is different from temperate monsoon or China type as it receives rainfall from on-shore Trade
Winds all the year round.
• The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime influence eliminate the monsoonal el-
ements.
• The South-East Trade Winds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall throughout the year

Climate type Feature

China type Temperate monsoonal

Gulf type Slight-monsoonal

Natal type Non-monsoonal

Climate

• Characterised by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter (winters are also moist in Natal Type).

Temperature

• The mean monthly temperature varies between 4 °C and 25 °C and is strongly modified by maritime influ-
ence.
• Occasionally, the penetration of cold air (Polar Vortex) from the continental interiors may bring down the
temperature to freezing point.
• Though frosts are rare, they occasionally occur in the colder interiors.

Precipitation

• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150 cm.

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• This is adequate for all agricultural purposes and hence supports a wide range of crops.
• Areas which experience this climate are very densely populated.
• There is a fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
• Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in pro-
longed showers in winter.
• In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime airflow from the subtropical anti-
cyclonic cells.
• Local storms, e.g. typhoons, and hurricanes, also occur.

Climate Graphs

Climate graphs of places with Humid subtropical climate

Natural Vegetation

• Supports a luxuriant vegetation.

• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
• On the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses which are important soft-
woods.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.

Timber

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• The forests of China and southern Japan also have considerable economic value and include oak, camphor,
etc.
• South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern Argentina have Parana pine, and the quebracho
(axe-breaker, an extremely hard wood used for tanning).
• Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
• In Natal, palm trees thrive.
• The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland deciduous forests.

Economic Development

Region Major Cropping Patterns

South-Eastern China • Rice, tea and mulberries (sericulture)

• Sericulture is declining

South-Eastern USA • Widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in the Corn and Cotton
Belts of U.S.A
• Fruit and tobacco are also grown

Natal, South Africa • Sugarcane

South America • Coffee and maize and dairying

Farming in monsoon China

• A third of the world’s rice is grown in China, though the huge population leaves very little for export.
• Monsoon China has all the ideal conditions for padi cultivation; a warm climate, moderately wet throughout
the year, and extensive lowlands with fertile moisture-retentive alluvial soil, which if necessary, can be easily
irrigated.
• As the flat lands are insufficient for rice cultivation, farmers move up the hill-slopes and grow padi on ter-
raced uplands.

Agriculture in the Gulf states

• Lack of population pressure and the urge to export gave rise to corn, cotton and tobacco.

Corn

• The humid air, the sunny summer and the heavy showers suit the crop well.
• It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with the greatest concentra-
tion in the Corn Belt of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.

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• The region accounts for more than half the world’s production of corn, but only 3 per cent of the world’s
export.
• This is because most of the corn is used for fattening animals, mostly cattle and pigs (thriving beef and
pork industry).
• The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to be processed into
‘corned beef’ (from here the beef is exported through Great Lakes and St Lawrence waterway).
• Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s most outstanding feature is its prolific yield.
• It gives almost twice as much food (mainly starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals.
• This explains why it is so widely cultivated in both the warm temperate and the tropical latitudes.

Cotton

• Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, none is comparable with cotton.
• The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton growing.
• Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost free and a moderately high temperature permits the crop
to grow slowly and mature within six months.
• In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages the lint. This area is, therefore, less suitable
for cotton and is devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar and market gardening, as in Florida.
• The commercial cultivation of cotton is now concentrated only in the most favourable areas which are the
Mississippi flood plains and Atlantic coastlands.
• The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies rapidly. The pest is re-
sponsible for the westward migration of the Cotton Belt.

Tobacco

• It is a native crop of America.

• Virginia tobacco is famous.
• The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states, enable tobacco to be suc-
cessfully cultivated in many of the eastern states of U.S.A.
• No less than half the tobacco that enters international trade comes from these states.

Crops in Southern Hemisphere

• In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop, followed by cotton and tobacco in the interi-
or.
• Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as food and animal fodder for cattle rearing.

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• In South America where rainfall is less than 120 cm, there is much grassland on which many cattle and
sheep are kept for meat, wool and hides.
• The extensive natural pastures provide valuable forage for both cattle and sheep.
• Further north in southern Brazil, the rainfall increases to more than 120 cm, and forest gradually replaces
grass.
• Here the important occupations are the cultivation of yerba mate (Paraguay tea) and the lumbering of ar-
aucaria or Parana pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and maize and cane sugar are grown.
• In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus trees rise one above the other right up the Eastern Highlands.
• But with the influx of European immigrants, much of the forest has been cleared for settlement and dairy-
ing.
• The eastern margin of New South Wales is now the chief source of Australia’s milk, butter and cheese, be-
sides cotton, cane sugar and maize which are increasingly grown in the north.

British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf)

• Cf: C – Warm temperate, f – no dry season

• It is also known as North-West European Maritime Climate.
• The cool temperate western margins are under the influence of the Westerlies all-round the year.
• They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity (temperate cyclones).
• This type of climate is typical to Britain, hence the name ‘British Type’.
• Also called as North-West European Maritime Climate due to greater oceanic influence.

Distribution of British Type Climate

Distribution of British Type Climate

Europe

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• Most pronounced in and around Britain.

• In Europe, the climate extends far inland into the lowlands of North-West Europe (northern and western
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway and also north-western Iberia).

North America

• High Rockies prevent the on-shore westerlies from penetrating far inland.
• Hence, it is confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia.

Southern Hemisphere

• The climate is experienced in southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and most parts of New Zea-
land (regions east of Southern Alps).

Climate .

• The climate is very favourable for maximum human output.

Temperature

• The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5 °C and 15 °C.

• Summers are moderately warm.
• Winters are abnormally mild because of the warming effect brought by warm North Atlantic Drift.
• Sometimes, unusual cold spells are caused by the invasion of cold polar continental air from the interiors.
• Ports are never frozen, but frosts do occur on cold nights.

Precipitation

• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with winter maxima (due to frontal cyclones).
• Western margins have the heaviest rainfall due to westerlies.
• In New Zealand, the western margins are subjected to heavy orographic rainfall whereas the eastern Can-
terbury plains receive comparatively less rainfall due to rain-shadow effect.

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Canterbury Plains are to the east of Southern Alps

The seasons

• As in other temperate regions, there are four distinct seasons (something that is conspicuously absent in
the tropics).

Rainforest: Only Rainy season; Tropical Monsoon: Summer, Winter and Rainy: Tropical Savanna: Summer (rains)
and Winter.

• Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy mornings, and many rainy days from the passing depressions.
• Spring is the driest and the most refreshing season when people emerge from the depressing winter.
• This is followed by the long, sunny summer.
• Next is the autumn with the roar of gusty winds; and the cycle repeats itself.

Climate Graph British Type Climate

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Climate graph of London

Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate

• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forest (trees shed their leaves in the cold season).
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the fall season.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
• In the wetter areas grow willows (lightweight cricket bats are made from willows. In India willows are found
in Kashmir).
• Higher up the mountains, deciduous trees are generally replaced by the conifers which can survive a higher
altitude, a lower temperature and poorer soils.

Economy in British Type Climate

Lumbering is quite profitable

• Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur in pure stands and have greater lumbering value.
• The open forests with sparse undergrowth mean that logging, transportation are easy and economical.
• The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
• In Tasmania, the temperate eucalypts are also extensively felled for the lumbering industry.
• Higher up the mountains, conifers (softwood) are felled and transported to paper and pulp industry.
• They are extensively used in cardboard making.

Industrialisation

• The regions are highly industrialized with high standard of living.

• Britain, France and Germany have significant mineral resources and are heavily industrialised.
• The countries are concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals, textiles rather than agriculture, fish-
ing or lumbering, though these activities are well represented in some of the countries.
• Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire, Manchester and Liverpool regions in Britain are significant for wide-
ranging manufacturing industries.
• Automobile industry is the most significant (BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Mercedes-Benz and many other
world leading car manufacturers have their headquarters in Germany).
• Industries based on dairy products thrive in Denmark, Netherlands and New Zealand.
• Tasmania is important for merino wool production. Wool produced here is exported to textile factories in
England, Japan, China etc.

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• Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British Columbia.

Agriculture

• A large range of cereals, fruits and root crops are raised, mainly for home consumption.
• North-West Europe, which includes some of the most crowded parts of the globe, has little surplus for ex-
port. It is, in fact, a net importer of food crops, especially wheat.

Market gardening

• All the north-western European countries are highly industrialised and have high population densities.
• There will normally be great demand for fresh vegetables, eggs, meat, milk and fruits.
• As the crops are perishable, a good network of transport is indispensable.
• The produce is shipped by high-speed trucks (truck farming, which is commonly used in the United States)
• In Australia, high-speed boats ply across the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania (garden state) to rush vegeta-
bles and fruits to most of the large cities in mainland Australia.

Mixed farming

• Arable farms are devoured by factories and wheat is now a net import item in Europe.
• Throughout north-western Europe, farmers practice both arable farming (cultivation of crops on ploughed
land) and pastoral farming (keeping animals on grass meadows).
• Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown, almost entirely for home consumption.
• The next most important cereal raised in the mixed farm is barley.
• The better quality barley is sold to the breweries for beer-making or whisky distilling.
• The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle.
• The countries bordering the North Sea (Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands) are some of the most advanced
dairying countries where cattle are kept on a scientific and intensive basis.

Dairying

• The temperate western margin type of climate is almost ideal for intensive dairying.
• Cheese is a specialized product of the Netherlands.
• From Denmark and New Zealand comes high-quality butter.
• Milk is converted to cream (less perishable than fresh milk) and is exported to all regions across the globe.
• Fresh milk is converted into various forms of condensed or evapourated milk, and exported around the
world for baby-feeding, confectionery, ice-cream and chocolate making.

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Beef cattle

• Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle.

• In Argentina or Australia, meat production is the primary concern.
• The high rate of beef consumption in Europe necessitates large imports of frozen and chilled beef.
• The pigs and poultry act as scavengers that feed on the left-overs from root-crops and dairy processes.
• In this way, Denmark is able to export large quantities of bacon (cured meat from the back or sides of a pig)
from pigs that are fed on the skimmed milk, a by-product of butter-making.

Sheep rearing

• Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton.

• Britain is the home of some of the best-known sheep breeds.
• With the greater pressure exerted on land by increased urbanisation, industrialisation and agriculture,
sheep rearing is being pushed further and further into the less-favoured areas.
• Britain was once an exporter of wool (but now it imports from Australia).
• Today it exports only British pedigree animals to the newer sheep lands of the world (Australia).
• In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest con-
centration in the Canterbury Plain (the rain shadow region).
• Favourable conditions include extensive meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-drained level ground, sci-
entific animal breeding, refrigeration (enables the export of chilled Canterbury lamb and Corriedale mutton
to every corner of the globe).

Other agricultural activities

Potatoes

• Potatoes feature prominently in the domestic economy of the cool temperate regions.
• It is the staple food in supplementing wheat or bread for millions of people.
• Potato yields far more starch than any cereals and can be cultivated over a range of climatic and soil types.

Beet Sugar

• Found almost exclusively in north-western Europe (including European Russia) and parts of U.S.A.
• The beet is crushed for sugar, and the green tops are used as animal fodder. Producing sugar from beet
sugar started during the Napoleonic Wars when military blockades caused a scarcity of sugar.

7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates

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Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer)

• It is also known as Siberian Climate OR Cool Temperate Continental Climate OR Continental Sub-Polar Cli-
mate (just below Arctic circle ― 50° to 70° N).
• Taiga Climate is found only in the northern hemisphere due to great east-west extent.
• It is absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of landmasses and strong oceanic in-
fluence in the high latitudes.
• On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra; equatorward it fades into steppe climate.

Distribution

• It stretches along a continuous belt across central Canada, some parts of Scandinavian Europe and most
of central and southern Russian.

Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate

Taiga Climate

Taiga Vegetation

Temperature

• Summers are brief and warm (20-25 °C) whereas winters are long and cold (30-40 °C below freezing).
• Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68° N) where -67 °C was once
recorded.
• Annual temperature range of is the greatest due to continentality (almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).

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• In North America, the extremes are less severe, because of the continent’s lesser east-west stretch.
• All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen. In normal years, the Volga is ice-covered for about 150 days.
• Occasionally cold, polar local winds such as the blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow violently.
• Permafrost (subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing throughout the year) are generally absent
as snow is a poor conductor of heat and protects the ground from the severe cold above.

Precipitation

• Maritime influence in the interiors is absent.

• Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
• Typical annual precipitation ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm.
• It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a summer maximum (convectional rains).
• In winter the precipitation is in the form of snow.

Climate Graph

Climate graphs of places with Taiga Climate

Natural Vegetation

• The predominant vegetation is evergreen coniferous forest as they require little moisture.
• Pine, fir (e.g. douglas fir and balsam fir), spruce and larch are the four major species of conifers.
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (Russian word for coniferous forest) in Siberia.

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• In Europe, the countries that have a similar type of climate and forests are Sweden and Finland.
• There are small amounts of natural coniferous forest in Germany, Poland, Switzerland, and other parts.
• In North America, the belt stretches from Alaska across Canada into Labrador.
• In the southern hemisphere, coniferous forests are found only on the mountainous uplands of southern
Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east Australia.

Characteristics of Coniferous forests

• Coniferous forests are of moderate density and are more uniform.

• The trees in coniferous forests grow straight and tall.
• Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is no annual replacement of new leaves as in deciduous trees.
• The same leaf remains on the tree for as long as five years.
• Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is thick to protect the trunk from excessive cold.
• Conifers are conical in shape with sloping branches that prevent snow accumulation.
• Their shape also offers little grip to the violent winds.
• Transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm summer. So, leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-
shaped to check excessive transpiration.
• The soils of the coniferous forests are poor. They are excessively leached and very acidic.
• Humus content is also low as the evergreen leaves barely fall and the rate of decomposition is slow.
• Under-growth is negligible because of the poor soil conditions.
• Absence of direct sunlight and the short duration of summer are other contributory factors.
• Coniferous forests are also found in regions with high elevation (Example: the forests just below the snow-
line in Himalayas).
• But on very steep slopes where soils are immature or non-existent, even the conifer cannot survive (Exam-
ple: Southern slopes of Greater Himalayas).

Economic Development

• Lot of coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere are still untouched due to remoteness.
• Only a small fraction of coniferous forests in Canada, Russia etc. are exploited.
• Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climates.

Trapping

• Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia.
• Wherever the cold is severe, the quality and thickness of the fur increases.

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• In Canada trappers and hunters, armed with automatic rifles, reside in log cabins in the midst of the conif-
erous forests to track down these animals.
• Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are the most important fur-bearing animals.
• To ensure a more regular supply of furs, many fur farms have been established in Canada and Siberia.

Lumbering

• This is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate.

• The vast reserves of softwood coniferous forests provide the basis for the lumbering industry.
• The world’s greatest softwood producers are Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the Fennoscandian countries
(Finland, Norway and Sweden).
• Contract labourers called lumberjacks used to temporarily move to the forest regions to fell the trees. Now
felling is done by machines.
• Rivers for transportation: The softwood logs easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are used to transport logs
to the sawmills located down the stream.
• Sawmilling: Logs are processed in sawmills into timber, plywood, and other constructional woods.
• Paper and pulp industry: Timber is pulped by both chemical and mechanical means to make wood pulp.
Wood pulp is the raw material for paper-making and newsprint. U.S.A. is the leader.
• But in the field of newsprint, Canada accounts for almost half of the world’s total annual production.
• As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as its industrial uses are far more significant.
• As an industrial raw material: In Sweden, matches form a major export item.
• From the by-products of the timber, many chemically processed articles are derived such as rayon turpen-
tine, varnishes, paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols, disinfectants and cosmetics.

Factors that favour lumbering in Taiga climate

Softwood trees

• The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources of softwood.

Demand

• Softwood is used in construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and chemical industry.

Limited species

• The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir in the northern forests and larch in the warmer
south are the most important.

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Pure stands

• Unlike rainforests, they occur in homogeneous groups (pure stands).

• This saves time, costs and enhances the commercial value of the felled timber.
• Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter when the sap ceases to flow (sap stays in the ground, and
the wood is lighter).

Cheap means of transportation

• The snow-covered ground makes logging and haulage (commercial transport) a relatively easy job.
• The logs are dragged to the rivers and float to the saw-mills downstream when the rivers thaw in spring.
• It is quite easy in Canada, Norway and Sweden as the rivers are not frozen for a greater part of the year.
• But in Russian taiga, most of Siberian rivers drain poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is frozen for three-
quarters of the year, and there are few saw-mills there.
• However, with the use of the Northern Sea Route, which links Murmansk and Vladivostok via the Arctic
Ocean, development is increasing.

Cheap electricity

• Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills is harnessed in the mountainous uplands of North America
and Europe and has greatly assisted the lumbering industry.

Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc)

• Dfb: f – no dry season, b – warm summer.

• It is an intermediate type of climate between the British Type Climate (moderate) and the Taiga Type
Climate (extreme).
• It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.

Distribution of Laurentian Climate

• Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions and that too only in the northern hemisphere.
• North-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., and Newfoundland. This may
be referred to as the North American region.
• Eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Ja-
pan.

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Absent in Southern Hemisphere

• In the southern hemisphere only a small section of continents extends south of 40° S latitude.
• Some of these small sections come under the rain-shadow region of Andes (Patagonia).
• So, these regions are subjected to aridity rather than continentality.
• In other regions, the oceanic influence is so profound that neither the continental nor the eastern margin
type of climate exists.

Climate

Temperature

• Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.

• Winter temperatures is below freezing-point and snow fall is quite natural.
• Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25 °C).

Precipitation

• Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima (easterly winds from the oceans bring rains).
• Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm (two-thirds of rainfall occurs in the summer).
• Dry westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate winters.

The North American region

• In summer, prolonged heat waves cause discomfort.

• In winter, the temperature drops below freezing and snowfall occurs.
• Precipitation occurs all-round the year due to the influence of warm Gulf Stream (increases the moisture
of easterly winds in summer) and the Great Lakes (westerlies, temperate cyclones in winter).
• The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture of easterly winds.

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• Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current near Newfoundland produces dense
mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation.
• It is said that Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than any other part of the world.

Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Newfoundland

The Asiatic region

• Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is far less uniform when compared to North American Region.
• Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm and exceptionally wet.
• The rainfall regime resembles the tropical monsoon type in India.
• Intense heating in interior of China in summer creates a region of low-pressure, and moisture-laden winds
from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
• Thus, the Laurentian type of climate in China is often described as the Cool Temperate Monsoon Climate.
• It has a very long, cold winter, and a large annual range of temperature.
• Much of the winter precipitation in northern China, Korea and Hokkaido, Japan, is in the form of snow.

Japan

• The climate of Japan is modified by the meeting of warm and cold ocean currents.
• It receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East Monsoon in summer and the North-West Monsoon
in winter (western coasts of Japan)
• The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of Japan less extreme.
• The meeting zone between warm Kuroshio from south and cold Oyashio from the north produce fog and
mist, making north Japan a second Newfoundland.
• Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occupation in many of the indented coastlands.

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Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Japan

Climate Graph

Climate graph of places with Laurentian climate

Natural Vegetation

• The predominant vegetation is cool temperate forest.

• The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of trees.
• Forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50° N latitude.

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• In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea), the coniferous forests are a continuation of the great co-
niferous belt of the taiga.

Lumbering

• From Laurentian Climate regions, both temperate hardwood and temperate softwood are obtained.
• Much of the coniferous forests of fir, spruce and larch are exploited to a great extent.
• Conifers are present in pure stands with only a handful of species.
• Eastern Canada is the heart of the Canadian timber and wood pulp industry (St. Lawrence River helps in
export).
• South of latitude 50° N., the coniferous forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and birch
are most common.
• They have been extensively felled for the extraction of temperate hardwood.
• In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the forests have made way for the agriculture.

Economic Development

• Lumbering, timber, paper and pulp industries are the most important economic undertakings.
• Agriculture is less important because of long and severe winters.
• In the North American region, farmers are engaged in dairy farming.
• The Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most renowned region for apples.
• Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity.

Fishing off Newfoundland

• Regions around the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are the world’s largest fishing grounds.
• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador currents make the region the most productive fishing
ground on earth.
• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch for over 200 miles south-east of Newfoundland, and off the
coasts of the Maritime Provinces and New England. Hence microscopic plankton are abundant.

Fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton. Plankton is abundantly available in shallow wa-
ters (continental shelves) where they have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients. Also, cold and
warm water mixing creates upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water to the surface.

• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here and support a thriving fishing industry.
• In Newfoundland, fishing industry employs almost the entire population.

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• Further inland, in lakes and rivers (St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes), freshwater fish like salmon are caught.
• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly mechanised trawlers which can store fish in refrigerated
chambers for months.
• St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is the headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing industries.
• All processing activities like cutting, cleaning, packing for disposal are done at the ports itself.
• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like Norway, France, Britain, Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Japan,
also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
• Over-fishing is a growing problem.

Fishing off Japan

• North-west Pacific surrounding the islands of Japan is another very important fishing grounds of the world.
• Majority of the people in the region depend on fishing for survival.
• Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports with complete refrigeration facilities.
• Japan accounts for a sixth of the world’s total annual fish caught.
• The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlantic waters.
• Large whaling fleets with processing plants venture into distant regions as far as Arctic and Antarctic (Japan
is criticized for its whaling operations).
• The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms.
• Japan is one of the few countries that has taken to seaweed cultivation (India is taking baby steps).
• Coastal farms that are submerged in water grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical ingredient and food.
• Another aspect of Japanese fishing is pearl culture. Pearls are harvested from pearl oysters.
• As natural pearls are difficult to obtain, the Japanese have begun to harvest cultured pearls.

Why is fishing the dominant occupation of Japan?

• The mountainous nature of Japan and parts of mainland eastern Asia support little agricultural activity (80
per cent land in Japan is classified as ‘non-agricultural’. Around 50% of the total land is covered by forests).
• Japan is not well endowed with natural resources. Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect of the economy.
• The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in Japan for livestock farming of any kind) popularised fish as the
principal item of diet and the chief protein food of the Japanese and the Chinese as well.
• There exists a great demand for fish and fish products in the nearby countries where fishing industry is un-
der-developed.
• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing enterprises and her advanced fishing techniques give her an
edge over competitors.

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• Advanced financial services, encouraging government policy, advanced technology at hand, skilled work-
force with decades of experience in fishing and the only available natural resource to exploit, make Japan a
leader in fishing industry.

Geographical advantage

• The continental shelves around the islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting of the warm
Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents and provide excellent breeding grounds for all kinds of fish.
• The indented coastline of Japan provides sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe landing places,
ideal for the fishing industry.

7.6 E – Cold Climates

Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate

Distribution of Tundra Climate

Distribution

• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
• The ice-caps are confined to highlands and high latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
• In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest single stretch of ice-cap (10,000 feet thick).
• The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the Arctic
seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.

Climate

Temperature

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• The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.

• In mid-winter temperatures are as low as 40 – 50 °C below freezing. Summers are relatively warmer.
• Normally not more than four months have temperatures above freezing-point.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of continuous darkness (earth’s tilted axis and revo-
lution around the sun).
• The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants.
• Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour is not infrequent.

Precipitation

• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.

• Convectional rainfall is generally absent.

Natural Vegetation

• There are no trees in the tundra.

• Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found here and there.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little favourable.
• Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and reindeer moss which provide the only pasturage for reindeers.
• In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom.
• In the summer, birds migrate north to prey on the numerous insects which emerge when the snow thaws.
• Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hare and lemmings also live in tundra regions.
• Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.

Human Activities

• Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast.

• People live a semi-nomadic life.
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the Eskimos.
• During winter they live in compact igloos.
• Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses and polar bears.
• Nowadays rifles instead of traditional harpoons are used to track down animals.

Recent Development of the Arctic Region

• New settlements have sprung up because of the discovery of minerals.

• Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at the Rankin Inlet, Canada.

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• With the declining reserves of iron ore around the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits in Labrador are gaining
importance. New railway lines have been constructed to bring the ores to the St. Lawrence River.
• Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Gallivare helped Sweden enjoy a prosperous export trade in iron
and steel and other metallurgical products.
• New ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia has made it possible to ship timber and fur from Siberia. Mod-
ern ice-breakers makes the frozen seas navigable.

7.7 Questions

Previous prelims questions

Q1.
Assertion (A): Areas near the equator receive rainfall throughout the year.
Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidity cause convectional rain in most afternoons near the
equator.
In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct?

a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Q2.
Assertion (A): Areas lying within five to eight degrees latitude on either side of the equator receive rain-
fall throughout the year.
Reason (R): High temperatures and high humidity cause convectional rain to fall mostly in the after-
noons near the equator. [2003]

a) Both A and R are individually true, and R is the correct explanation of A

b) Both A and R are individually true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Q3.
A geographic area with an altitude of 400 metres has following characteristics. [2010]

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If this geographic area were to have a natural forest, which one of the following would it most likely be?

a) Moist temperate coniferous forest

b) Montane subtropical forest
c) Temperate forest
d) Tropical rain forest

Q4.
Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farm-
land that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers.
Reason (R): The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high when compared to that of
temperate forests. [2003]

a) Both A and R are individually true, and R is the correct explanation of A.

b) Both A and R are individually true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true, but R is false
d) A is false, but R is true

Q5.
Consider the following statements: [2010]

1) Biodiversity hotspots are located only in tropical regions.

2) India has four biodiversity hotspots, i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and Anda-
man and Nicobar Islands.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only

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c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither I nor 2

Biodiversity Hotspots Across the World

Q6.
The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of

a) Equatorial climate
b) Mediterranean climate
c) Monsoon climate
d) All of the above climates

Q7.
Which one of the following is the characteristic climate of the Tropical Savannah Region? [2012]

a) Rainfall throughout the year

b) Rainfall in winter only
c) An extremely short dry season
d) A definite dry and wet season

Q8.
A geographic region has the following distinct characteristics: [2010]

1. Warm and dry climate

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2. Mild and wet winter

3. Evergreen Oak trees

The above features are distinct characteristics of which one of the following regions?

a) Mediterranean
b) Eastern China
c) Central Asia
d) Atlantic coast of North America

Q9.
Which one among the following covers the highest percentage of forest area in the world? [2003]

a) Temperate coniferous forests

b) Temperate deciduous forests
c) Tropical monsoon forests
d) Tropical rain forests

Answers:
Q1. a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Q2. a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Q3. d) Tropical rain forest
Q4. d) A is false but R is true

• The tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farmland: this statement is wrong. The tropical soils
are heavily leached. Some fertility is added by burning down the felled trees. This little fertility is lost after
2-3 crops.
• Can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers: this is also wrong. In-
tensive agriculture for several years is not possible without adding fertilizers.

Q5. d) Neither

• Biodiversity hotspots are located even outside tropics. E.g. Eastern Himalayas, Parts of Mediterranean, etc.
• India has three biodiversity hotspots i.e., Eastern Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands.
• The is no biodiversity hotspot called Western Himalaya.

Q6. C) Monsoon

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Q7. d) A definite dry and wet season

• Equatorial Rainforest: Rainfall throughout the year

• Mediterranean: Rainfall in winter only
• An extremely short dry season: I don't think there is any specific climate that fits this description
• Savanna: A definite dry winter and wet summer

Q8. Ans: a) Mediterranean (Evergreen oaks and winter maxima)

• Eastern China (China Type – it is not dry)

• Central Asia (Temperate Desert – it is dry but there are no oaks)
• Atlantic coast of North America (it is not dry)

Q9. Ans: a) Temperate coniferous forests

• In Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous (37%) cover the highest percentage followed by Tropical Dry Decid-
uous (28%)

Descriptive questions

1. Distinguish between hardwoods and softwoods. What are industrial uses made of them? Account for their
large scale production for export in any one country.
2. What is meant by
✓ the taiga
✓ the veld
✓ the selvas
3. Describe the role played by forest products in the economy of either Canada or Sweden.
4. Compare and contrast the climate of the following pairs of areas.
✓ Laurentian Climate in the North American region and the Asiatic region.
✓ Tropical monsoon Climate of India and the Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China type) Climate in S.
China.
✓ The Steppe type of climate in Eurasia and the Siberian type (Taiga climate) of climate in northern
Canada.
✓ The Tundra Climate of Greenland and Trade Wind Desert Climate of central Australia.
5. Name the major fishing areas of the world. Explain the geographical factors which have contributed to its
importance.

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6. Write brief notes on

✓ The economy of the forests of the Laurentian regions.
✓ Fishing in Japan.
7. Why does tropical cyclone originate over the seas? In which part of the tropical cyclone do torrential rains
and high-velocity winds blow and why?
8. What type of climate is characterized by two periods of maximum rainfall? Explain why this is so.
• Hint: Equatorial Rainforest. Sun is overhead during Equinoxes. So, the ITCZ passes twice over the region.
9. Write brief notes on any three of the following statements about the equatorial regions.
✓ Large-scale livestock farming is least developed in wet equatorial areas.
✓ The greatest single drawback to commercial lumbering in equatorial regions is inaccessibility.
✓ The equatorial environment is best suited to plantation agriculture (Good rainfall, humid climate, cheap
labour, good markets in Europe and North America).
10. Explain the following statements.
✓ The east coasts of continents within the tropics have much heavier rainfall than the interiors or the west
coasts [Hint: Easterly trade winds].
✓ Near the equatorial latitudes, the period of maximum rainfall is closely related to the movements of the
overhead sun [Hint: Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone shifts according to the apparent movement of the
Sun].
✓ There is a marked difference in temperature between the east and west coasts of countries in latitudes
20° to 35°N [Hint: Ocean currents].
11. Explain why
✓ The savanna is the natural home of cattle.
✓ Rainfall in the Sudan Climate is concentrated in the summer.
12. Give an explanatory account of any two of the following.
✓ Sheep outnumber the population of New Zealand by 20:1.
✓ No country produces and exports more wool than Australia.
✓ Market-gardening is a product of urbanisation.
13. Write a geographical account of the following economic activities.
✓ Mixed farming
✓ Beet sugar cultivation
✓ Cool temperate orchard farming
✓ Sheep rearing
✓ Woollen textile industry

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14. Give a reasoned account of any two of the following.

✓ Cotton cultivation in the United States of America.
✓ Padi growing in monsoon China.
✓ Dairying in eastern Australia.
✓ Lumbering in Canada.
15. Give an explanatory account of any three of the following.
✓ Local storms (e.g. typhoon, hurricane, pampero) are often associated with the Warm Temperate Eastern
Margin Climate.
✓ U.S.A. accounts for more than 50 per cent of world production of corn (i.e. maize) but only 3 per cent of
world exports.
✓ Farming in monsoon China is usually on a subsistence basis, and the peasants are permanently ‘land-
hungry’.
16. Explain how the aridity of the desert is related to
✓ off-shore Trade Winds
✓ the Sub-Tropical High-pressure Belts (the Horse Latitudes)
✓ cold ocean currents
17. Bring out any distinct differences between the hot deserts and mid-latitude deserts in
✓ climate
✓ vegetation
✓ way of life
18. Explain any three of the following.
✓ The hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents.
✓ Patagonia is a desert in the rain shadow of the Andes.
✓ The annual range of temperature is much greater at Kashgar (Gobi) than at Iquique (Atacama).
19. Write brief notes on any three of these topics.
✓ Date palm cultivation in an oasis.
✓ The role of oil in the development of desert economy.
20. Compare and contrast tropical and temperate grasslands in respect of
✓ their seasonal responses to climatic changes
✓ their economic importance
21. Give a reasoned account
✓ Asiatic Steppes: nomadic herding
✓ Canadian Prairies: spring wheat cultivation

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✓ Argentine Pampas: beef cattle ranching

✓ S. African Veld: maize growing
✓ Australian Downs: sheep grazing
22. Explain why when Chinooks are more frequent in the Prairies, the winters are milder.
23. Give an explanatory account of the following statements about economic activities of the Mediterranean
lands.
✓ Orchard farming is the predominant occupation.
✓ The chief cereal cultivated is hard, winter wheat.
✓ Pastoral farming is of little importance.
24. Write geographical notes on any three of the following.
✓ The Mediterranean Climate is typified by dry, sunny summers and wet, mild winters.
✓ Hot, dusty Sirocco and cold stormy Mistral.
✓ Mediterranean woodlands, shrubs and scrub.
✓ Three-quarters of the world’s wine comes from the Mediterranean regions of Europe.

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Economic Geography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Economic Geography Part I

Distribution of key natural resources across India and the World
PDF
Source for most of the facts and statistics: Indian Bureau of Mines Reports.

1. Iron .................................................................................................................................................................. 8

1.2 Types of Iron Ore ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8

Magnetite (Fe3O4) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Haematite (Fe2O3) ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

Limonite .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World ............................................................................................................................. 9

Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula ................................................................................. 9
Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine.................................................................................. 9

Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia .................................................................................................................................................. 10

Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk ..................................................................................................... 11

Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador .................................................................................... 12
Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais ....................................................................................................... 12
Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob ................................................................... 13

Largest iron ore producers .................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Largest iron ore reserves ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Top Iron ore producers in the world ................................................................................................................................................. 14

1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India .............................................................................................................................................. 14

Hematite reserves ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Magnetite reserves ................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Iron Ore Production in India ................................................................................................................................................................. 17

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2. Coal ................................................................................................................................................................ 18

2.1 Formation of Coal .................................................................................................................................................................... 18

Stages of coal formation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 20

2.2 Classification of coal ............................................................................................................................................................... 21

Peat ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Lignite (brown coal) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 22

Bituminous Coal (black coal) ................................................................................................................................................................ 22

Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) .............................................................................................................................................. 23
Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Coal) ....................................................................................................................... 23

2.3 Distribution of Coal in India................................................................................................................................................. 24

Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago) .......................................................................................................................... 24

Tertiary Coal (formed 60 – 15 million years ago) ......................................................................................................................... 26

Major Coalfields in India ........................................................................................................................................................................ 27

State-wise coal reserves and coal production in India .............................................................................................................. 28

The demand of coal, production, supply and import of coal in India ................................................................................. 29

Why does India import coal although it has enough reserves? ............................................................................................. 29
Measures taken by the government to boost production ....................................................................................................... 30

2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World.............................................................................................................................. 30

Global Coal Reserves ............................................................................................................................................................................... 32

Top coal producers and consumers in the world ........................................................................................................................ 32

3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil .......................................................................................................................... 33

3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil........................................................................................................................ 33

Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil .......................................................................................................... 34

3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India .................................................................................................... 35

Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India .................................................................................................................................................. 36

On-shore Oil Production in India ....................................................................................................................................................... 38

Off-Shore Oil Production in India....................................................................................................................................................... 38

State-wise crude oil and natural gas production trends ........................................................................................................... 39

Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India ...................................................................................................................... 39

India’s Oil Imports .................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

Oil Refiners in India .................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Crude Oil Pipelines ................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
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3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil........................................................................................................ 46

Supergiants ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46

Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Reserves .......................................................................................................................... 47

World’s Top Producers, Consumers and Exporters of Oil......................................................................................................... 49

OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries .......................................................................................................... 49

4. Natural gas ................................................................................................................................................... 50

4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and the World ........................................................................................ 51
Top natural gas producers, consumers, and countries with highest reserves .................................................................. 51

4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain......................................................................................................................................... 53

5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs .................................................................................................................. 55

5.1 Coalbed Methane .................................................................................................................................................................... 55

Coalbed Methane in India ..................................................................................................................................................................... 56

5.2 Shale Gas..................................................................................................................................................................................... 57

Extraction of Shale Gas ........................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Shale Gas Reserves across India and the World ........................................................................................................................... 60

Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India – If US can then why can’t India? ............................................................................... 62

5.3 Tight Gas ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 63

6. Bauxite .......................................................................................................................................................... 64

6.1 Bauxite Distribution in India ................................................................................................................................................ 64

6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World ............................................................................................................................. 67

7. Lead & Zinc ................................................................................................................................................... 68

7.1 Lead............................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
7.2 Zinc ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and World............................................................................................... 69
7.4 Pyrites ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 70

8. Gold and Silver ............................................................................................................................................. 71

8.1 Gold............................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Gold Reserves and Production in India ............................................................................................................................................ 71
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World’s Gold Reserves and Gold Production ................................................................................................................................ 73

8.2 Silver ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74

Silver Reserves and Production – India & World ......................................................................................................................... 74

9. Ores of Metals used in Alloys ..................................................................................................................... 75

9.1 Manganese ................................................................................................................................................................................. 75

Manganese ore distribution in India ................................................................................................................................................. 75

Manganese ore distribution across the World .............................................................................................................................. 77

9.2 Tungsten ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78

Distribution of Wolfram in India and across the World ............................................................................................................ 78

9.3 Copper ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 79

Copper Ore Distribution and Production in India........................................................................................................................ 79
Distribution of Copper Ore and Production Across the World .............................................................................................. 81

9.4 Nickel ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 82

Distribution of Nickel in India and World ....................................................................................................................................... 82

9.5 Molybdenum ............................................................................................................................................................................. 83

9.6 Chromite ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Chromite Distribution across India and World ............................................................................................................................. 84

9.7 Cobalt ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 84

Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World ................................................................................................... 85

10. Strategic Minerals ........................................................................................................................................ 86

10.1 Lithium ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86

KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical Minerals ..................................................................................................................... 86

11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond ........................................................................................................ 87

11.1 Graphite ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 87

Distribution of Graphite across India and World ......................................................................................................................... 88

11.2 Diamonds.................................................................................................................................................................................... 89
Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and gravels in India .................................................................................................. 89
Diamonds Across the World ................................................................................................................................................................. 90
Differences Between Graphite and Diamond ................................................................................................................................ 91
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12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and Magnesite ................................................................................. 92

12.1 Limestone ................................................................................................................................................................................... 92

Distribution of Limestone in India ...................................................................................................................................................... 93

12.2 Dolomite ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 93

12.3 Magnesite ................................................................................................................................................................................... 94

13. Other Non-Metallic Mineral Resources ..................................................................................................... 94

13.1 ...............................................................................................................................................................................................Mica
95
13.2 Asbestos ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
13.3 Kyanite ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Sillimanite ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96

13.4 Gypsum........................................................................................................................................................................................ 96

14. Atomic Minerals ........................................................................................................................................... 96

14.1 Uranium ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 97

Uranium Reserves and Production across the World ................................................................................................................. 97

Uranium in India ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 98

Nuclear Power Plants in India .............................................................................................................................................................. 99

14.2 Thorium ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 100

Thorium Distribution ............................................................................................................................................................................ 101

Economic Geography

• Economic geography is the study of patterns of humans’ economic activities ranging from production to
consumption of various goods and services across the world.
• By ‘human economic activities’ we mean, production, location, distribution, consumption, exchange of re-
sources, spatial organization of economic activities, etc.
• Different subject matters of economic geography include the distribution of mineral resources, location of
industries, economies of agglomeration (economies of urbanization), transportation, international trade, the
relationship between the environment and the economy, etc.

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Importance of studying economic geography:

• It allows us to understand an area's economy and its economic relationship with other areas around the
world.
• It helps us understand the reasons and methods of development of a region or lack of development thereof.
• It helps us find solutions to economic developmental challenges.

GS1 Syllabus:

1. Distribution of key natural resources across the world (including South Asia and the Indian sub-
continent); {Economic Geography Part I}
2. factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various
parts of the world (including India). {Economic Geography Part II}

GS3 Syllabus:

1. Major crops cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and
irrigation systems storage. {Indian Agriculture}
2. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc. {Will be covered as a separate topic}

Natural Resources Classification

Biotic Abiotic

Renewable (Non-conventional): biomass, solar en- Non-renewable (Conventional): coal, oil, iron, etc.
ergy, wind energy, etc.

Metallic: Iron, copper, tin, zinc, uranium (heavy Non-metallic: graphite, diamond, mica, limestone,
metal), etc. etc.

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Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources will be covered as a part of General Science and Science
and Technology.

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1. Iron

1.2 Types of Iron Ore

• Based on the amount of ore and iron content, iron ore is classified into various types.
• Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Haematite (Fe2O3) are fine quality ores.
• Limonite, siderite, etc. are inferior ores that have their own unique characteristics.

Magnetite (Fe3O4)

• Magnetite has excellent magnetic qualities, hence the name.

• It is black in colour and has very high content of Iron – upto 72 per cent (best quality iron ore).
• Magnetite has higher iron content than hematite (60-70 per cent); therefore, its quality is higher.
• However, unlike haematite ore, magnetite ore is not found in high grades.
• That is, while hematite ore generally contains large concentrations of hematite, magnetite ore generally holds
low concentrations of magnetite.
• Hence the ore needs to be beneficiated (treat to improve its properties) for magnetite recovery.
• End products (e.g. steel) made from magnetite ore are typically of higher quality than those made from
hematite ore. That’s because magnetite has fewer impurities than hematite.
• Magnetite with less iron content (25% to 30%) is known as Taconite.
• A naturally magnetized content of magnetite is called lodestone.
• Distribution of magnetite ore in India: Dharwad and Cuddapah systems – Karnataka (73%), Andhra Pradesh
(14%), Tamil Nadu (5%), Rajasthan (5%), etc.

Haematite (Fe2O3)

• Reddish ore with naturally high iron content – 60 to 70 per cent.

• Because of its high iron content, hematite ore can be used in steel production without benefaction.
• Hematite is the most abundantly available ore in India.
• Distribution: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.

Limonite

• Limonite is inferior iron ore that is yellowish in colour with 40 to 60 per cent iron content.
• Limonite mines are open cast mines; hence mining is easy and cheap.

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• Distribution: Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and
Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

Siderite (FeCO3)

• It is iron carbonate ore of inferior quality with less than 40 per cent iron content.
• It contains many impurities and hence mining, in many places, is economically unviable.
• However, one good quality of the ore is that it doesn’t contain sulphur or phosphorus.
• And also, it is self-fluxing due to the presence of lime.

1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World

Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula

Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine

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Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia

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Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk

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Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador

Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais

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• Brazil has one of the largest reserves of high grade hematite ore.

Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob

Largest iron ore producers

Country Iron Ore Production

1. Australia 900 Million tonnes – most of the ore is exported to China.

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2. Brazil 490 Million tonnes – most of the ore is exported to China.

3. China 340 Million tonnes – very high demand for iron in the region.

4. India 210 Million tonnes – Post SC ban on mining in Goa, Odisha and Karnataka in 2010, India’s
import of iron ore grew substantially.

Largest iron ore reserves

World Total 840 billion tons

1. Australia 240 billion tons

2. Brazil 170 billion tons

3. Russia 140 billion tons

4. China 69 billion tons

5. India 32 billion tons

Top Iron ore producers in the world

• All the data is in million tonnes.

Year 2017 2018

1. China 1229 ~1300 – very high demand for iron in the region.

2. Australia 885 900 – most of the ore is exported to China.

3. Brazil 436 490 – most of the ore is exported to China.

4. India 201 210 (~4.7%) – Post SC ban on mining in Goa, Odisha and Karnataka in
2010, India’s import of iron ore grew substantially.

5. Russia 95

• India had produced 209.00 million tonnes of iron ore in 2010, before the clampdown on illegal mining in the
country by the Supreme Court.

1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India

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• In India, the main deposits of iron ore are located in the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karna-
taka and Goa, with Odisha contributing ~50% of India’s total production.
• Hematite and magnetite are the two most important iron ores in India.
• Of these, hematite is considered to be the most important iron ore because of its high grade quality, which
is consumed by a large number of steel & iron industries in the country.
• Most of the larger iron ore belts already explored for high-grade ores have been exploited through the last
six decades.
• The country has huge resources/reserves of low-grade iron ore but mining efforts to tap low-grade ores have
not been adequate.

Ore Reserve resource Remaining resource Total resource (total reserves)

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Hematite 5 billion tons 17 billion tons 22.5 billion tons

Magnetite 52699 million tons (0.2%) 10.7 billion tons 10.8 billion tons

➢ Reserve Resource (total recoverable reserves): can be commercially exploited at present.

➢ Remaining resource (total unrecoverable reserves): cannot be commercially exploited at present due to low
grade ore or lack of adequate technology or environmental concerns, etc.

Magnetite reserves
Haematite reserves

1. Odisha 33% 1. Karnataka 73%

2. Jharkhand 26% 2. Andhra Pradesh 14%
3. Chhattisgarh 18% 3. Rajasthan 5%
Rest in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, MP, etc. 4. TN 5%

Hematite reserves

• Almost the entire present-day production of iron & its products comes from hematite reserves.
• Around 96% of hematite resources are confined in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa.
• In Jharkhand & Orissa and in adjoining areas in eastern India, hematite occurs associated with limonite.
• In Bellary-Hospet region of Karnataka, hematite ore occurs with minor amounts of magnetite.
• Important hematite accumulations are in Singhbhum district (Jharkhand), Keonjhar (Orissa), Bellary (Kar-
nataka), Bastar district (Chhattisgarh) and Goa.

Magnetite reserves

• Magnetite reserves are not being exploited as these are mostly in eco-fragile areas of the Western Ghats.
• Magnetite would remain locked up until environmentally sustainable mining technologies are invented.
• Magnetite ore deposits are mainly confined to the Chikmagalur district (Kudremukh (Bababudan hills))
in Karnataka and Salem and North Arcot districts in Tamil Nadu.

Q1. Statements

1) Karnataka has more than half of the reserves of magnetite ore in India.
2) Jharkhand has the highest reserves of haematite ore in India.

Which of the above are true?

a) Both

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b) 1 only
c) 2 only
d) None

Odisha • The ores are rich in haematites.

• India's richest haematite deposits are located in Barabil-Koira valley.
• Others: Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and Koraput.

Chhattisgarh • Bailadila mine is the largest mechanised mine in Asia (only beneficiation is done here).
• A pipeline from the Bailadila to Vizag plant transports the ore slurry (semi-liquid mixture).
• Smelting is done in Vizag (Vishakhapatnam) iron and steel factory.
• Bailadila’s high grade ore is exported through Vishakhapatnam to Japan (there are no
iron ore reserves) and other countries.

Jharkhand • First mine in Singhbhum district in 1904.

• Iron ore of here is of highest quality and will last for hundreds of years.
• Noamandi mines in Singhbhum are the richest.
• Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj in Palamu district.

Karnataka • High grade ore deposits are those of Kemmangundi in Bababudan hills of Chikmaga-
lur district (magnetite) and Sandur and Hospet in Bellary district (hematite).
• Most of the ores are high grade haematite and magnetite.

Iron ore in other states

• Andhra Pradesh: Rayalaseema region.

• Maharashtra (0.88%): Chandrapur, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg.
• Tamilnadu: Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai etc.

Iron Ore Production in India

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• The total iron ore production in India in FY17 stood at ~192mn tonnes.
• Indian exports of iron ore stood at 24.1 mn tonnes and imports were 8.7 mn tonnes in FY18.
• Sale of iron ore from Karnataka mines had fallen sharply with domestic steel producers buying the ore from
Chhattisgarh and Odisha due to better quality at cheaper price.

2. Coal

• Coal is also called black gold. It is found in sedimentary strata (layers).

• Coal contains carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash (in some cases Sulphur and phosphorous).

2.1 Formation of Coal

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• Most of the world’s coal was formed in Carboniferous age (350 million years ago – Best quality coal).
• The name Carboniferous refers to coal-bearing strata.
• Coal formed millions of years ago when the earth was covered with huge swampy (marshy) forests.
• As the plants grew, some died and fell into the swamp waters.
• New plants grew up to take their places and when these died still more grew.
• In time, there was thick layer of dead plants rotting in the swamp.
• The surface of the earth changed, and water and dirt washed in, stopping the decaying process.
• More plants grew up, but they too died and fell, forming separate layers.
• After millions of years many layers had formed, one on top of the other.
• The weight of the top layers and the water and dirt packed down the lower layers of plant matter.
• Heat and pressure produced chemical and physical changes in the plant layers which forced out oxygen
and left rich carbon deposits. In time, material that had been plants became coal.

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Older the coal, better the carbon content

• Capacity of coal to give energy depends upon the percentage or carbon content (Older the coal, higher
the carbon content).
• Percentage of carbon in coal depends upon the duration and intensity of heat and pressure on wood
(More depth == more pressure and heat == better carbon content).
• Oxygen, nitrogen and moisture content decreases with time while the proportion of carbon increases
(The quantity of carbon doesn’t increase, only its proportion increases due to the loss of other elements).

Stages of coal formation

• In the process of transformation (coalification),

1. Buried plants turn into peat,
2. Peat is altered to lignite,
3. lignite is altered to sub-bituminous,
4. sub-bituminous coal is altered to bituminous coal, and
5. bituminous coal is altered to anthracite (oldest, best quality coal).

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2.2 Classification of coal

• Coals are classified into peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
• These classifications are based on the amount of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen present in the coal.
• Coal’s other constituents include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ash, and sulphur.
• Some of the undesirable chemical constituents include chlorine and sodium.

Peat

• Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon (has more impurities).

• Contains sufficient volatile matter and lots of moisture (gives out a lot of smoke when burnt ➔ pollution).
• Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less heat, emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.

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Lignite (brown coal)

• Contains 40 to 55 per cent carbon.

• Moisture content is high (over 35 per cent).
• It undergoes spontaneous combustion (this is undesirable because it creates fire accidents in mines).
• Distribution: Rajasthan, Lakhimpur (Assam), and Tamil Nadu.

Bituminous Coal (black coal)

• Bituminous Coal is soft, dense, compact coal with 40 to 80 per cent carbon.
• Bituminous Coal is the most widely available and used coal.
• It derives its name after a liquid called bitumen.
• Moisture and volatile content are low (15 to 40 per cent).
• It does not have traces of original vegetable material.
• Calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low moisture.
• It is used in the production of coke and gas.
• Distribution: Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.

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Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre)

• Anthracite coal is the best quality, hard coal with 80 to 95 per cent carbon.
• It has very little moisture and volatile matter.
• It ignites slowly and hence there is less loss of heat (highly efficient).
• It burns with a short blue flame (Complete combustion ➔ Flame is blue ➔ very few pollutants).
• In India, it is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in small quantity.

Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal Coal)

Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or Steaming coal

• High carbon content, less moisture, less sulphur, • Sulphur content is high and hence cannot be
less ash. used in iron and steel industry.
(Sulphur reacts with iron to from iron sulphide
(FeS). Iron sulphide is brittle (hard but easily breaka-
ble) and makes the whole metal and its alloys brittle.)

• Used to create coke. • Creating coke using this coal is not economical.
• Coke is produced by heating bituminous coal • Moreover, traces of sulphur will remain even after
without air to extremely high temperatures. coking.
• Coking ➔ flushing out impurities and improving
the concentration of carbon.

• Coking coal is an essential ingredient in steel pro- • Thermal coal is used to generate power.
duction.

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• Major producers: Australia, Canada, United States. • Major producers: China, Australia, USA, Russia.
• Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United States. • Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
• China imports huge amount of coking coal from
Australia.
• India also imports coking coal.

2.3 Distribution of Coal in India

• Coal reserves are six times greater than oil and petroleum reserves.
• In India, during the year 2016-17, about 82% coal and lignite got despatched to the Power Sector.

Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago)

• Around 98 per cent of India's coal reserves and 99% of total coal production are from Gondwana fields.
• The carbon content in Gondwana coal (250 million years old) is less compared to the Carboniferous coal
(350 million years old – almost absent in India) because of its much younger age.
• The volatile compounds and ash (~ 30%) don’t allow carbon percentage to rise above 60%. (It requires a few
million years more for the quality has to get better).
• Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but it contains Sulphur and phosphorus.
• Coking as well as non-coking coal and bituminous coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields.
• Anthracite is generally not found in the Gondwana coal fields.
• The Damuda series (i.e. Lower Gondwana) possesses the best worked coalfields accounting for 80 per cent
of the total coal production in India.
• Gondwana coal occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz., the Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Ma-
hanadi (Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the Wardha
(Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh).

Jharkhand • Most of the coal fields in the state of Jharkhand are located in a narrow belt running in the
east-west direction almost along 24 degrees north latitude.
• The main coal fields at Bokaro, Jharia, Deltenganj, Dhanbad, Auranga (Palamu), Giridh,
Karanpura, Ramgarh, Hutar, Devgarh and Rajmahal coalfields.
• Jharia coalfield is one of the oldest and richest coal fields of India.
• It stores the best of metallurgical coal (bituminous coking coal) in the country.

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• Bokaro coalfield lies in Hazaribagh district. It is a long but narrow strip in the catchment
area of the Bokaro river.
• Girdih (Karharbari) coalfield gives out of the finest coking coal in India.

Coking Coal Production by State

1) Jharkhand (More than 90% of India’s Coking coal comes from Jharkhand)
2) West Bengal
3) Madhya Pradesh

Odisha • Most of the coal deposits of the state are found in Sambalpur, Dhenkanal, and
Sundargarh districts.
• Talchar coalfield of Odisha stretch over Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts covers an area
of about 500 sq km.
• Talcher field ranks second in reserves after Raniganj.
• Coal from this field is most suitable for steam and gas production.
• Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power and fertilizer plants at Talcher.
• Other coalfields of the state include Rampur-Himgir and Ib river.

Chhattis- • Korba coalfield lies in the valley of river Hasdo (tributary of Mahanadi).
garh • Other coalfields of the state include Hasdo-Arand, Chirmiri, Jhimli, Johilla, Birampur,
Lakhanpur, Sonhat, Tatapani-Ramkota, etc.

West Bengal • First coal mine of India was opened in 1774 at Raniganj (largest coalfield of West Bengal).
• Raniganj coalfield is the most important coal reserve and mining coalfield of West Bengal.
• It stretches across Bardhman, Birbhum, Bankura and Purulia districts to the northwest
of Kolkata. Small part of this field is in Jharkhand state.
• It is known for good quality coal with about 50 to 65 per cent carbon content.
• Darjeeling (Dalingkot coalfield) and Jalpaiguri are the chief producing districts.

Madhya Pra- • The main coal deposits of the state lie in Singrauli, Muhpani, Satpura, Pench Kanhan
desh and Sohagpur.
• Singrauli (Waidhian) is the largest coalfield of MP.
• It supplies coal to the thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra.
• Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa and Turra are important coal seams
• Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the richest coal seam of the country.
• Pench-Kanhan-Tawa in Godavari seam in Kanhan field contains coking coal

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Telangana & • Godavari valley holds the coal of Telangana and Singareni coalfield is the main mine.
Andhra • Most of the coal reserves are in the Godavari valley: Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal,
Pradesh Khammam, East Godavari (AP), and West Godavari (AP).
• Almost the entire coal is of non-coking variety.
• These are the southernmost coalfields of India and a source of coal supply to most of
south India.

Tertiary Coal (formed 60 – 15 million years ago)

• Tertiary coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture and Sulphur.
• Lignite deposits occur in the tertiary sediments in the extra-peninsular region particularly in Tamil Nadu,
Kerala, Gujarat & Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir.
• The total known geological reserves of lignite as of 2017 is 44.7 billion tonnes, of which 80% reserves are
located in Tamil Nadu.
• Peat deposits occur in Nilgiri hills and Kashmir valley (in the alluvium of the Jhelum).

Maharashtra • Kamptee coalfields (in Nagpur district) and Wardha valley (stretched over Nagpur and
Yavatmal districts) carry most of the coal deposits in the state.
• The coal deposits of Maharashtra mainly belong to the Tertiary period.

Tamil Nadu • The coal deposits of Tamil Nadu (80% lignite coal reserves) are found in Neyveli in the
South Arcot district.

Rajasthan • Palana and Khari mines of Bikaner district in Rajasthan carry Lignite deposits (inferior
quality of coal). The coal produced is mainly used in the thermal power plants and railways.

Gujarat • The coal found in Gujarat is of poor quality and contains only about 35 per cent of carbon.
• The moisture content in this coal is quite high.

Jammu • Coal in the state is of inferior quality and is found at Shaliganga, Handwara, Baramulla,
& Kashmir Riasi, and Udhampur districts along with the Karewas of Badgam and Srinagar.

Assam • Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is the most developed field.

• Assam coals contain very low ash and high coking qualities, but the sulphur content is
high, as a result of which this coal is not suitable for metallurgical purposes.
• The coal is best suited for hydrogenation process and is used for making liquid fuels.
• Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards as Namchick-Namrup coalfield (Arunachal Pra-
desh).

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Meghalaya • Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills.

• Darrangiri field is in Garo hills.
• Cherrapunji and Langrin coalfields are in Khasi and Jaintia hills.

Major Coalfields in India

1. Singrauli
2. Karanpura Bokaro
3. Jharia
4. Raniganj
5. Ib & Talcher
6. Pench & Kanhan
7. Singareni – Godavari Velley
8. Lignite: TN, Gujrat And Rajasthan

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State-wise coal reserves and coal production in India

• India has a total of 319 billion tons of coal reserves of which 148.8 billion tons are proven reserves.

State-wise coal reserves in India State-wise raw coal production in India

State Reserves (billion tons) State 2016-17 2017-18

1. Jharkhand 80.71 26.8 % 1. Odisha 139 143

2. Odisha 75.07 24.9 % 2. Chhattisgarh 128 132

3. Chhattisgarh 52.53 17.4 % 3. Jharkhand 118 112

4. West Bengal 31.31 10.4 % 4. Madhya Pradesh 85 91

5. Madhya Pradesh 25.67 8.5 % 5. Maharashtra 40 41

6. Telangana & AP 22.48 7.5 % 6. West Bengal 25 26

7. Maharashtra 10.98 3.6 % 7. Uttar Pradesh 16 18

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Source

The demand of coal, production, supply and import of coal in India

Data in Million Tons (MT) India’s coal imports country-wise

Year 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 Country FY 2016-17 FY 2017-18

Total domestic Produc- 639.23 657.87 676.48 1. Indonesia 117 97

tion

Total domestic Supply 632.44 644.56 691.42 2. Australia 46 46

Total Import (MT) 203.95 190.95 208.27 3. South Africa 38 35

• Coal India Ltd (CIL) has planned to increase coking coal output from 34.12 MT to 52.95 MT by 2019-20.

In Million Tons (MT) FY 2018-19 Non-coking coal imports

Total coal imports 220 1. Australia (~ 70%)

Non-coking coal imports 164 2. Canada (~ 10%)

Coking coal imports 52 3. USA (~ 7%), Mozambique (~ 5%)

Why does India import coal although it has enough reserves?

Inability to exploit reserves

• Unavailability of technology to mine coal from deep underground coal mines (40% of total coal reserves are
located at a deeper depth which cannot be extracted using opencast mining).
• Significant portions of Indian coal reserves are in Maoist affected regions and densely populated areas.

Short supply of coking coal (metallurgical coal)

• Coke is an important ingredient in the manufacture of iron (coke acts as fuel in a blast furnace).
• India has very few coking coal sources and hence it has to import it from Australia, Canada, South Africa,
Indonesia, etc.

Environmental concerns

• India’s coal has high ash content and low caloric value. Hence burning it causes a lot of pollution.
• Previously, due to shortage of coal and pollution concerns, many Indian power plants had been designed to
run on superior quality imported coal.
• Clean coal technology used to clean coal to reduce emissions is expensive and complex to setup.

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Lack of dedicated freight corridors (railway lines for goods trains)

• The distribution of coal is uneven.

• The movement of freight in India is slow (goods trains have to make way for passenger trains) as Indian
railways doesn’t have dedicated freight corridors.
• Hence it is sometimes convenient and/or less expensive to import coal.

Coal India is not able to meet the demand of captive power plants

• Aluminium smelters, cement makers and other industrial users that power their factories using their own coal
powered power plants (captive power plants).
• Given these consumers have to run their captive power plants in order to produce their goods, they have no
option but to turn to imports when Coal India can’t meet their needs.
• There is about 30 gigawatts (GW) of coal-fired generation capacity that is used by captive power plants.

Captive power plant: A captive power plant provides localised source of power to an energy user. These are typi-
cally industrial facilities or large offices.

Measures taken by the government to boost production

• Indian coal industry was plagued with low productivity, primitive technology, etc.
• Hence in 1975 public sector and private sector companies were liquidated to form Coal India Limited.
• Since 1975, all mining activities were undertaken only by Coal India Ltd. and its subsidiaries.
• The centralization of the coal industry resulted in lack of innovation and the sector soon became stagnant.
• In 2004, GOI decided to allocate coal blocks to private companies for captive mining (coal for personal use).
• But the procedure of allocation was embroiled in corruption (Coalgate scam: coal blocks were allocated with-
out any competitive bidding during the period 2004–2009).
• GOI opened up commercial coal mining for the private sector in 2018 and approved the methodology for
auction of coal mines / blocks for sale of coal.

2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World

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USA • Allegheny and Appalachian Mountains have enormous coal deposits.

• Carboniferous coal of Great Lakes and Appalachians region helped USA become a lead-
ing industrialized nation.
• However, most of the coal in the USA comes from western surface mines of Wyoming's
Powder River Basin.
• The North Antelope Rochelle Coal Mine located in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming is
the world's biggest coal mine.

China • China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world.

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• China’s coal is of poor quality. It imports metallurgical grade coal from Australia.
• There are intensifying environmental concerns (Photochemical smog) all over China due to
coal burning.

Russia • Ural region and the Donbass Basin are important mining regions.
• Most of the Russia’s coal in Siberian Region is untapped.

Europe • Coal reserves in Ruhr and Rhineland region coupled with rich iron deposits have made
Germany a leading industrial superpower of Europe.
• England too benefited immensely from its coal reserves of South Whales, Yorkshire, Man-
chester, Liverpool etc. Industrial revolution began here mainly due to rich coal reserves.

Brazil • Brazil is a leading coal producer in South America.

• Most of the coal goes into power generation. Excess production is exported to China.

Australia • Australia is a leading producer of coal. Most of its coal is exported to China, Japan etc.
• Australia has rich coking coal deposits. India imports coking coal mainly from Australia.

Africa • South Africa is the only region in Africa with significant amount of coal reserves.

Global Coal Reserves

• As of 2015, total proved recoverable reserves of coal were about 1.14 trillion tons.
1. United States – 22%
2. Russia – 16%
3. Australia – 14%
4. China – 13%
5. India – 9%

Top coal producers and consumers in the world

Top coal producers in the world (All data is in million tons) Top coal consumers

Country 2016 2017 Country 2017

1. China 3411 3445 1. China 1890 51%

2. USA 700 775 2. India 424 11%

3. India (Bituminous + Lignite) 658 + 45 679 + 48 3. USA 332 9%

4. Australia (Bituminous & Brown coal) 503 492 4. Japan 102 3%

5. Indonesia (Anthracite & Bituminous) 456 461 5. Russia 92 3%

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6. Russia 385 410

7. South Africa (Anthracite & Bituminous) 251 252

World Total (All data is in million tons) 7469 7632

3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil

• Petroleum (Petra means rock; Oleum means oil) is obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
• Constituents of Petroleum include 90 to 95 per cent hydrocarbons and 5 – 10% organic compounds con-
taining oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of organometallic compounds.

3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

• Tiny sea plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor.
• Over time, they were covered by layers of sediment and rock.
• Over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper.

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• The enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and gas.
• Today, we drill down through the layers of sedimentary rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and
gas deposits.

Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

• All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil.

• An oil reservoir must have three prerequisite conditions.
1. Porosity (tiny gaps in soil) so as to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil;
2. Permeability (allowing liquids or gases to pass through) to discharge oil and/or gas when well has been
drilled;
3. Porous sandstone beds or fissured limestone containing oil should be capped below by impervious
beds (not allowing fluid to pass through).
• Most of the oil gets collected in the anticlines or fault traps.
• Oil on a commercial scale is usually found in crests of anticlines (where the sedimentary rock strata are
inclined and folded).
• Formation of exploitable reservoirs of hydrocarbons requires migration (from their source rocks) to geolog-
ical traps comprising a porous reservoir rocks and overlain by an impermeable horizon.

Anticline trap (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons)

• Common geological traps for hydrocarbons include shales, salt domes (evaporites; also rich in sulphur),
and anticlinal folds of permeable and non-permeable strata.

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• In addition to liquid hydrocarbons, natural gas is also common.

Oil and Gas traps (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons)

Stratigraphic trap: an impermeable layer capable of retaining hydrocarbons.
Structural traps: cracks in faults and folds that can retain hydrocarbons.

3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India

• Process of mineral oil formation began in tertiary period (3 million years ago).
• Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock for-
mations of tertiary times.
• In tertiary period, aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the minor microscopic forms of
flora and fauna.
• Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary period.
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• Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas and the land surrounding them
during this period.

Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India

• India has 26 sedimentary basins covering an area of 3.36 million square kilometres.
• The Indian sedimentary basins have been broadly divided into three categories:

Type of Basins Basins / Region:

Category I (~10 lakh Km2) • Established commercial production.

Basin Name Estimate (2017) (MMTOE)

1. Mumbai Offshore 9646

2. Krishna-Godavari (KG) 9555

3. Assam Shelf 6001

4. Rajasthan 4126

5. Cambay (Khambhat Gulf) 2586

6. Cauvery 1964

7. Assam-Arakan Fold Belt 1633

Sub-total (Category I) 35511

MMTOE: million metric tonnes of oil equivalent

Category II (~7.8 lakh Km2) Known accumulation of hydrocarbons but no commercial

production as yet.

1. Saurashtra 1,325

2. Kutch 898

3. Vindhyan 632

4. Mahanadi-North East Coast 651

5. Andaman-Nicobar 371

Sub-total (Category II) 3,877

Category III (~15.9 lakh Km2) Indicated hydrocarbon shows that are considered geologi-
cally prospectively.

Kerala-Konkan (KK) 1,245

Bengal-Purnea 828

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Ganga-Punjab 128

Pranhita-Godavari (PG) 95

Satpura-South Rewa-Damodar 63

Himalayan Foreland 44

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On-shore Oil Production in India

• Brahmaputra valley of north-east India.

• Barmer area of Rajasthan.
• Gujarat coast in western India.
• Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu.
• Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and offshore oil reserves.

Assam Oilfields • Oldest oil producing state in India.

• The Digboi field in Dibrugarh district is the oldest oil field of India.
• The Naharkatiya field and The Moran-Hugrijan field are also important.
• The main oil bearing strata extend for a distance of 320 km in upper Assam along
the Brahmaputra valley.
• Oilfields of Assam are relatively inaccessible and are distantly located from the
main consuming areas.
• Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly in the refineries located at Noonamati
in Assam (443 km), Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni in Bihar (724 km) and
Numaligarh.

Gujarat Oilfields • Ankleshwar, Khambhat, Ahmedabad, Barkol, and Sanand are important oilfields
of this region.
• Oil from these fields are sent to refineries at Trombay and Koyali.

Rajasthan Oilfields • Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil producing state of India.
• One of the largest inland oil discoveries was made in Barmer district.
• Other important discoveries are Mangala oil field, Sarswati and Rajeshwari.

Off-Shore Oil Production in India

Western Coast • Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.

• Mumbai High: 1974; rock strata of Miocene age.
• Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai High.
• Aliabet: Aliabet island is in the Gulf of Khambhat.

Eastern Coast • The basin and delta regions of the Godavari, the Krishna (K-G basin) and the Cauvery
rivers hold great potential for oil and gas production.

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• The Rawa field in Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin is an important one.

• The Narimanam & Kovilappal oilfields in the Cauvery on-shore basin are also important.

State-wise crude oil and natural gas production trends

State-wise crude oil production trends State-wise natural gas production trends
(thousand metric tonnes) (MMSCMD: Million Metric Standard Cubic Meter Per Day)

State/Source 2017-18 State/Source 2017-18

Onshore Onshore

1. Rajasthan 7887 1. Assam 8.8

2. Gujarat 4591 2. Gujarat 4.4

3. Assam 4345 3. Rajasthan 4

4. Tamil Nadu 345 4. Tripura 3.9

5. Andhra Pradesh 322 5. Tamil Nadu 3.3

6. Arunachal Pradesh 50 6. Andhra Pradesh 2.6

Total Onshore 17540 Total Onshore 29.1

Offshore Offshore

Total Offshore 18145 Total Offshore 60.3

Total 35684 Total 89.5

• Offshore production is greater than onshore production

Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India

Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.05.2019)

Fuel Giga Watt % share

Ther- Total Thermal 226.3 63.2%

mal Coal 194.5 54.3%

Lignite 6.3 1.7%

Gas 24.9 7.0%

Oil 0.64 0.2%

Hydro (Renewable) 45.4 12.7%

Nuclear 6.8 1.9%

Renewable 79.3 22.0%

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Total 357.9

India’s Oil Imports

• Import of crude oil during FY 2017-18 was 220.43 MMT (INR 5,66,450 crore or $87 bn).

Country 2015-16 2016-17 2017-2018 (MMT – Million Metric Tons)

Iraq 36.8 37.75 45.74 20.8 % Iraq toppled Saudi Arabia to become the largest

Saudi Arabia 40.4 39.33 36.16 16.4 % crude oil supplier for India.

Iran 12.7 27.14 22.59 10.2 % Imports declined due to US sanctions.

Venezuela 23.6 21.43 18.34 8.3 %

Nigeria 23.4 17.7 18.11 8.2 % OPEC members reached a deal to cut oil produc-

UAE 15.7 19.3 14.29 6.5 % tion and boost the market.

Oil Refiners in India

• India's first oil refinery started working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
• In 1954 a refinery was setup at Tarapur (Mumbai).
• Refinery hub and refining capacity exceeds the demand.
• Excess refined oil and other petroleum products are exported.

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Refinery Location Capacity (MMTPA)*

SEZ, Jamnagar, Gujarat (RIL – private sector) 35

DTA-Jamnagar (RIL – private sector) 33

Vadinar, Gujarat (Essar Oil – private sector) 20

Kochi, Kerala (BPCL) 15

Panipat, Haryana (IOCL) 15

Paradip, Odisha (IOCL) 15

Mangalore, Karnataka (MRPL) 15

Koyali, Gujarat (IOCL) 13

Mumbai, Maharashtra (BPCL) 12

Bathinda, Punjab (JV refinieries) 11

Manali, Tamil Nadu (CPCL) 10

Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (HPCL) 8.3

Mathura, U.P (IOCL) 8

Bina, MP (JV refineries) 7.8

Haldia, West Bengal (IOCL) 7.5

Mumbai, Maharashtra (HPCL) 7.5

Barauni, Bihar (IOCL) 6

Numaligarh, Assam (Numaligarh Refinery Ltd.) 3

Bongaigaon, Assam (IOCL) 2.35

Guwahati, Assam (IOCL) 1

Nagapattinam (CPCL) 1

Digboi, Assam (IOCL) 0.65

Tatipaka, AP 0.066

Total 249

MMTPA: Million Metric Tonne Per Annum

BPCL: Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units)
CPCL: Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units)
HPCL: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units)
IOCL: Indian Oil Corporation Limited (Public Sector Units)

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Crude Oil Pipelines

• Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL)

• Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
• Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)

Petroleum Product Pipelines

• Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL)

• Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
• Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
• Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
• Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL)
• Chennai – Trichy - Madurai Product Pipeline (CTMPL)
• Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
• Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline ➔ first pipeline constructed in India
• Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline.
• Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline ➔ world's largest underground pipeline
• Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline ➔ longest LPG pipeline in the world
• Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline
• Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
• Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
• Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline

Advantages of Pipeline

• Ideal to transport liquids and gases.

• Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains as well as under water.
• Economical.
• It needs very little maintenance.
• Pipelines are safe, accident-free and environmentally friendly.

Disadvantages of Pipelines

• It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few fixed points.
• Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid.

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• It is difficult to make security arrangements for pipelines.

• Detection of leakage and repair is also difficult.

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Source and Credits

3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

• The amount of oil a given region produces is not always proportionate to the size of its proven reserves.
• For example, the Middle East contains more than 50 percent of the world’s proven reserves but accounts for
only about 30 percent of global oil production.
• The United States, by contrast has less than 2 percent of the world’s proven reserves but produces about 10
percent of the world’s oil.

Supergiants

• Petroleum is contained in a few large fields, but most fields are small.
• The two largest classes of fields are the
1. supergiants, fields with 5 billion or more barrels of ultimately recoverable oil, and
2. world-class giants, fields with 500 million to 5 billion barrels of recoverable oil.
• Fewer than 40 supergiant oil fields have been found worldwide.
• The Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin in the Persian Gulf region contains two-thirds of these supergiant
fields.
• The remaining supergiants are distributed in the United States, Russia, Mexico, Libya, Algeria, Venezuela,
and China.

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Countries with The Largest Proven Oil Reserves

Country OPEC member? Reserves (billions of barrels), 2018

1. Venezuela Yes 302.8 19 %

2. Saudi Arabia Yes 267 17 %

3. Canada NO 170 11 %

4. Iran Yes 159 10 %

5. Iraq Yes 145 9%

6. Kuwait Yes 101.5 6%

7. United Arab Emirates Yes 98 6%

8. Russia NO 80 5%

9. Libya Yes 48 3%

10. United States NO 40 2%

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Image Source: Wikipedia

Saudi Arabia • The discovery that transformed Saudi Arabia into a leading oil country was Al-
Ghawār oil field.
• Another important discovery was the Saffaniyah offshore field in the Persian Gulf.
It is the third largest oil field in the world and the largest offshore.

Iraq, Kuwait, Iran • These countries have a number of supergiant fields.

• Al-Burqan oilfield of Kuwait is the world’s second largest oil field.

Russia • Russia is thought to possess the best potential for new discoveries.
• There are two supergiant oil fields – Western Siberia and Yenisey Khatanga.
• Kamchatka peninsula and Sakhalin Island are said to have significant oil reserves.
• Volga-Caspian Region has many oil and gas fields.

North America • North America has many sedimentary basins.

• Many oilfields have been found in North Slope region of Alaska and East Texas.
• The Rocky Mountain region contains an enormous amount of petroleum reserve.
• Canada has huge deposits of oil sands in the Athabasca region in western Canada
• Canada’s largest oil field is off Newfoundland.

Venezuela • Venezuela is the major oil exporter in the Western Hemisphere.

• Most of the country’s reserves are located in the Orinoco belt.

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Western Europe • Significant oil reserves are found in North Sea.

• Exploration in the Barents Sea has been of great interest.

Africa • The main oil-producing countries of Africa are Libya, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt.
• Niger delta in Nigeria contains enormous amount of oil.
• Egypt is self-sufficient in oil production.
• Algeria is another significant producer of petroleum where much of the national in-
come comes from oil-export.
• Libya became a consistent producer of petroleum.

World’s Top Producers, Consumers and Exporters of Oil

Top Crude Oil Producers (2018) Top Crude Oil Consumers (2017) Top Crude Oil Exporters

Country Million barrels/day Country Million barrels/day (% share)

1. USA 17.8 18% 1. USA 19.8 20% 1. Saudi Arabia (16 %)

2. Saudi Arabia 12.4 12% 2. China 12.7 13% 2. Russia: (11 %)

3. Russia 11.4 11% 3. India 4.6 5% 3. Iraq (8.1%)

4. Canada 5.2 5% 4. Japan 3.9 4% 4. Canada (5.9%)

5. China 4.8 5% 5. Russia 3.2 4% 5. UAE (5.2%)

India (11th place) 2.5 3%

OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

• OPEC is a 14 member oil supply cartel.

• It is founded by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela).
• This group bargains with international Oil Companies to maximize their profit margin.
• They control production and supply of crude oil to keep it below international demand.
• The current OPEC members are the following: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela.
Indonesia and Qatar are former members.

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4. Natural gas

• Natural gas consists of primarily methane and ethane. (LPG is a mixture of butane and propane)
• Propane, butane, pentane, and hexane are also present.
• Natural gas is formed during the process of formation of Petroleum.
• Hence, it is often found dissolved in oil or as a gas cap above the oil.
• Sometimes, pressure of natural gas forces oil up to the surface. Such natural gas is known as associated gas
or wet gas.
• Some reservoirs contain gas and no oil. This gas is termed non-associated gas or dry gas.
• Often natural gases contain substantial quantities of hydrogen sulphide or other organic sulphur com-
pounds. In this case, the gas is known as “sour gas.”
• Coalbed methane is called ‘sweet gas’ because of its lack of hydrogen sulphide.

Oil + Gas ➔ Associated Gas or Wet Gas,

Only Gas ➔ Non-Associated Gas or Dry Gas,
Hydrogen Sulphide in gas ➔ Sour Gas,
Coalbed Methane ➔ Sweet Gas.

• On the market, natural gas is usually bought and sold not by volume but by calorific value.
• In practice, purchases of natural gas are usually denoted as MMBTUs (millions of British thermal units –
BTU or Btu) = ~1,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
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Uses of Natural Gas

• Electric power generation.

• Many buses and commercial vehicles now operate on Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
• Ammonia is manufactured using hydrogen derived from methane.
• Ammonia is used to produce chemicals such as nitric acid, urea, and a range of fertilizers.

4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and the World

Top natural gas producers, consumers, and countries with highest reserves

Proven Reserves 2018 (Trillion Production 2018 (Billion m³) Consumption 2018 (Billion m³)
m³)

Country Reserves Country Production Country Consumption

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1. Russia 47.8 1. United States 864 1. United States 848

2. Iran 33.7 2. Russia 741 2. Russia 505

3. Qatar 24 3. Iran 232 3. China 275

4. United States 15 4. Canada 188 4. Iran 219

Leading exporters: Russia, Qatar, Norway

Leading Importers: China, Japan, European Union countries like Germany, Italy, etc.

• India proven gas reserves of 1.3 Billion m³.

• Indian consumed only 55 Billion m³ of natural gas in 2018.

Russia • Some of the world’s largest gas fields occur in a region of West Siberia and east of the
Gulf of Ob on the Arctic Circle.
• The world’s largest gas field is Urengoy.
• Volga-Urals region also has significant gas reserves.

North America • The largest gas field of United States, Hugoton, extends through the Oklahoma, Texas
and Kansas.
• Canada’s largest gas field is in Alberta.
• Much of Mexico’s natural comes from Gulf of Mexico.

Europe • Dutch coast and the North Sea (off the coast of Norway) have proven reserves.
• Norway and Netherlands are the leading producers in the region.

Africa • Central basin of Algeria and Niger Delta have proven reserves.

Middle East • There is an enormous gas potential in the Middle East associated with the major oil fields
in the Arabian-Iranian basin.
• Iran and Qatar significant proven natural gas reserves in the world.

Asia • The largest gas field in Asia is in the North Sumatra basin of Indonesia.
• Malaysia and Indonesia combined have significant gas reserves.

India • KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in
Rajasthan etc.

Domestic Allocation and Supply of Natural Gas

Domestic Natural Gas and (ii) Imported Re-gasified Liquefied Natural Gas (R-LNG).

Sector Domestic R-LNG Total

Fertilizers 22.04 20.51 42.55

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Power 24.73 7.44 32.17

City gas distribution 11.55 8.12 19.67

4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain

• Oil & gas industry is divided in Upstream, Midstream and Downstream sector.

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5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs

• Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone.
• Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones, in joints and fractures or, ab-
sorbed into the matrix of shales (shale is a sedimentary rock), and in coal seams.
• Examples of unconventional gas resources: Tight gas, shale gas, and coal-bed methane.
• Extraction of unconventional gas requires specialized technology which is expensive & complex to develop.

Unconventional Gas Reservoir

5.1 Coalbed Methane

• Considerable quantities of methane is trapped within coal seams (underground coal deposits).
• A significant portion of this gas remains as free gas in the joints and fractures of the coal seam.
• Large quantities of gas are adsorbed on the internal surfaces of the micropores within the coal itself.
• This gas can be accessed by drilling wells into the coal seam and pumping large quantities of water that
saturate the seam (water will occupy the gaps and pores and will push out the gas).
• Coalbed methane is now becoming an important source of natural gas.
• Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydro-
carbons such as propane or butane.
• The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining, where it presents a
serious safety risk.

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Fire Accidents in Coal Mines are mainly due to Coalbed Methane, and Lignite deposits (undergo spontaneous
combustion).

Coalbed Methane in India

• With one of the largest proven coal reserves, and one of the largest coal producers in the world, India holds
significant prospects for commercial recovery of coalbed methane.
• It is estimated that India may produce about 5.5 million standard cubic meters of CBM by the end of 2018.
• At present, in many coal mines, coal mine methane is not trapped and is blown out.
• At present CBM is produced from some virgin coal mines – Jharia in Jharkhand, Raniganj East and South
in West Bengal and Sohagpur West in Madhya Pradesh.

State Estimated CBM Resources (BCM)

1. Jharkhand 722

2. Rajasthan 360

3. Gujarat 351

4. Orissa 243

5. Chhattisgarh 240

6. Madhya Pradesh 218

7. West Bengal 218

Total CBM Resources GOI has identified CBM Resources of

2,600 billion cubic meters (91.8 TCF).

Problems in Exploration, Extraction of Coalbed Methane in India

• The state-run firms are holding mines in joint venture with private companies and the latter do not have
rights to explore unconventional gas resources –– coalbed methane, shale gas, tight gas.
• CBM extraction falls under Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas whereas coal mining falls under Ministry
of Coal.
• Hence, contractors are not allowed to mine gas from coal seams or coal bed methane (CBM) and coal in the
same block due to the turf war between the two ministries and other associated bureaucratic hurdles.
• The technology required is very advanced and the public sector companies have very weak organizational
setup to efficiently handle such technologies and extract gas economically.

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• Private sector companies have necessary financial capabilities and managerial skills but there is no hope due
to restricting laws and low gas prices.

5.2 Shale Gas

• Shale gas is a mixture of lot of methane + little ethane, propane, & butane + very little carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and hydrogen sulphide.
• Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed of organic-rich mud at the bottom of ancient seas.
• Subsequent sedimentation and the resultant heat and pressure transformed the mud into shale and also
produced natural gas from the organic matter contained in it.
• Over long spans of geologic time, some of the gas migrated to adjacent sandstones and was trapped in
them, forming conventional gas accumulations.
• The rest of the gas remained locked in the nonporous shale.

Extraction of Shale Gas

• Different types of sedimentary rocks contain natural gas, for example sandstones, limestones and shales.
• Sandstone rocks often have high permeability, which means that the tiny pores within the rock are well
connected and gas can flow easily through the rock.
• In contrast, shale rocks where gas is trapped as a continuous accumulation throughout a large area usually
have very low permeability, making gas production more complex and costly.
• Shale gas occurs frequently at depths exceeding 1,500 metres (5,000 feet).
• Extraction is done through horizontal drilling through the shale seam, followed by hydraulic fracturing, or
fracking, of the rock by the injecting fluid at extremely high pressure.

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Hydro-fracturing or Fracking

• Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000 metres below the surface.

• After deep vertical drilling, there are techniques to drill horizontally for considerable distances in various
directions to extract the gas-rich shale.
• A mixture of water, chemicals, and sand is then injected into the well at very high pressures to create a
number of fissures in the rock to release the gas.
• The process of using water for breaking up the rock is known as ‘hydro-fracturing’ or ‘fracking’.
• The chemicals help in water and gas flow and tiny particles of sand enter the fissures to keep them open
and allow the gas to flow to the surface.

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Guar gum

• Guar gum can quickly turn water into a very thick gel.
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• Adding guar gum increases viscosity of water and makes high-pressure pumping and the fracturing
process more efficient.
• High viscosity water is much more effective at suspending sand grains and carrying them into the fractures.
• The guar been is grown mainly by farmers in Rajasthan and Haryana.
• Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an additive in ice creams and sauces.
• But with the discovery of its use in shale gas extraction, its price shot up enormously.

Problems associated with shale gas exploitation

• Environmentalists have objected to fracking because of the damage to forest cover and possible contam-
ination of ground water.
• However, industry officials say that the treated water can be re-used for further fracking and need not be
disposed of at all.

Shale Gas Reserves across India and the World

Recoverable Shale Gas Resources by Country

Country Shale gas reserves (in TCF) Technically recoverable Shale gas reserves (in TCF)

1. China 1275 1,115

2. USA 862 623

3. Argentina 774 802

4. Mexico 681 545

5. South Africa 485 390

India 100-200 TCF World Total 7576

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• Till 2000, there has been almost nil shale gas production in the United States, but now it is the pioneer country
in shale gas production.
• China has the largest reserves, yet the production is low.
• In India, probable Shale gas resources are in the range of 100-200 TCF in 5 Indian sedimentary basins.
• ONGC predicts 187.5 TCF of shale gas in Cambay Onland, Ganga Valley, Assam & Assam-Arakan, Krishna
Godavari (KG) Onland, Cauvery Onland & Rajasthan & Vindhya Basins.
• Indian engineers have gathered experience on fracking by spending time in the US and are now able to hunt
for the scarce resource on their own.

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Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India – If US can then why can’t India?

• India suffers from water scarcity whereas the U.S. do not have the same water worries.
• In the US, the natural gas department is exempt from scrutiny for chemical injection in the ground (companies
need not disclose the chemicals used during hydraulic fracturing). There is no such legislation in India.
• In US, the citizen or resident owns the resources that lie beneath the ground. In India, soil below the land is
a public property and the companies must follow all the necessary rules to acquire it.
• The US has mapped all its shale reserves. In India there is no clarity on the exact recoverable shale reserves.
• The population density is much lower in the US and they can afford to do it.

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• Government-issued leases for conventional petroleum exploration do not include unconventional sources
such as shale gas.
• All locations in US is well connected with gas pipelines. Bulk of the reserves in eastern India lack the necessary
network of pipelines to transport the gas.

Shale Gas: Low Potential, High Risk and India has a Better Alternative

• India has 315 billion tonnes of coal lying under its soil.
• Extraction is complicated because of environmental issues.
• But, ‘underground coal gasification’, can create 6,900 TCF of gas which is way higher than shale reserves.
• India’s shale resources at a more modest 100-200 TCF. On the other hand, India’s CBM potential is estimated
at 450 TCF (91 TCF proven reserves).
• Coal bed methane (CBM), in terms of depth, occurs much closer to the land surface than shale gas and
hence it is comparatively easier to extract.
• So, focus must be on CBM exploration rather than on risky shale business.

Mains 2013: It is said that India has substantial reserves of shale oil and gas, which can feed the needs of
the country. However, tapping of resourced does not appear to be high on the agenda. Discuss critically
the availability and issues involved. (10 marks - 200 words)

Answer Yourself with the help of above points.

5.3 Tight Gas

• Tight gas is natural gas produced from reservoir rocks of low permeability.
• Just like shale gas, it has to be extracted by massive hydraulic fracturing.
• The difference between shale gas and tight gas is that, shale is trapped in sedimentary shale rocks whereas
tight gas is found trapped in sandstone or limestone formations with relatively low permeability.
• Few countries like USA, Canada, China and Australia are the pioneers in the development of tight reservoirs.
• Tight reservoirs occur in almost all the producing basins of India and in frontier basins viz. Bengal & Vindhyan
basin.
• Exploration of tight reservoir has already started in KG-PG, Cauvery and Cambay basins

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Image credits: Wikipedia

6. Bauxite

• Bauxite ore is the primary source of aluminium.

• It forms when laterite soils are severely leached of soluble materials in a wet tropical or subtropical climate.
• The ore is chemically processed to produce aluminium oxide.
• Aluminium oxide is then smelted using electrolysis to produce aluminium metal.

6.1 Bauxite Distribution in India

• Reserves of bauxite in India as of 2015, have been placed at 3.9 BT (77% metallurgical grade).

Bauxite Reserves in India Bauxite Production in India

State % share State Production (MT) 2017-18

1. Odisha 51% 1. Odisha 7.8 52%

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2. Andhra Pradesh 16% 2. Jharkhand 2.1 14%

3. Gujarat 9% 3. Chhattisgarh 2 13.3%

4. Jharkhand 6% 4. Gujarat 1.6 10.7%

Total 3.9 BT Total 15 MT

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Odisha • Largest bauxite producing state.

• Major mines: Koraput, Kalahandi and Rayagada districts.

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• Others: Sundargarh, Bolangir and Sambalpur districts.

• The deposits extend further into the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Chhattisgarh • Second largest producer.

• Maikala range in Bilaspur, Durg districts and the Amarkantak plateau regions of
Surguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur are some of the areas having rich deposits of bauxite.

Maharashtra • Third largest producer.

• Largest deposits occur in Kolhapur district.
• Kolhapur district contain rich deposits with alumina content 52 to 89 per cent.
• Other districts: Ratnagiri, Thane, Satara and Pune.

Jharkhand • Ranchi, Lohardaga, Palamu and Gumla districts.

• High grade ore occurs in Lohardaga.

Gujarat • The most important deposits occur in a belt lying between the Gulf of Kachchh and
the Arabian sea through Jamnagar, Bhavnagar, Junagadh and Amreli districts.

Madhya Pradesh • Amarkantak plateau area, the Maikala range in Shandol, Mandla and Balaghat dis-
tricts and the Kotni area of Jabalpur district are the main producers.

Tamil Nadu • Nilgiri and Salem are the main bauxite producing districts.

6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World

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World’s Bauxite Reserves: Source and Credits

World’s Bauxite Reserves World’s Bauxite Production

Country Reserves (BT) Country Production (MT)

1. Guinea 7.4 1. Australia 89

2. Australia 6 2. China 65

3. Vietnam 3.7 3. Guinea 47

4. Brazil 2.6 4. Brazil 38

Total ~ 30 BT 5. India 15

• Australia: Cape York Peninsula, Northern Territory, Western Australia.Each of these countries have enough
reserves to continue production for decades to come.
• India’s bauxite ore reserves are estimated to be 660 MT.

7. Lead & Zinc

7.1 Lead

• Lead is a corrosion-resistant, ductile (can be drawn out into a thin wire) and malleable (can be hammered
into shape without breaking) blue-grey metal. It is a bad conductor.
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• It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common metals and also has a relatively low melting point.
• Galena (lead glance – natural mineral form of lead sulphide), a principal ore of lead, often bears silver.
• Galena is found in veins in limestones, calcareous slates and sandstones.
• Lead is easily extracted from its ores.
• Lead effectively resists corrosive effects of atmospheric gases and acidic substances.
• Hence it is largely used for coating iron-sheets, lining acid tanks etc.
• World-wide largest single use of lead today is in the manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries.
• Other major uses of lead are in the manufacture of storage batteries, paints, ammunition, etc.
• It is alloyed with many other metals to produce brass, bronze (anti-friction metal), etc.
• It is also used as plumbing material in automobiles, aero planes, electric wires, etc.

7.2 Zinc

• Zinc is a silvery blue-grey metal with a relatively low melting and boiling point.
• Sphalerite (zinc sulphide) is the principal ore of zinc.
• It is usually found in veins in association with galena, pyrite (iron disulphide), and other sulphides.
• About three-fourths of zinc is used as coating to protect iron and steel from corrosion (galvanized steel)
and as alloying metal to make bronze and brass.
• The remaining one-fourth is consumed as zinc compounds mainly by the rubber, chemical, paint, and agri-
cultural industries.
• Zinc is also a necessary element for proper growth and development of humans, animals, and plants.
• It is the second most common trace metal, after iron, naturally found in the human body.

7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and World

World’s Lead Reserves World’s Lead Produc- World’s Zinc Reserves World’s Zinc Production
(in MT) tion (in thousand tons) (in MT) (in thousand tons)

Country Reserves Country Year 2017 Re- Country Year 2017

Country serves

1. Australia 24 1. China 2300 1. Australia 64 1. China 4300

2. China 18 2. Australia 459 2. China 44 2. Peru 1473

3. Russia 6.4 3. Peru 307 3. Peru 21 3. Australia 841

World Total 83 MT India 173 World 230 MT 4. India 784

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• Indian has 2.5 MT of lead and 10 MT of zinc reserves.

• Both lead & zinc are found to occur together in ore along with other metals like silver and cadmium.
• The country has the self-sufficiency in respect of zinc. In contrast, there is short supply of lead.
• Almost the entire production of zinc and lead comes from Rajasthan.
• The demand for lead from Lead Acid Battery Sector is met by the thriving market of lead scrap recycling.
• Hindustan Zinc Ltd (Rajasthan) is the only producer of primary lead and primary zinc in 2017-18.
• Edayar (Binani) Zinc Limited did not operate pursuant to repealing of Sick Industrial Companies.

State Reserves (MT) Major Mines in Rajasthan

1. Rajasthan 670 89% • Rampura-Agucha mine (Bhilwara district),

2. Andhra Pradesh 22.7 3% • Kayad mine (Ajmer district),

3. Madhya Pradesh 14.8 2% • Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar-Khurd mine (Rajsamand dis-

4. Bihar 11.4 1.5% trict) and

5. Maharashtra 9.3 1.24% • Zawar group of mines (Udaipur district),

7.4 Pyrites

• Sulphur is used for the production of sulphuric acid which in turn is used for the production of chemical
fertilizers, textiles, galvanising of steel, storage batteries, refining of petroleum, explosives and other acids.
• Elemental sulphur is useful for manufacturing explosives, matches, insecticides and for vulcanizing rubber.
• It can be found as a pure element or as sulphate or sulphide minerals.

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• Pyrite is a sulphide of iron that occurs in sedimentary rocks. It is a chief source of sulphur.
• Sulphide occurs naturally in mineral ores, oil and coal deposits.
• Native sulphur deposit has been reported in Puga Valley of Leh district in Jammu & Kashmir.
• Petroleum refineries extract H2S when making “clean fuels” and use it as a feed stock to produce sulphur.
• High proportion of sulphur is injurious to iron. Hence is it removed and used to produce sulphur.
• Total reserves of pyrites in the country as of 2015 have been placed at 1.7 BT.
• Out of these, only about 27 million tonnes are under feasibility category.
• Major reserves are located in Bihar (94%) and Rajasthan (5%).
• Entire native resources of sulphur are located in Jammu & Kashmir (100%) and are placed at 0.21 MT.
• China, USA and Canada have the highest reserves.
• India’s imports of sulphur were mainly from UAE (30%), Qatar (28%), Saudi Arabia (22%).

8. Gold and Silver

8.1 Gold

• Gold in its purest form is dense, soft malleable and ductile metal.
• It is one of the least reactive chemical elements (resistant to corrosion).
• Gold often occurs in free elemental (native) form, as nuggets or grains, in auriferous (rocks containing gold)
rocks, in vein, and in alluvial deposits.

Gold Reserves and Production in India

• As of 2015, the total reserves of gold ore in the country have been estimated at 502 MT.
• The total reserves of gold (primary), in terms of metal stood at 655 Tons.

India’s Gold Ore reserves India’s Gold Production

State % Share In terms of Metal Content State FY 2017-18

1. Bihar 44% 1. Karnataka 1. Karnataka 99%

2. Rajasthan 25% 2. Rajasthan 2. Jharkhand 1%

3. Karnataka 21% 3. Andhra Pradesh The domestic production nowhere

4. West Bengal 3% 4. Bihar meets the domestic demand. The de-

5. Andhra Pradesh 3% 5. Jharkhand mand is mainly met through imports.

6. Jharkhand 2% Total: 655 Tons Total 550 TT

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Karnataka • Gold mines are located in Kolar (Kolar Gold Field), Dharwad, Hassan and Raichur
(Hutti Gold Field) districts.
• Kolar Gold Fields is one of the deepest mines of the world. (Usually, gold mines are
the deepest mines in the world. Mponeng Gold Mine in South Africa is one of the
deepest mine in the world (3.9 km deep)).
• Hutti mines are exploited to their maximum levels and the ore left behind is of very
low grade.
• The Kolar Gold Field has also run out of quality reserves and is on the verge of clo-
sure.

Jharkhand • Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak) river have some alluvial gold.
• Sona nadi in Singhbhum district is important.
• Sonapat valley is another major site with alluvial gold.

Andhra Pradesh • Ramagiri in Anantapur district is the most important gold field in AP

Kerala • The river terraces along the Punna Puzha and the Chabiyar Puzha have some alluvial
gold.

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World’s Gold Reserves and Gold Production

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World’s Gold Reserves (in World’s Production of Gold in

MT) 2017 (in TT)

Country Reserves Country Production Major gold mines

1. Australia 9.8 1. China 426 13% • The Muruntau mine, Uzbekistan is

2. South Africa 6 2. Australia 294 9% one of the largest gold mines in the

3. Russia 5.3 3. Russia 270 8% world.

4. USA 3 4. USA 237 7% • Kalgoorlie Superpit Gold Mine,

5. Peru 2.6 5. Canada 176 5% Western Australia.

6. Indonesia 2.5 6. Peru 151 5% • Boddington Gold Mine, Western

7. Brazil 2.4 7. Ghana 137 4% Australia.

8. Canada 2 8. South Africa 137 4% • Grasberg mine, Indonesia.

9. China 2 9. Mexico 127 4%

World Total 54 MT World Total 3.3 MT

8.2 Silver

• Silver is grouped in the category of noble metals (highly resistant to corrosion; e.g. gold, platinum, etc.).
• Silver is known to have the highest electrical and thermal conductivity amongst all metals.
• It is used in printed electric circuits, coating (electroplating) for electronic conductors and in alloys of gold
& copper for electrical contacts.
• Its chloride and iodide are light-sensitive and hence used in photographic material.
• Silver (in paste form) is used on solar cells.
• The chief ore minerals of silver are stephanite, pyrargyrite and proustite.

Silver Reserves and Production – India & World

• In India, there are no native silver deposits except the small Bharak deposit in Rajasthan.
• Silver occurs generally with lead, zinc, copper (especially their sulphide ore) and gold ores and is extracted as
a by-product from electrolysis or chemical methods.
• Silver was recovered in the past as a co-product in gold refining at KGF and Hutti Gold Mines in Karnataka.
• Silver is now recovered as a by-product from Hindustan Zinc Smelter, Chanderiya, Chittorgarh in Raja-
sthan, Tundoo smelter in Jharkhand and Visakhapatnam smelter in AP and from gold refinery of Hutti.

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• The Hindustan Copper Ltd. at Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum district of Jhakhand obtains silver from
copper slimes.
• The total reserves of silver in India as of 2015 have been estimated at about 511.95 MT.
• The total reserves of silver in terms of metal were estimated at 29,982 tonnes.
• Rajasthan accounts for 87% reserves in terms of ore, Jharkhand 5%, Andhra Pradesh 3% and Karnataka 2%.
• Indian produced ~557.7 Tons of silver in 2017-18 of which Rajasthan alone accounted for ~557 tons. The
rest came from Karnataka.

World’s Silver Reserves World’s Production of Silver • India’s Imports of silver increased to 5.9 TT in
(in TT) in 2017 (in TT) 2017-18 as compared to 3.4 TT in the preced-

Country Reserves Country Production ing year.

1. Peru 110 1. Mexico 5.8 • The rise in imports is due to huge demand

2. Poland 110 2. Peru 4.3 from Photovoltaics (PV) industry.

3. Australia 89 3. China 3.5 • Imports were mainly from the Hong Kong

World Total 560 India 0.5 TT (43%), UK (17%), Russia (13%), China (10%).

9. Ores of Metals used in Alloys

9.1 Manganese

• Manganese is very hard and brittle in nature.

• It is always available in combination with iron, laterite and other minerals.
• Manganese ores of major commercial importance are pyrolusite, psilomelane, manganite & braunite.
• Manganese is added to steel to increase its strength.
• Manganese in aluminium alloy cans improves the resistance to corrosion.
• Iron & Steel Industry is the major consumer of manganese ore wherein manganese ore is used directly as a
blast furnace feed (manganese deoxidizes and desulfurizes steel).
• Most of the manganese goes into the production of manganese alloys such as ferromanganese.

Manganese ore distribution in India

• Indian manganese ore deposits occur mainly as metamorphosed sedimentary deposits.

• Gondite deposits: Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat & Chhindwara districts), Maharashtra (Bhandara & Nagpur
districts), Gujarat (Panchmahal district) and Odisha (Sundargarh district).

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• Kodurite & Khondolite deposits: Odisha (Koraput district) and Andhra Pradesh (Srikakulam district).

India’s Manganese Ore Reserves as of India’s Manganese Ore Production

2015 have been placed at 496 MT 2017-18 in TT

State % Share State Production

Odisha 44% Madhya Pradesh 831

Karnataka 22% Maharashtra 731

Madhya Pradesh 12% Odisha 517

Maharashtra 7% Karnataka 294

Goa 7% Andhra Pradesh 167

Andhra Pradesh 4% Total 2.6 MT

• Presently India is one of the major importers of manganese ore in the world.
• Imports of manganese ore stood at 3.57 MT.
• South Africa (58%), Australia (14%) and Gabon (13%) were the main suppliers of manganese ore in 2017-
18.

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Manganese ore distribution across the World

World’s Manganese Ore Reserves World’s Manganese Ore Produc-

in MT tion in MT

Country Reserves Country Production

1. South Africa 230 1. South Africa 13.8

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2. Ukraine 140 2. China 12.5

3. Brazil 110 3. Australia 6

4. Australia 99 4. Gabon 4

India 33 5. Ghana 3

World Total 760 MT 6. India 2.5

9.2 Tungsten

• Tungsten (wolfram) is a rare metal found naturally on Earth combined with other elements.
• It is a hard steel-grey shiny metal that is often brittle and hard to work.
• Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite.
• Tungsten has the highest melting point (3422 °C) among elements.
• It also has the highest boiling point (5930 °C).
• Its density is comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher than that of lead.
• Much of the wolfram is used by the steel industry (it imparts self-hardening property to steel).
• It is elastic, ductile and has high tensile strength and can be drawn into very thin wires.
• Tungsten is easily alloyed with chromium, nickel, molybdenum, titanium, etc. to yield a number of hard facing,
heat and corrosion resistant alloys (resistant to all acids).
• Tungsten carbide is used in cemented carbides (hardmetals) which are wear-resistant materials used by the
metalworking and mining industries.
• Tungsten's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles.
• Tungsten is also used to make heavy metal alloys for armaments, high-density applications, such as superal-
loys for turbine blades.
• Tungsten's many alloys have numerous applications, including incandescent light bulb filaments, X-ray
tubes, electrodes in gas tungsten arc welding, superalloys, and radiation shielding.

Distribution of Wolfram in India and across the World

World’s Tungsten Re- World’s Tungsten Pro- India’s Tungsten Reserves

serves (in MT) duction (in MT)

Country Reserves Country Production State Share Regions

1. China 1900 1. China 65 Karnataka 42% Kolar Gold Fields

2. Russia 240 2. Vietnam 6.4 Rajasthan 27% Degana in Nagaur district

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World Total 3300 MT 3. Russia 2 Andhra Pradesh 17% East Godavari district

Indian has total reserves of 87.39 MT of tungsten Maharashtra 9% Sakoli basin in Nagpur district

• The domestic requirements of tungsten and its products are met mainly through imports from China, Austria,
Korean Republic, etc.

9.3 Copper

• Copper is one of the few metals that occurs in nature in directly usable metallic form (native metals).Copper
is a malleable and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Copper and its alloys are widely used in electrical industry.
• Pure gold is 24 carat gold. This is alloyed with 2 parts of silver or copper to make it hard (22 carat gold).

Major Copper Alloys

Iron + Nickel + Copper + Chromite + …. ➔ Stainless Steel

Copper + Nickel ➔ Morel Metal
Copper + Aluminium ➔ Duralumin
Copper + Zinc ➔ Brass
Copper + Tin ➔ Bronze

Copper Ore Distribution and Production in India

• Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL), a PSU, is the only integrated company in the country that is involved in
mining & beneficiation of ore and is engaged in smelting, refining and casting of refined copper.

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Copper ore reserves in India

State Ore Reserves (MT) Metal Reserves (MT) Major districts with ore reserves

1. Rajasthan 813 54% 4.5 Jhunjhunu (Khetri-Singhana)

2. Jharkhand 295 19.5% 3.2 Singhbhum

3. Madhya Pradesh 283 18.8% 3.4 Balaghat (Malanjkhand copper mines)

Total 1.51 BT 12.1 MT

Copper Ore and Coper Metal production in India in 2017-18

State Copper Ore Production (MT) Copper Metal Production (TT)

Madhya Pradesh 2.3 20

Rajasthan 1.1 11.2

Jharkhand 0.18 1.5

Total 3.68 MT 33 TT

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• The copper ores contain a small percentage of the metal and hence mining is expensive.
• The total reserves of copper ore in India as of 2015 are estimated at 1.51 billion tonnes.
• The total metal content out of the total resources is a mere12.16 million tonnes (low grade copper ore).
• Hence India imports most of its copper.

Distribution of Copper Ore and Production Across the World

• The world mine production of copper was at 20.2 million tonnes of metal content in 2017.

Image Source and Credits

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World’s Copper Reserves World’s Copper Production

in MT in MT

Country Reserves Country 2017

1. Chile 170 Chile 5.5

2. Australia 88 Peru 2.4

3. Peru 83 China 1.7

World Total 830 MT USA 1.3

9.4 Nickel

• Nickel does not occur free in nature. It is found in association with copper, uranium and other metals.
• It has relatively low electrical conductivity, high resistance to corrosion, excellent strength at high tem-
peratures and capable of getting magnetised.
• Hence nickel steel is used for manufacturing armoured plates, bullet jackets etc.
• Nickel is an important alloying material.

Iron + Nickel ➔ Stainless Steel

Nickel + Copper or Silver ➔ Rupee Coins

• Nickel-aluminium alloys are used for manufacturing aeroplanes and internal combustion engines.
• Metallic nickel is used for making batteries and as a catalyst for hydrogenation or hardening of fats and
oils intended for use in soap and foodstuffs.

Distribution of Nickel in India and World

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• Nickel occurs principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates in India.

• Important occurrence is in Sukinda Valley, Jajpur district, Odisha, where it occurs as oxide.
• Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along with copper in East Singhbhum district, Jharkhand.
• In addition, it is found associated with uranium deposits at Jaduguda, Jharkhand.
• Other important occurrences of nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
• Polymetallic sea nodules are another source of nickel.

India’s Nickel Ore Reserves World’s Nickel Metal World’s Nickel Metal Pro- Imports in 2016-17 in
in MT Reserves in MT duction in 2017 in TT Tons

State Reserves Country Reserves Country Reserves Country Qty

1. Odisha 175 93% Indonesia 21 1. Indonesia 339 Guinea 796

2. Jharkhand 9 4.7% Australia 19 2. Philippines 315 Australia 264

3. Nagaland 5 2.6% Brazil 11 Total 1062 T

Total 189 MT World Total 89 MT 3. Russia 221

9.5 Molybdenum

• Molybdenum is used as an alloying agent in steel, cast iron, nickel, cobalt, titanium & superalloys to en-
hance strength and resistivity to wear & corrosion.
• As a refractory metal, it is used in many electrical and electronic components.
• Molybdenum plays a vital role in the energy industry and it may become essential in green technology.
• Molybdenum does not occur freely in nature.
• Molybdenite is the principal ore of molybdenum.
• In India, molybdenum is associated generally with copper, lead and zinc ores.
• In India, molybdenum is produced intermittently from uranium ore of Jaduguda mine in Jharkhand.
• There are several critical minerals that India lacks and one of them is molybdenum.

India’s Molybdenum Reserves World’s Molybdenum World’s Molybdenum

in MT Reserves in MT Production in 2017 in TT

State Reserves Country Reserves Country Production

1. Tamil Nadu 10 1. China 8300 1. China 130

2. Madhya Pradesh 8 2. USA 2700 2. Chile 62

3. Karnataka 1.32 3. Peru 2400 3. USA 44

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Total 19.4 MT World Total 17000 4. Peru 28

• The reserves of molybdenum ore in India have been estimated at 19.4 MT containing about 12.7 TT of Mo-
lybdenum disulphide.
• Imports of molybdenum ores stood at 9 TT in 2017-18.
• Imports were mainly from Chile (36%), Thailand (24%), USA (9%).

9.6 Chromite

• Chromite (iron chromium oxide) is the commercially viable ore of chromium.

• The chromium extracted from chromite is used in chrome plating and alloying for production of corrosion
resistant super alloys, nichrome, and stainless steel.
• It is also used in the manufacture of alloys along with other metals, such as nickel, cobalt, molybdenum,
copper, titanium, zirconium, vanadium, selenium, etc.

Chromite Distribution across India and World

• The total reserves of chromite in India as of 2015 is estimated at 344 MT.

• More than 96% resources of chromite are located in Odisha (Jajpur, Kendujhar and Dhenkanal districts).
• Minor deposits are scattered over Manipur, Nagaland, Karnataka, etc.
• The production of chromite was 3.4 MT during 2017. Odisha alone produced 3.3 MT (rest from Karnataka).
• Imports of chrome ore were mainly from South Africa (99%).

World’s Chromium Metal World’s Chromite Production

Reserves in MT in MT

Country Reserves Country 2017

1. Kazakhstan 230 1. South Africa 16.5

2. South Africa 200 2. Turkey 6.6

3. India 100 3. Kazakhstan 6.3

World Total 560 4. India 3.4

9.7 Cobalt

• Cobalt is an important ferromagnetic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial applications.

• Cobalt is extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious metals.
• Major use of cobalt is in metallurgical applications, in special alloy/super alloy industry.
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• Super alloys made of cobalt are wear & corrosion-resistant at elevated temperatures.
• Hard-facing or cutting tools with cobalt alloys provide greater resistance to wear, heat, and corrosion.
• Cobalt is used as precursors (cobalt compounds) for cathodes in rechargeable batteries.
• Largest demand for cobalt has been from the Rechargeable Battery Industry (Lithium ion battery).
• Cobalt is alloyed with aluminium and nickel to manufacture powerful magnets.

Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World

State Reserves in MT Region with reserves

1. Odisha 31 69% Kendujhar and Jajpur districts

2. Jhar- 9 20% Singhbhum district

khand

3. Nagaland 5 11% Tuensang district

Total 44.9 MT Presently, there is no production of cobalt from primary cobalt resources.

• India is aggressively pushing electric mobility. All electric vehicles at present use Lithium ion batteries.
• Hence, India has to aggressively push to secure lithium and cobalt (strategic minerals) resources both
internally and externally.
• China has already taken a substantial lead in the race by aggressively procuring these minerals from Congo.

• The demand for cobalt is usually met through imports.

• Recycling technologies for recovery of cobalt from waste Li-ion batteries have been an evolving process.
• Imports of cobalt and alloys were at 875 tonnes in 2017-18.
• Imports were mainly from USA & Canada (13% each), Belgium (12%), Norway & UK (9% each) and China (8%)
& Morocco (7%).

World’s Reserves of Cobalt Content (in TT) World’s Production of Cobalt Content in 2017 (in TT)

Country Reserves Country Production

Congo (Kinshasa) 3400 49% Congo 82.5 59%

Australia 1200 17% New Caledonia 9.4 7%

Cuba 500 7% China 9 6%

Philippines 280 4% Canada 6.5 5%

Canada 250 4% Australia 5.2 4%

World Total 6900 TT Total 139 TT

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10. Strategic Minerals

10.1 Lithium

It's used in the manufacture of aircraft and in certain batteries.

• Lithium is lightest known metal. It has a density of 0.534 g/cm3 (half as dense as water).
• It's light and soft and has lowest melting points of all metals and a high boiling point.
• Lithium-ion batteries are key to lightweight, rechargeable power for laptops, phones, electric vehicles, etc.
• Lithium and another battery component, cobalt, could become scarce as demand increases
• Lithium is highly reactive and flammable and must be stored in mineral oil.
• It never occurs freely in nature, but only in compounds such as igneous rocks formed underground.
• China controls most of the lithium supply across the world.

World’s Lithium Reserves in MT World’s Lithium Production in TT

Country Reserves Country Production

Chile 7.5 47% Australia 18.7 43%

China 3.2 20% Chile 14.1 33%

Australia 2.7 17% Argentina 5.5 13%

Argentina 2 13% China 3 7%

World total 16 MT World total 43 TT

KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical Minerals

PIB | 01-08-2019

• A joint venture company namely Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) is to be set up with the participation of
three Central Public Sector Enterprises namely,
✓ National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO),
✓ Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL) and
✓ Mineral Exploration Company Ltd. (MECL).
• The equity participation between NALCO, HCL and MECL is in the ratio of 40:30:30.
• Objective of constituting KABIL is to ensure a consistent supply of critical and strategic minerals to Indian
domestic market.

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KABIL functions

• The KABIL would carry out identification, exploration, development, mining and processing of strategic min-
erals overseas for commercial use and meeting country’s requirement of these minerals.
• The new company will help in building partnerships with other mineral rich countries like Australia and those
in Africa and South America.

The Need for KABIL

• Indian is betting big on Electric Vehicle Mobility therefore it is important to ensure energy storage through
batteries.
• Aviation, Defence and Space Research also require minerals with lower weight and high mechanical strength.
• Among such twelve minerals identified as strategic minerals, which have meagre resource base, Lithium and
Cobalt are significant.

There are more strategic minerals that are scare but are indispensable for India. They will be covered
under “current affairs” whenever they are in news

11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond

11.1 Graphite

• Graphite, also known as plumbago or black lead, is the most stable form of carbon.
• It is extremely soft (greasy feel), cleaves (splits into layers) with very light pressure.
• It is extremely resistant to heat and is highly unreactive.
• Graphite is the only non-metal that can conduct electricity.
• The carbon content in Graphite is high (more than that in anthracite coal).
• Graphite may be considered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite.

Carbon content in Peat < Lignite < Bituminous < Anthracite < Graphite < Diamond

• It is not normally used as fuel because it is difficult to ignite.

• Most of the graphite is formed at convergent plate boundaries where organic-rich shales and limestones
were subjected to metamorphism due to heat and pressure.
• Graphite formed from the metamorphism of coal seams is known as amorphous graphite.
• Both crystalline and amorphous varieties of graphite are produced in India.

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• Synthetic graphite is manufactured in electric furnaces, using anthracite as raw feed.

Applications of Graphite

• Natural graphite is mostly consumed for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, lubricants etc.
• A refractory material is one that retains its strength at high temperatures.
• Natural and synthetic graphite are used to construct the anode of all major battery technologies.
• Natural amorphous graphite is used in brake linings for heavier vehicles.
• Graphite lubricants are used at very high or very low temperatures.
• Modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay.

Distribution of Graphite across India and World

Total resources of Graphite in India in MT Total recoverable resources of Graphite in India in MT

State Resources State Recoverable Resources

1. Arunachal Pradesh 72 37% 1. Jharkhand 4.2 52%

2. Jammu & Kashmir 62 32% 2. Tamil Nadu 3.4 42%

3. Odisha 19 9.7% 3. Odisha 0.5 6%

4. Jharkhand 17 9% Total 8 MT

5. Tamil Nadu 7.9 4% • Production of graphite at about 33.5 TT in 2017-18

6. Madhya Pradesh 5.7 2.9% • Jharkhand (19 TT – 56%) was the leading producer, fol-

Total 195 MT lowed by Odisha and Kerala.

• Graphite mines, barring a few underground mines are mostly small and opencast.
• Active mining centres of graphite are in Palamu district in Jharkhand; Nuapada & Balangir districts in
Odisha; and Madurai & Sivaganga districts in Tamil Nadu.

World’s Graphite (natu- World’s Graphite (natural) • India’s imports of graphite (natural) in 2017-
ral) Reserves in MT Production in TT 18 were 40 TT.

Country Reserves Country Production • Graphite (natural) was imported from China

1. Turkey 90 1. China 900 (88%) (86%), Brazil (6%).

2. China 73 2. Brazil 82 (8%) • Imports of Graphite (artificial) in 2017-18

3. Brazil 72 3. India 34 (3%) were 67 TT.

India 8 4. Canada 30 • Imports of graphite (artificial) were from

World Total 300 Total 1 MT China (48%), Poland (17%), Malaysia (16%).

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11.2 Diamonds

• Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance found on Earth. Its composition is pure carbon.
• Diamonds are formed in mantle (formed from carbon under very high temperatures and pressures).
• They are brought to the earth’s crust due to volcanism.
• Most of the diamonds occur in kimberlite pipes, dykes, sill etc. (volcanic igneous rock landforms).
• Diamonds, derived from the primary sources, occur in alluvial deposits also.
• Diamonds are used in ornaments and as abrasive material (polishing metal surfaces) and in gem cutting.
• The important industrial use of diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and mining.
• Synthetic diamonds compete as an abrasive mineral with natural industrial diamonds.

Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and gravels in India

• Andhra Pradesh: Anantapur (Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe), Kadapa, Guntur districts;

• Madhya Pradesh: Panna belt;
• Chhattisgarh: Raipur and Bastar districts; and
• Odisha: region lying between Mahanadi and Godavari valleys.
• The new kimberlite fields were discovered in Raichur-Gulbarga districts of Karnataka.

India’s Diamond Reserves in Million Carats India’s Diamond Production in 2017 in Thousand Carats

State Reserves State Production

1. Madhya Pradesh 28.7 90% Madhya Pradesh 39.7

2. Andhra Pradesh 1.8 5.7% 100% of India’s Diamond Production happens in Majhgawan,

3. Chhattisgarh 1.3 4% Satna District, Madhya Pradesh.

Total 31.83 million carats

• India depends almost entirely on imports of rough gem diamonds for its Cutting and Polishing Industry.
• Workmanship of Indian artisans at polishing small diamonds economically has been widely acknowledged.
• Most of the world's diamond cutting and polishing is done in Surat, Gujarat.
• In 2017-18, imports value of diamonds was 1,90,203 crores.
• Imports were mainly from Unspecified countries! (27%), UAE (15%), Belgium (14%), Russia (12%), etc.
• Value of diamond exports stood at 1,62,022 crores in 2017-18.
• Exports were mainly to Hong Kong (40%), USA (30%), Belgium (9%), etc.

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Diamonds Across the World

World’s Diamond Reserves World’s Diamond Production • Botswana is the leading diamond-pro-
in Million Carats in Million Carats ducing country in terms of value, and

Country Reserves Country Production the second largest in terms of volume.

1. Russia 650 1. Russia 42.6 The two important ones are Orapa and

2. Congo 150 2. Botswana 22.9 Jwaneng.

3. Australia 120 3. Canada 22.7 • Australia is famous for its pink, purple

4. Botswana 90 4. Australia 17.1 and red diamonds.

5. South Africa 70 5. Congo 15.4 • Kimberley Diamond Mine in South Af-

World Total 1200 6. South Africa 9.7 rica is well known.

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Differences Between Graphite and Diamond

• Graphite & Diamond are the major allotropes of carbon. Other important allotrope being anthracite coal.

Allotrope: two or more different physical forms in which an element can exist (e.g. graphite, charcoal, and diamond
as forms of carbon).

• Graphite and diamond share the same composition but have very different structures.

Graphite Diamond

• Pure graphite contains 95-99% carbon. • Diamond is 100% carbon.

• Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that forms when • Diamond is also a non-metallic mineral that
carbon is subjected to extreme heat and pressure in forms when carbon is subjected to extreme
Earth’s crust and in the upper mantle. heat and pressure in the mantle.

• Graphite is one of the most stable substances on earth. • Diamond (one of the most stable) is less stable
than graphite.

• The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a hexagonal • In contrast, the carbon atoms in diamond are
network that forms sheets that are one atom thick. linked into a frameworks structure.

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• These sheets are poorly connected and easily cleave • Every carbon atom is linked into a three di-
or slide over one another if subjected to a small mensional network with strong covalent
amount of force. bonds.
• This gives graphite it’s very low hardness, its perfect • This arrangement holds the atoms firmly in
cleavage and its slippery feel (E.g. Pencil lead). place and make diamond an exceptionally
hard material.

12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and Magnesite

12.1 Limestone

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• Limestone is sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

• The most important constituents of limestone are calcite, magnesite (magnesium carbonate) and dolo-
mite (calcium magnesium carbonate).
• The dolomitic limestone in Gujarat is used for making slabs and tiles.
• Limestone of Kalburgi district, commonly known as 'Shahabad stones' are used as flooring stones.
• Pulverised limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralise acidic soils (agricultural lime).
• 75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry and 4 per cent in
the chemical industries.
• In blast furnaces, limestone (flux) binds with silica and other impurities and facilitates their removal.
• As a reagent in fuel-gas desulphurisation, it reacts with sulphur dioxide which enables air pollution control.
• It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.

Distribution of Limestone in India

• Almost all the states of India produce some quantity of limestone.

India’s Limestone Reserves in BT India’s Production of Limestone (2017-18) in MT

State Reserves State Production Regions

1. Karnataka 55 27% 1. Rajasthan 75 22% Almost all districts

2. Andhra Pra- 12% 2. Madhya Pradesh 13% Jabalpur, Satna, Betul

desh 24 44

3. Rajasthan 24 12% 3. Andhra Pradesh 37 11% Kurnool, Guntur

4. Gujarat 20 10% 4. Chhattisgarh 37 11% Bastar, Durg, Raipur

5. Meghalaya 18 9% 5. Karnataka 31 9% Kalburgi, Shimoga

Total 203 BT Total 340 MT

• Exports of limestone in 2017-18 was 2.81 MT.

• Limestone in bulk was exported mainly to Bangladesh (95%) and UK (2%) on the other hand.
• Imports of limestone in 2017-18 was 20.83 MT.
• Limestone was imported mainly from UAE (78%), Oman (13%), Vietnam (4%).
• Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilizers, etc.

12.2 Dolomite

• Limestone with more than 10 per cent of magnesium is called dolomite.

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• When the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite.

• Dolomite is used as blast furnace flux, as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and glass industries.
• Iron and Steel industry is the chief consumer of dolomite (90 per cent) followed by fertilizer.
• Dolomite is widely distributed in the all parts of the country.
• Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are the main producing states and
contribute more than 90 per cent of the total production.
• Orissa and Chhattisgarh together account for about 57 per cent dolomite of India.
• Dolomite rock (Dolomitic Limestone) contains calcium magnesium carbonate.
• Dolomite occurrences are widespread in almost all parts of the country.

State Reserves Production Major Districts

Madhya Pradesh 27% Orissa (29%) Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Koraput districts

Andhra Pradesh 15% Chhattisgarh (28%) Bastar, Bilaspur, Durg and Raigarh districts

Chhattisgarh 11% Jharkhand Singhbhum district and Palamu district

Odisha 10% Rajasthan Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Jaisalmer district

Total 8.4 BT Karnataka Belgaum, Bijapur districts

• India exported 1.9 MT of dolomite in 2015-16.

• Exports were mainly to Nepal (86%) and Bangladesh (11%).

12.3 Magnesite

• Magnesite (MgCO3) is a carbonate of magnesium.

• The Refractory Industry is the major consumer of magnesite.
• It is primarily used for manufacturing refractory bricks.
• It is also used as a bond in abrasives, manufacture of cement for tiles and for extraction of the magnesium.
• India has 394 MT of magnesite reserves; Uttarakhand (59%), Tamil Nadu (25%) and Rajasthan (14%).
• Tamil Nadu has one of the largest deposits of magnesite in the world and the largest in India are found at
Chalk Hills near Salem town.
• Tamil Nadu (69%) continued to be the major producing state followed by Uttarakhand and Karnataka.
• India imported 229 TT of magnesite in 2017-18 from China (33%), Pakistan (19%), Turkey (16%).

13. Other Non-Metallic Mineral Resources

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13.1 Mica

• Mica is a naturally occurring non-metallic mineral that is based on a collection of silicates.

• Mica can be easily and accurately split into very thin sheets or films of any specified thickness.
• It has a unique combination of elasticity, toughness, flexibility and transparency.
• Mica is a very good insulator that has a wide range of applications in electrical and electronics industry.
• It possesses resistance to sudden change in temperature and can withstand high voltage.

Total resources of Mica in India in MT Total Mica Production in India in Tons

State Reserves (2015) State Production 2014-15

Andhra Pradesh 41% Andhra Pradesh (Gudur mines, Nellore) 636 (100%)

Rajasthan 21% • India has enjoyed the monopoly in the production and export

Odisha 20% of sheet mica in the world.

Maharashtra 15% • Of late, there has been a steady downfall in the production of

Total 110 TT mica due to artificial mica substitutes.

• In 2014-15, exports were mainly to China (63%), Saudi Arabia (6%).

13.2 Asbestos

• Asbestos is a group of six naturally occurring fibrous silicate minerals.

• The physical properties such as flexibility, tensile strength, high resistance to electricity, fire and corrosion
by acids, make asbestos commercially important.
• Commercial asbestos is classified into two main mineralogical groups: chrysotile (serpentine) asbestos and
amphibole asbestos.
• Commercially, chrysotile asbestos is far superior in physical properties.
• It is widely used for making fire-proof cloth, rope, etc.
• Asbestos cement products like sheets, pipes and tiles are used for building purposes.
• As of 2015, total reserves of asbestos in India were 23 MT.
• Rajasthan (59% – Ajmer, Udaipur, Bhilwara) and Karnataka (36% – Chikkamagaluru, Hassan, Mandya)
have the highest reserves.
• Russia, China, and Brazil have 99% of the asbestos reserves.
• India’s imports of asbestos were mainly from Russia (63%), Brazil (21%) and Kazakhstan (16%).

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13.3 Kyanite

• Kyanite occurs in metamorphic aluminous rocks.

• It is primarily used in metallurgical, ceramic, refractory, glass, cement industries due to its ability to stand
high temperatures.
• It is also used in making sparking plugs in automobiles.
• India has the largest deposits of kyanite in the world.
• Kyanite grades depend on aluminium content. Greater the aluminium content, greater the quality.
• Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka produce practically the whole of kyanite of India.
• Jharkhand (Singhbhum district) is the largest producer of kyanite (four-fifths).
• Maharashtra (second highest producer of kyanite). Most of the reserves are in Bhandara district.
• Karnataka is the third largest producer. Commercially, workable deposits occur in Hassan district.

Sillimanite

• The occurrence and uses of sillimanite are almost the same as those of kyanite.
• The main concentration of Sillimanite is found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh.
• Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in India. Ganjam is an important sillimanite producing district.
• Kerala is the second largest producing state.

13.4 Gypsum

• Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium.

• It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.
• It occurs in sedimentary formations such as limestones, sandstones and shales.
• It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.
• It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.
• It is applied in agriculture for conserving moisture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorption.
• Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gypsum in India (99 per cent of the total production of India).
• The main deposits occur in Jodhpur, Nagaur and Bikaner.
• The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil Nadu (Tiruchirapalli district), Jammu and Kashmir.

14. Atomic Minerals

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• Uranium, Plutonium and Thorium are the main atomic minerals.

• Other atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium and zirconium.
• Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast & in alluvial rocks of Ranchi & Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand.
• India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to meet her requirement of atomic power generation.
• Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for trace quantities it is now not found in the Earth's crust.
• Plutonium is formed in nuclear power reactors from uranium-238 by neutron capture.
• The most common plutonium isotope formed in a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239.
• Pu-239 is the principal fuel in a fast neutron reactor.

14.1 Uranium

• Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive chemical element.

• It is only naturally formed in supernova explosions.
• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the main elements contributing to natural terrestrial radioactivity.
• Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic number 92.
• Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
• All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fissionable.
• But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-mediated chain reaction).
• Traces of Uranium are found everywhere.
• Commercial extraction is possible only in locations where the proportion of Uranium is adequate.

Uranium Reserves and Production across the World

World’s Uranium (U) Reserves (TT) World’s Uranium (U) Production (TT) in
2017

Country Reserves as of 2015 Country/Region Production

1. Australia 1780 23% 1. Kazakhstan 23.3 39.2%

2. Kazakhstan 941 12% 2. Canada 13.1 22.1%

3. Canada 703 9% 3. Australia 5.8 9.9%

4. Namiba 463 6% 4. Namibia 4.2 7.1%

India 139 2% India 0.4 0.7%

Total 7641 TT World 59 TT

• Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in Southern Australia are important mines in Australia.

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• High-grade deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin region of Canada.
• The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan alone accounts for most of the country's uranium resources

Uranium in India

• Monazite sands comprises the largest source of uranium.

• Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts and in some places in Bihar.
• But the largest concentration of monazite sand is on the Kerala coast.
• Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to be contained in monazite.
• Some uranium is found in the copper mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan.
• Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand,
Gaya district of Bihar, Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh, Aravallis, & Mahadek basin of Meghalaya.
• Singhbhum Copper belt is known for a number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum,
bismuth, gold, silver etc.
• The state of Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of uranium in India.
• Tummalapalle village located in the Kadapa (Cuddapah) district of Andhra Pradesh is considered as one
of the largest uranium reserves in India.

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• India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All needs are met through imports.
• India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbekistan.
• India is trying hard to import uranium from Australia and Canada.
• However, there are some concerns regarding nuclear proliferation and other related issues.

Nuclear Power Plants in India

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14.2 Thorium

• Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th and atomic number 90.

• Uranium and thorium are the only radioactive elements that occur naturally in large quantities.
• Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally occurring ones
(thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).

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• Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, with the other
five natural isotopes occurring only in traces.

Thorium Distribution

• Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth's crust
and is chiefly refined from monazite sands.
• Monazite contains 2.5% thorium and is scattered along the Kerala Coast.
• The other mineral carrying thorium is thorianite.
• Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but only a few thorium
reactors have yet been completed.
• The known reserves of thorium in India are estimated to be between 457,000 and 508,000 tonnes.
• Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the main producers.
• United States, Australia, and India have particularly large reserves of thorium.

World’s Thorium Reserves (2011) India’s Thorium Reserves (2016)

Country Reserves in TT State Reserves

1. India 963 1. Andhra Pradesh 31%

2. United States 440 2. Tamil Nadu 21%

3. Australia 300 3. Odisha 20%

4. Canada 100 4. Kerala 16%

5. South Africa 35 5. West Bengal 10%

Related topics:

• Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors

• India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

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Economic Geography Part II

Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector
(Industrial Locational Factors)
PDF

1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors .................................................................................................... 3

1.1. Primary Activities ................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

1.1.2 Pastoralism................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture........................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.7 Mixed Farming ........................................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.8 Dairy Farming ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture .............................................................................................................................................. 11
1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.1.11 Co-operative Farming ................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.12 Collective Farming .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.13 Mining ................................................................................................................................................................................. 13

1.2. Secondary Activities ............................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry ................................................................................................................................... 13

1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries ................................................................................................................ 14
1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.2.4 Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions ................................................................................................................ 16
1.2.5 Concept of High Technology Industry ........................................................................................................................ 16

1.3. Tertiary Activities ................................................................................................................................. 17

1.3.1 Types of tertiary activities ................................................................................................................................................ 17

1.3.2 Transportation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17

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1.3.3 Tourism ................................................................................................................................................................................... 19

1.4. Quaternary Activities ........................................................................................................................... 20

1.4.1 The Quaternary Sector ...................................................................................................................................................... 20

1.4.2 Quinary Activities ................................................................................................................................................................ 20
1.4.3 Outsourcing........................................................................................................................................................................... 20

1.5. Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries) ..................................... 21

1.5.1 Historical Factors ................................................................................................................................................................. 21

1.5.2 Access to Raw Materials ................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.5.3 Access to energy sources ................................................................................................................................................. 22
1.5.4 Access to Market ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
1.5.5 Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities ..................................................................................... 22
1.5.6 Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce ......................................................................................................... 23
1.5.7 Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries....................................................................... 23
1.5.8 Industrial inertia ................................................................................................................................................................... 23
1.5.9 Government Policy ............................................................................................................................................................. 23

1.6. Questions ............................................................................................................................................... 24

2. Iron and Steel Industry ................................................................................................................................ 25

2.1. Smelting of Iron Ore ............................................................................................................................ 25

2.1.2 What exactly happens in a blast furnace? ................................................................................................................. 26

2.2. Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry ........................................................ 29

2.2.1 Raw Material ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29

2.2.2 Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports ........................................................... 36
2.2.3 Transport Cost Minimization .......................................................................................................................................... 36
2.2.4 Access to markets: Mini Steel plants............................................................................................................................ 37
2.2.5 Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh ............................... 37
2.2.6 Competition .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.2.7 Technology ............................................................................................................................................................................ 39
2.2.8 Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour .................................................................................................. 39
2.2.9 Industrial Inertia ................................................................................................................................................................... 39
2.2.10 Rules and regulations ................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.2.11 Strategic reasons ............................................................................................................................................................ 40
2.2.12 Government policies ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.2.13 Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry ................................................................................................................... 41

3. 70% More to Come ...................................................................................................................................... 42

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1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors

• Economic activities are broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities.

1.1. Primary Activities

• Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment as these refer to utilisation of earth’s
resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials, minerals, etc.
• It thus includes hunting, gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining, quarrying, etc.
• Industries that are involved in primary economic activities are called as primary industries.

1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering

• Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions.

• It involves primitive societies that extract from both plants and animals to satisfy their basic needs.
• The yield per person is meagre and little, or no surplus is produced.
• Gathering is practised in:
✓ high latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile.
✓ Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the
interior parts of Southeast Asia.
• They use various parts of the plants, e.g., the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and tree trunk yield
rubber, gums and resins.
• The chewing gum after the flavour is gone is called Chicle — it is made from the juice of zapota tree.
• In modern times some gathering is market-oriented and has become commercial.
• However, synthetic products often of better quality and at lower prices have replaced many items supplied
by the gatherers in tropical forests.

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1.1.2 Pastoralism

• At some stage in history, as hunting was unsustainable, humans began the domestication of animals.
• People living in different climatic conditions selected and domesticated animals found in those regions.

Nomadic Herding (pastoral nomadism)

• Nomadic herding is a primitive subsistence activity.

• They move from place to place along with their livestock, depending on the availability of pastures & water.
• A wide variety of animals is kept in different regions.
• In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats
and camel are reared.
• In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, yak and llamas and in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions,
reindeer are the most important animals.
• Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions.
• The core region extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa eastwards across the Arabian Peninsula
into Mongolia and Central China.

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• The second region extends over the tundra region of Eurasia.

• In the southern hemisphere there are small areas in South-west Africa and on the island of Madagascar.

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• The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from
mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is known as transhumance.
• In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate from plains to
the mountains in summers and to the plains from the high altitude pastures in winters.
• The number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing due to the imposition of political boundaries.

1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing

• Commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive.

• Commercial livestock ranching is associated with western cultures and is practised on permanent ranches.
• These ranches (a large farm where cattle are bred) cover large areas and are divided into a number of
parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.
• When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel.
• This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared.

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• Essential animals include sheep, cattle, goats and horses.

• Meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported world markets.
• Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a scientific basis.
• The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the animals.
• New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States of America are important countries
where commercial livestock rearing is practised.

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1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture

• In subsistence agriculture, almost all the production is consumed locally with little or nothing left for trade.
• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence Agriculture are the two types.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics.
• The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.
• Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture.

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• It is prevalent in the tropical region in different names, e.g. Jhuming in Northeastern states of India, Milpa
in Central America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
• There are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture.

Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation

• Landholdings are very small due to the high density of population.

• Farmers work with the help of family labour leading to intensive use of land.
• Use of machinery is limited, and most of the agricultural operations are done by manual labour.
• Farmyard manure is used to maintain the fertility of the soil.
• In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low.

Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy

• Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil, etc. it is not practical to grow paddy in parts of monsoon Asia.
• Wheat, soyabean, barley & sorghum are grown in northern China, North Korea and North Japan.
• In India wheat is grown in plains and millets are grown in dry parts of western and southern India.
• Most of the characteristics are similar to that of wet paddy cultivation except that irrigation is often used.

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1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
• Plantations are mainly profit-oriented large scale production systems.
• E.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm, sugarcane, banana & pineapple.
• The characteristic features of this type of farming are
✓ large estates or plantations,
✓ large capital investment,
✓ managerial and technical support,
✓ scientific methods of cultivation,
✓ single crop specialisation,
✓ cheap labour, and
✓ a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets.
• The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in west Africa.
• The British set up large
✓ tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,

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✓ rubber plantations in Malaysia and

✓ sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies.
• Spanish and Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines.
• The Dutch once had a monopoly over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia.
• Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil are still managed by Europeans.

1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

• Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlatitudes.
• Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown.
• The size of the farm is very large. Therefore entire operations of cultivation are mechanised.
• There is a low yield per acre but high yield per person.
• This type of agriculture is best developed in the Eurasian steppes, the North American Prairies, Pampas
of Argentina, Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

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1.1.7 Mixed Farming

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• This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western Europe,
Eastern North America, and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
• Mixed farms are moderate in size & the crops grown are wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder & root crops.
• Animal husbandry is an essential component of mixed farming.
• Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the primary income along with crops.
• Crop rotation and intercropping play an essential role in maintaining soil fertility.
• Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive
use of chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.

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1.1.8 Dairy Farming

• Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals.
• It is highly capital intensive.
• Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming.
• Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
• It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milking.

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• There is no offseason during the year as in the case of crop raising.

• It is practised near urban centres which provide a neighbourhood market for fresh milk & dairy products.
• The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation processes have
increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
• There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming.
• The largest is North Western Europe the second is Canada, and the third belt includes South Eastern
Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

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1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture

• Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised commercial agriculture.

• It is practised in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean Sea, southern California, central Chile,
southwestern parts of South Africa and south and southwestern parts of Australia.
• This region is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region.
• Best quality wines in the world are produced from high-quality grapes in various countries of this region.

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• The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This region also produces olives and figs.
• The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are
grown in winters when there is a great demand in European and North American markets.

1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture

• Market gardening and horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high-value crops such as vegetables, fruits
and flowers, solely for the urban markets.
• Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre.
• It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating in colder regions.
• This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of north-west Europe,
northeastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions.
• The farming where farmers specialise in vegetables only is known as truck farming.
• The distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance that a truck can cover overnight.
• The modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe & North America is factory farming.
• Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens.
• They fed on manufactured feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases.
• This requires heavy capital investment, veterinary services and heating and lighting.

1.1.11 Co-operative Farming

• A group of farmers form a co-operative society voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming.
• Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
• Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all valuable inputs of farming, sell the products at the most
favourable terms and assist in the processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
• The co-operative movement has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark,
Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc.

1.1.12 Collective Farming

• It is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour.

• Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile USSR to improve upon the
inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency.
• The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour.
• They were allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.

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1.1.13 Mining

• The actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution.

• Mining is of two types: surface mining (open-cast mining) and underground mining.
• Surface mining is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the surface.
• The output is both large and rapid.
• When the ore lies deep below the surface, the underground mining (shaft method) has to be used.
• In this method, underground galleries from vertical shafts radiate to reach the minerals.
• Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages.
• It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for safety and efficiency.
• This method is risky — poisonous gases, fires, floods, and caving lead to fatal accidents.
• The developed economies are retreating from mining, processing and refining stages of production due to
high labour costs, while the developing countries with large labour force are becoming more important.
• Several countries of Africa and Asia have over fifty per cent of the earnings from minerals alone.

1.2. Secondary Activities

• Secondary activities transform raw materials into valuable products by the processes of processing,
manufacturing, and construction.
• In each of these processes, the common characteristics are the application of power, mass production of
identical products and specialised labour in factory settings for the production of commodities.

1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry

• Modern large scale manufacturing undertakes mass production of standardised parts by each worker or
robot performing only one task repeatedly.

Mechanisation

• Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which accomplish tasks.

• Automation (manufacturing without the aid of human thinking) is the advanced stage of mechanisation.

Technological Innovation

• Technological innovations through research and development strategy are an important aspect of modern
manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution.

Organisational Structure and Stratification

• Modern manufacturing is characterised by:

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1. a complex machine technology

2. extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs
3. vast capital
4. large organisations
5. executive bureaucracy.

1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Industries based on Size

• The amount of capital invested, number of employees, and volume of production determine the size of
industry.
• Accordingly, industries may be classified into household or cottage, small-scale and large-scale.

Household industries or cottage manufacturing

• It is the smallest manufacturing unit.

• The artisans use local raw materials and simple tools to produce everyday goods in their homes with the
help of their family members or part-time labour.
• Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local markets.

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• Some common everyday products produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs, fabrics,
mats, tools, furniture, leather, pottery, bricks from clays, etc.
• Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and bronze.

Small Scale Manufacturing

• Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and
place of manufacture (a workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer).
• This type of manufacturing uses local raw material, simple power-driven machines and semi-skilled labour.
• It provides employment and raises local purchasing power.
• Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive small scale
manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population.

Large Scale Manufacturing

• Large scale manufacturing involves a large market, various raw materials, enormous energy, specialised
workers, advanced technology, assembly-line mass production and large capital.
• This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-eastern U.S.A.
and Europe. Now it has diffused to almost all over the world.
• On the basis of the system of large scale manufacturing, the world’s major industrial regions may be
grouped under two broad types, namely
1. traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly clustered in a few more developed countries.
2. high-technology large scale industrial regions which have diffused to less developed countries.

Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

• On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b) mineral based; (c)
chemical-based; (d) forest-based: and (e) animal-based.
• Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee
and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
• Agro-processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and confectionery.
• Timber for the furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for the paper industry, lac for lac industries
come from forests.
• Leather for the leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from animals.

Industries Based on Output/Product

• The industries whose products are used as raw material to make other goods are called basic industries.

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• E.g. Iron and steel, copper smelting and aluminium smelting industries.
• The consumer goods industries produced goods which are consumed by consumers directly.
• E.g. industries producing bread, tea, soaps, paper, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries.

1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries

• Foot loose industries can be located in a wide variety of places.

• They are not dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise.
• They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere.
• They produce in small quantity and also employ a small labour force.
• These are generally not polluting industries.
• The essential factor in their location is accessibility by road network.

1.2.4 Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions

• These are based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in metal smelting, heavy
engineering, chemical manufacture or textile production.
• These industries are now known as smokestack industries.
• Traditional industrial regions can be recognised by:
✓ High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry.
✓ High-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services.
✓ Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
✓ Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because
of a worldwide fall in demand.

1.2.5 Concept of High Technology Industry

• High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest generation of manufacturing activities.

• It is best understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts leading to
the manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and engineering character.
• Professional (white-collar) specialists greatly outnumber the actual production (blue-collar) workers.
• Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls of
smelting and refining processes, etc. are notable examples of high-tech industry.
• Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed, office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive assembly structures,
factories and storage areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape.
• Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups have become part of regional development schemes.

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• High-tech industries which are regionally concentrated, self-sustained and highly specialised are called
technopolies.
• The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle are examples of technopolies.

1.3. Tertiary Activities

• Tertiary activities involve the commercial output of services rather than the production of tangible goods.
• They are not directly involved in the processing of physical raw materials.
• Common examples are the work of a plumber, electrician, technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper, driver,
cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer and publisher etc.
• Tertiary activities include both production and exchange.
• The production involves the ‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’.
• The output is indirectly measured in terms of wages and salaries.
• The exchange involves trade, transport and communication facilities that are used to overcome distance.

1.3.1 Types of tertiary activities

1.3.2 Transportation

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• World’s resources are not equitably distributed across regions, and no region is self-sufficient.
• This makes the exchange (transport) of resources, goods and services a necessity throughout the world.
• The areas of shortage are supplied by areas of surplus (bringing sources of supply and demand together)
by a wide network of transport systems.
• The most determining factor for the exchange of resources and goods other than supply and demand is
the economic distance.

Economic distance

• Economic distance is the maximum distance a resource or a good can be transported such that the
increase in the value of the transported good is higher than the cost of transportation.
• The maximum economic distance is determined by the origin and destination (distance), demand and
supply, nature of the good ― weight, size, fragility, perishability, etc. and other factors like terrain,
infrastructure, mode of transport, competition, costs (fuel, wages, transport, insurance), feasibility, etc.
• For example, the maximum economic distance of a perishable product like milk is much lesser compared to
that of iron.
• Milk can be transported for a longer distance using refrigeration; however, the cost of refrigeration
(operating cost involved in the movement of good) seriously limits the economic distance.
• The economic distance of large quantities of petroleum can be increased by transporting it through
pipelines rather than tankers.
• However, India imports petroleum from Iraq and Iran by oil tankers as laying a pipeline through Pakistan is
currently not feasible.

• Likewise, India is not able to import gas from Russia as the gas pipeline needs to pass through China.

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The cost structure of different methods of transport

• In selecting the mode of transport, distance, in terms of time or cost, is the determining factor.
• Isochrone lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.
• Transport of goods involve various kinds of costs such as line-haul costs (cost of movement: fuel,
wages) overhead costs (costs of terminal facilities – loading and unloading, vehicles, equipment, roads,
railway tracks, maintenance, etc.) and transfer costs (indirect costs such as insurance cover, taxes, etc.)
• Line-haul and overhead costs differ between various methods of transport.
• The overhead costs of ocean transport (ports, terminals) are high when compared to that of road transport.
• However, the line-haul costs of road transport rise rapidly with distance compared to that of ocean
transport as the costs of ocean transport are spread over much larger cargo.
• Rail transport occupies an intermediate position in terms of both line-haul and overhead costs.
• Road transport is, therefore, cheapest over short distances, rail over medium distances (D1-D2) and ocean
transport over long distances (beyond D2).

1.3.3 Tourism

• Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time has promoted tourism.
• It has become the world’s single largest tertiary activity in total registered jobs (250 million) and total
revenue (40 per cent of the total GDP).
• Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft industries (souvenirs).
• The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast and the West Coast of India are some of the popular
tourist destinations in the world.
• Most people from colder regions expect to have warm, sunny weather for beach holidays. This is one of the
main reasons for the importance of tourism in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean lands.
• The Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently higher temperatures than in other parts of Europe,
long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holiday season.

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• Home-stay has emerged as a profitable business such as heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorg in
Karnataka.

Medical Tourism

• When medical treatment is combined with international tourism activity, it lends itself to what is commonly
known as medical tourism.
• India has emerged as the leading country of medical tourism in the world.
• World class hospitals located in metropolitan cities cater to patients all over the world.

1.4. Quaternary Activities

• Quaternary activities are a segment of the service sector that is knowledge oriented.
• This sector can be divided into quaternary and quinary activities.
• Quaternary activities involve some of the following: the collection, production and dissemination of
information or even the production of information.
• Quaternary activities centre around research, development and may be seen as an advanced form of
services involving specialised knowledge and technical skills.

1.4.1 The Quaternary Sector

• Over half of all workers in developed economies are in the ‘Knowledge Sector’.
• Personnel working in elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices, theatres,
accounting and brokerage firms all belong to this category of services.
• Like some of the tertiary functions, quaternary activities can also be outsourced.

1.4.2 Quinary Activities

• The highest level of decision-makers or policymakers perform quinary activities.

• Quinary activities are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and
existing ideas, data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies.
• Often referred to as ‘gold collar’ professions, they represent exclusive and highly paid senior business
executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc.

1.4.3 Outsourcing

• Outsourcing is giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce costs.
• When outsourcing involves transferring work to overseas locations, it is described by the term offshoring.

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• Business activities that are outsourced include information technology (IT), human resources, customer
support and call centre services and at times, also manufacturing and engineering.
• Data processing is an IT related service easily be carried out in Asian, East European and African countries.
• In these countries, IT skilled staff with excellent English language skills are available at lower wages
than those in developed countries.
• Thus, a company in Hyderabad does work on a project based on GIS techniques for a country like the U.S.A.
• Overhead costs are also much lower, making it profitable to get job-work carried out overseas, whether it is
in India, China or even a less populous country like Botswana in Africa.
• Outsourcing countries are facing resistance from job-seeking youths in their respective countries.
• The comparative advantage is the main reason for continuing outsourcing.
• New trends in quinary services include knowledge processing outsourcing (KPO) and ‘home shoring’, the
latter as an alternative to outsourcing.
• The KPO industry is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) as it involves highly skilled workers.
• KPO enables companies to create additional business opportunities.
• Examples of KPOs include research and development (R and D) activities, e-learning, business research,
intellectual property (IP) research, the legal profession and the banking sector.

1.5. Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries)

• Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw materials, power, market, capital,
transport and labour, etc.
• Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place.
• There is a strong relationship between raw material and type of industry.
• It is economical to locate the manufacturing industries at a place where the cost of production and delivery
cost of manufactured goods to consumers are the least.
• Transport costs, to a great extent, depend on the nature of raw materials and manufactured products.
• Major concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few number of places.
• These cover less than 10 per cent of the world’s land area.

1.5.1 Historical Factors

• The colonial past greatly influenced industrial nodes such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
• During the initial phase of colonisation, manufacturing received impetus provided by the European traders.
• Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode, Coimbatore, Mysuru, etc., emerged as important manufacturing centres.

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• In the subsequent industrial phase of colonialism, these manufacturing centres experienced rapid growth
due to competition from imported British goods and the discriminatory policies of the colonial power.
• In the last phase of colonialism, the British promoted few industries in selected areas.
• This led to broader spatial coverage by different types of industries in the country.

1.5.2 Access to Raw Materials

• The raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport.
• Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw
material. E.g. steel, sugar, pulp, copper smelting and cement industries.
• This is why most of the iron and steel industries are located either near coalfields (Bokaro, Durgapur, etc.)
or near sources of iron ore (Bhadravathi, Bhilai, and Rourkela).
• Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the sources of farm produce or milk supply
(perishables), respectively.

1.5.3 Access to energy sources

• Industries which use more power are located close to the source of the energy supply. E.g. aluminium
industry, synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industry, etc.
• Earlier coal was the main source of energy; today, hydroelectricity and petroleum are also important
sources of energy for many industries.

1.5.4 Access to Market

• The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most critical factor in the location of industries.
• The developed regions of Europe, North America, Japan and Australia provide large global markets as the
purchasing power of the people is very high.
• The densely populated regions of South and South-east Asia also provide large markets.
• Some industries, such as aircraft manufacturing, defence industry, have a global market.
• The cotton textile industry uses a non-weight-losing raw material and is generally located in a large urban
centre, e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc.
• Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets as the transport of crude oil is easier, and several
products derived from them are used as raw materials in other industries.
• Koyali, Mathura and Barauni refineries are typical examples.

1.5.5 Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities

• The cost of transport plays an important role in the location of industrial units.

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• The industries shifted to interior locations, only when railway lines were laid.
• Western Europe and eastern North America have a highly developed transport system which has always
induced the concentration of industries in these areas.
• The concentration of industries in Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and in and around Kolkata was due to the fact
that they initially became the nodal point having transport links.

1.5.6 Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce

• Some types of manufacturing still require skilled labour.

• In India, labour is quite mobile and is available in large numbers due to our large population.
• Increasing mechanisation, automation and flexibility of industrial processes have reduced the dependence
of industry upon the labours.
• However, the importance of a skilled workforce in the quaternary sector is only increasing day by day.
• Technopolies such as Silicon Valley (San Francisco) are highly dependent on skilled IT professionals.

1.5.7 Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries

• Many industries benefit from nearness to leader-industry and other industries.

• These benefits are termed as agglomeration economies.
• Savings are derived from the linkages which exist between different industries.
• These factors operate together to determine industrial location.

1.5.8 Industrial inertia

• Industrial inertia is when a firm remains in its original location even after the initial advantage or alluring
factors that led to them locating there has disappeared.
• Reasons behind industrial inertia:
✓ there may be strong transportation and economic linkage with other activities of the area.
✓ irreplaceable skilled labour force.
✓ cost and disruption that can arise from relocation.
✓ encouraging government policy like subsidies, ease of doing business, etc.
✓ Sometimes it is easier to modernize an existing location rather than relocation. E.g. when the cotton
industry declined in the U.K., the textile mills were converted into light engineering goods factories.

1.5.9 Government Policy

• Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ to promote ‘balanced’ economic development and hence set up
industries in particular areas.

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• Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on decision to develop
backward tribal areas of the country.
• At present, the government of India provides lots of incentives to industries locating in backward areas.

1.6. Questions

• In which one of the following countries, co-operative farming was the most successful experiment? (a)
Russia (b) Denmark (c) India (d) The Netherlands
• Growing of flowers is called: (a) Truck farming (c) Mixed farming (b) Factory farming (d) Floriculture
• Which one of the following types of cultivation was developed by European colonists? (a) Kolkoz (b)
Viticulture (c) Mixed farming (d) Plantation
• In which one of the following regions is extensive commercial grain cultivation not practised? (a) American
Canadian prairies (b) European Steppes (c) Pampas of Argentina (d) Amazon Basin
• In which of the following types of agriculture is the farming of citrus fruit very important? (a) Market
gardening (b) Plantation agriculture (c) Mediterranean agriculture (d) Co-operative farming
• Which one type of agriculture amongst the following is also called ‘slash and burn agriculture’? (a)
Extensive subsistence agriculture (b) Primitive subsistence agriculture (c) Extensive commercial grain
cultivation
• Which one of the following does not follow monoculture? (a) Dairy farming (c) Plantation agriculture (b)
Mixed farming (d) Commercial grain farming
• Which one of the following statements is wrong?
a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry along the Hugli.
b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.
c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a great extent, the importance of coal
energy as a locational factor for industry.
d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.
• In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of production owned individually? (a)
Capitalist (b) Mixed (c) Socialist (d) None
• Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materials for other industries? (a) Cottage
Industries (b) Small-scale Industries (c) Basic Industries (d) Footloose Industries
• Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched? (a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles (b)
Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka (c) Aircraft industry … Florence (d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh
• Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially in the developed countries of the world.

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• Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attracted to the peripheral areas of major
metropolitan centres.
• Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the most backward continent. Comment.
• Which one of the following is a tertiary activity? (a) Farming (b) Trading (c) Weaving (d) Hunting
• Which one of the following activities is NOT a secondary sector activity? (a) Iron Smelting (b) Catching fish
(c) Making garments (d) Basket Weaving
• Which one of the following sectors provides most of the employment in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and
Kolkata? (a) Primary (b) Quaternary (c) Secondary (d) Service
• Jobs that involve high degrees and level of innovations are known as: (a) Secondary activities (b)
Quaternary activities (c) Quinary activities (d) Primary activities
• Which one of the following activities is related to the quaternary sector? (a) Manufacturing computers (b)
Paper and Raw pulp production (c) University teaching (d) Printing books
• Which one out of the following statements is not true?
a) Outsourcing reduces costs and increases efficiency.
b) At times engineering and manufacturing jobs can also be outsourced.
c) BPOs have better business opportunities as compared to KPOs.
d) There may be dissatisfaction among job seekers in the countries that outsource the job.

2. Iron and Steel Industry

• The iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is called a basic industry.
• It may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky inputs and outputs.
• Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting (heating, melting & separation of impurities) in a blast furnace
with carbon (coke) and limestone.
• The molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron.
• The pig iron is used for converting into steel by adding strengthening materials like manganese.

2.1. Smelting of Iron Ore

• Of the impurities in iron ore, some are beneficial when present in small quantities while the others are
harmful no matter what their proportion is.
• So, the unwanted impurities must be removed, and this is done by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.

Harmful impurities in Iron Ore

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Sulphur

• A very harmful element.

• It reacts with iron to form iron sulphide, which is a very brittle substance.
• Iron sulphide greatly reduces the strength of steel.

Tin

• It forms a low melting point brittle film round the grain boundaries making the steel practically useless.

Oxygen

• Has a bad influence on the properties of steel (Oxides make Iron and steel weak).

Other impurities

Silicon

• Silicon is found in small quantities, and it slightly raises the strength and hardness of steel.
• It acts as a de-oxidizing agent (Oxides decrease the strength of Iron. Hence, they must be removed).

Lead

• Added to all classes of steel to improve the machinability of the Steel.

• When added in small quantities, it improves tool life.

Manganese

• A powerful and most effective de-oxidant.

• Small quantities is good as it can deoxidize sulphur.

2.1.2 What exactly happens in a blast furnace?

• Coke (fuel & reducing agent), iron ore, & limestone (flux) are continuously added to the blast furnace.
• A hot blast of air is blown into the lower section.

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• Final product ➔ liquid slag, liquid iron (pig iron) and gases (CO & CO2).

Why coke and not coal in smelting?

• To separate impurities, iron needs to be melted.

• The coke is the fuel that melts iron. (Coal is cooked through destructive distillation to produce coke.)
• Coal has many impurities, and the most dangerous one is sulphur.
• Coke is a fuel with few impurities and high carbon content (90%).

Reduction ➔ Remove Oxygen

• Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced (removed) by a series of chemical reactions.

1) 3Fe2O3 + CO (obtained by burning coke) ⟶ CO2 + 2Fe3O4
2) Fe3O4 + CO ⟶ CO2 + 3FeO
3) FeO + CO ⟶ CO2 + Fe (pure metal)
• So, carbon monoxide (CO) & CO2 are the gaseous pollutants coming out of blast furnace.

Is there no alternative to highly polluting coke fuel?

• Melting iron ore can also be done with the help of electricity (electric smelting).

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• But most of the traditional iron and steel industry is built to use coke as fuel.
• Switching to electric smelting involves enormous overhead costs, and hence the traditional iron and steel
industry has stuck to coke as fuel.
• Moreover, in most of the traditional iron and steel industry, coal remains more accessible than electricity.
• Also, in countries like India, more than 50% of the electricity is generated by coal-fired power plants.
• But wherever cheap hydroelectricity is available, electric smelting can be used.
• E.g. Vishweshvaraiah Iron and Steel Plant in Bhadravathi, Karnataka now uses hydroelectricity electricity
(Sharavathi hydroelectric power plant, Jog Falls) instead of charcoal.

Role of limestone ➔ Remove Sulphur

• It acts as a flux (a substance mixed with a solid to lower the melting point, especially in smelting).
• Limestone melts and reacts with sulphur to form slag (all solid and liquid impurities).

CaCO3 ⟶ CaO + CO2

• The CaO formed from this reaction is used to remove sulphur from the iron.

FeS + CaO + C = CaS + FeO + CO (Roasting ➔ drives out the unwanted sulphur, leaving an oxide)

• The CaS becomes part of the slag.

• The slag is also formed from any remaining silica, alumina, etc. that entered with the iron ore or coke.
• The liquid slag then trickles to the bottom of the furnace where it floats on top of the molten iron since it is
less dense.

Pig Iron

• Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore.

• The constituents of pig iron are:
✓ Iron (Fe) – 93-95%
✓ Silicon (Si) – 0.3-0.9%
✓ Sulphur (S) – 0.02-0.05%
✓ Manganese (Mn) – 0.55-0.75%
✓ Phosphorus (P) – 0.03-0.09%
✓ Carbon (c) – 4.1-4.4% (The strength of steel can be varied by varying the carbon content)

Cast iron

• Carbon content greater than 2%.

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• Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements.
• Cast iron tends to be brittle.
• Applications: automotive industry parts, cast iron pan.

Steel

• Carbon content is up to 2.1% (by weight).

Stainless steel

• It is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass.

• Nickel is another important element of steel alloy.
• It also contains manganese, molybdenum, and other metals.
• Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does.

Wrought iron

• Wrought iron is a very different material made by mixing liquid iron with some slag.
• The result is an iron alloy with much lower carbon content.
• Wrought iron is softer than cast iron and much less tough, so you can heat it up to shape it relatively
easily, and it's also much less prone to rusting.

2.2. Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry

2.2.1 Raw Material

• The essential bulk inputs of iron & steel industry are iron ore (gross/weight-losing raw material), fuel
(coal; weight-losing), limestone (flux) & water (required for cooling & worker safety).
• These bulk inputs, especially iron ore and coal, have a significant influence on the location of the industry.
• Other raw material like dolomite (refractory material), manganese, chromite (stainless steel making) are
required only in small quantities.

Charcoal: Primitive iron ore smelters near forests

• All iron-making blast furnaces were fuelled by charcoal until the end of the seventeenth century.
• The industry remained primitive as 10-15 tonnes of charcoal was needed to smelt one tonne of iron.
• The steam engine was not yet invented (to bulk transport coal, iron ore) and hence fuel and power were
immobile.
• Hence the iron smelting had to be carried out close to the forests (charcoal).
• Till recently, Vishweshvaraiah Iron and Steel Plant in Karnataka relied on charcoal as fuel.

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Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)

• It is the third integrated steel plant in India.

• It was initially called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works.
• It is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills.
• Limestone and manganese are also locally available.
• But this region has no coal.
• In the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was used as fuel till 1951.
• Afterwards, electric furnaces which use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls (Sharavati) hydel power project
were installed.
• The Bhadravathi river supplies water to the plant.

Coal and iron ore: Near Coalfields during the Industrial Revolution

• With the advent of the steam engine and railways and the successive industrial revolution (the 1760s) in the
eighteenth century, the iron and steel industry developed on a massive scale in the regions where coal and
iron ore were available in close proximity.
• Processing one tonne of iron ore required 8-12 tonnes of coal (for smelting and transportation), which
meant that it was cost-effective to have an iron and steel plant near a coalfield rather than at an iron mine.
• E.g. Iron industry in Western Europe and North-Eastern USA
✓ Ruhr Valley in Germany.
✓ Lancashire, York shire and South Wales in Britain.
✓ Appalachian-Pennsylvania-Great Lakes region in United States.
✓ New South Wales region in Australia.
✓ Wuhan, Anshan, Chongqing in China.

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• A large network of canals was established to supply water to the industry.

• Canals not only supplied water but also offered a cheap mode of transportation for transporting raw
materials and finished goods.

Coal and Iron ore: Regions with close proximity to Coalfields and Iron Ore mines

• Birmingham District in Alabama became the largest iron and steel producer in the southern United States
due to the close proximity of abundant deposits of iron ore, coal, limestone, and dolomite.
• In India, there is a crescent-shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand
and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high-grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and
other supplementing raw materials.
• Here the iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants.

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Image Source: NROER

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TISCO

• The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km away
from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export of steel.
• The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai provide water to the plant.
• The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi, and Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda
mines in Odisha.
• Coking coal comes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.

IISCO

• The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur (Madhya Pradesh) and later at
Kulti and Burnpur (West Bengal).
• All the three plants are located very close to Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia, and Ramgarh).
• Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
• Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar.
• All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line.

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Rourkela Steel Plant

• After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated steel plants were set
up with foreign collaboration: Rourkela in Odisha, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
• In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was created to manage these plants.
• The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in the Sundargarh district of Odisha in collaboration with Germany.
• This plant has a unique locational advantage, as it receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore from
Sundargarh and Kendujhar.
• The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel and
Sankh rivers.

Bhilai Steel Plant

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• The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian collaboration in Durg district of Chhattisgarh.
• Iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine and coal from Korba and Kargali coal fields.
• Water comes from the Tanduladam and the power from the Korba Thermal Power Station.
• This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route.
• The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.

Durgapur Steel Plant

• Durgapur Steel Plant in West Bengal was set up in collaboration with the government of UK.
• This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi.
• Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route.
• Hydel power and water are obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).

Coking coal Shortage

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• Sweden has high-grade iron ore but doesn’t have enough cocking coal.
• Hence it specializes in non-ferrous metallurgy and light engineering rather than iron-steel industry.
• Sweden exports its iron ore to Ruhr (Germany) and imports pig iron from Ruhr.
• It converts pig iron into steel, using electrical furnaces. (Sweden has abundant hydropower potential ―
hydropower contributes to more than half of energy production).
• The steel thus manufactured, is used for making high-value items.

2.2.2 Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports

• With the beginning of the 20th century, colonial powers like Japan, with no significant iron ore or coal
resource base, began to set up iron and steel plants near the ports. E.g. steel industry in Osaka-Kobe.
• Also, as the coal reserves started depleting in Western Europe and North-Eastern USA, a part of the
industry, which relied on imported coal, began to relocate to port cities.
• In the USA, the industry cropped up in the coastal cities of Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago that used
imported coal from Canada (through Saint Lawrence Seaway) and Appalachian coalfields.
• In India too, steel plants were set up at Vishakhapatnam, Ratnagiri and Mangalore.

The Ruhr, Germany

• Ruhr has been one of the major industrial regions of Europe for a long time.
• Coal and iron and steel formed the basis of the economy.
• But after the 1950s, the demand for coal declined (due to competition from cheaper imported coal and oil),
and the iron ore was also exhausted.
• However, the iron and steel industry thrived using imported ore brought by Rhine River waterway to the
Ruhr from deeper water ports such as Rotterdam (Netherlands).
• The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per cent of Germany’s total steel production.
• The future prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on coal and iron ore and more on the automobile industry.

2.2.3 Transport Cost Minimization

Bokaro-Rourkela combine

• Bokaro Steel Plant steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration.
• This plant was set up on the principle of cost minimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkela combine.
• It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela.
• Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km.
• The Damodar Valley Corporation supplies water and hydel power.

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Ural-Kuznetsk combine

• The Ural-Kuznetsk industrial combine was formed in the early 1930s.

• It became a centre for the production of iron and steel with raw materials and finished products being
shipped to and from sites in the Kuzbas and Urals.
• The Ural of Russia is rich in iron ore deposits.
• Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia is rich in coal deposits.
• Coal from Kuznetsk Basin is sent to the Ural region by Railways.
• The returning wagons after emptying coal, bring iron ore from the Ural region.

2.2.4 Access to markets: Mini Steel plants

• The large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of raw materials – iron ore,
coal, manganese and limestone – or at places where these could be easily brought, e.g. near ports.
• But in mini steel mills with electric furnaces, access to markets is more important than inputs.
• These are less expensive to build and operate and can be located near markets because of the abundance
of scrap metal, which is the primary input.
• Traditionally, most of the steel was produced at large integrated plants, but mini mills are limited to just
one-step process – steelmaking – and are gaining ground.

2.2.5 Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh

• Lake Superior region of Michigan has significant iron ore deposits but has no coal or markets nearby.
• The only profitable way to exploit the ore was to transport it in bulk to distant blast furnaces on the lower
Great Lakes — to places like Cleveland and Chicago.
• On the other hand, Pittsburgh’s (Pennsylvania) iron and steel industry was facing a shortage of local iron
ore but had abundant coal reserves.
• Hence Pittsburgh started importing iron ore from the Lake Superior region of Michigan and Minnesota and
started exporting coal to Duluth in Minnesota (Lake Superior region).

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• Ships brought iron ore from Lake Superior region to Cleveland while the railway wagons brought coal from
Pittsburgh.
• On their return journey, ships carried coal to Lake Superior region whereas railway wagons brought iron ore
to Pittsburgh.
• Cleveland, which is located at the crossroads (on the banks of Lake Erie), got coal from Pittsburgh and iron
ore from Lake Superior region of Michigan.
• Thus, despite having neither of the resources locally, the region around Cleveland has a thriving iron and
steel industry.
• The same is the case with Chicago in Illinois, Detroit in Michigan and Buffalo in New York.

2.2.6 Competition

• In the latter half of the twentieth century, industrial west’s iron and steel industry began a decline.
• This is due to the fall in local demand, reduced exports, overcapacity and saturation, outdated technology,
rise in mini scrap steel mills, rise in wages, and the emergence of China as the major steel producer.
• Some areas affected by the steel crisis were the Rust belt in North America, the English Midlands in the
United Kingdom, the Ruhr area in West Germany and Bergslagen in Sweden.
• Other major steel-producing cities, such as Chicago, Gary, East Chicago, Cleveland, Toledo, and Pittsburgh,
never recovered from the losses in the industry.

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• The causes of the declines in these countries were similar to the United Kingdom's: foreign competition
(primarily against each other), overcapacity resulting from the construction of mills during the post-war
boom and integration of markets, and productivity gains.
• China's steel production went from a third of the output of American mills in 1981 to match US production
only 12 years later.
• Today China's steel industry produces roughly half the steel in the world.

2.2.7 Technology

• A rise in simpler basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and the recycling of scrap, led to the decline and consolidation
of the industry in the 1970s and 1980s across the industrial west.
• This further reduced coal requirement and the new industry could move away from coalfields.

2.2.8 Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour

• China is the leading producer and consumer of iron and steel in the world.
• But most of the Chinese iron and steel industry depends on imported iron ore from Australia, Brazil and
imported cocking coal from Australia and Indonesia.
• This is because of the poor quality of both iron ore and coal in China.
• Despite the raw material imports, Chinese steel is highly competitive in the global markets due to the
‘economies of scale’ production and cheap labour.

2.2.9 Industrial Inertia

• Though alternate sources of energy are available, traditional industries are still located around the
coalfields, sometimes even after the coal mines have exhausted.
• Example Ruhr in Germany, Pittsburgh in USA and Lancashire in the UK.
• Possible reasons behind industrial inertia in the iron and steel industry:
✓ The biggest reason for industrial inertia is the high overhead costs and regulatory clearances associated
with the relocation of the heavy industry.
✓ Industries will simply stay put as long as the cost of transportation of raw materials is well below the
cost of relocation.
✓ Moreover, transportation cost has fallen drastically. Countries like China have been able to import iron
ore from as far as Goa and still produce steel globally competitive prices.
✓ Well established economic (allied sectors like automobile, heavy engineering and markets) and
transport linkages are already available in the present locations and the new areas if remote will offset
the locational advantages like availability of raw materials.

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✓ Industries present for decades would have established a very efficient supply chain and markets. There
is always a risk of relocation benefitting the competitor more.
✓ Areas near coalfields developed into industrial cities with a large pool of skilled workforce. New area
may not have the same labour supply (not a significant reason in India due to the unemployment rate).
✓ Economies of agglomeration offer a high bargaining chip (social, political and economic). Relocation
may spell trouble in times of adverse government policies.
✓ For example, to protect down sliding Pittsburgh steel industry, the US government made steel-pricing
policies in the early 1900s such that no other competing region could sell steel at prices lower than the
prices at which Pittsburgh industry sold its steel.

2.2.10 Rules and regulations

• POSCO India is an Indian subsidiary of Korean iron and steel conglomerate POSCO.
• POSCO signed a memorandum of understanding in 2005 with Odisha to construct a $12 billion steel plant
• The land acquisition process was not fructified due to the tussle between the Environment Ministry (Forests
Rights Act), the state government, local dwellers and the Supreme Court.
• Apart from Odisha, POSCO India withdrew from project sites in Karnataka and Maharashtra states due to
similar issues.

2.2.11 Strategic reasons

• During WWII, the allied powers had to pay a heavy price for concentrating all their industries in a few
pockets. It made it easy for the enemy aerial bombers to target these concentrated industrial pockets.
• After WWII, the US government decided to diversify its industrial base, and some steel plants were set up in
the west ― far away from the highly concentrated industrial East (Great Lakes-Pittsburgh region).
• Similarity, USSR adopted a policy to disperse Soviet industries on the Eastern side, towards the Pacific coast
― far away from the Ukraine-Donbas region.

2.2.12 Government policies

• Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on the decision to develop
backward tribal areas of the country.
• Three new steel plants set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the primary raw material sources.
• All three plants are located in South India: The Vizag Steel Plant, Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in
Karnataka (now it uses local iron ore and limestone) and the Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu.
• Salem steel plant was set up due to the insistence of the then TN Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi. It had
neither of the raw materials nearby.

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• In China, backyard furnaces were constructed to further the Great Leap Forward ideology of Mao for rapid
industrialization of China.
• However, the backyard furnaces produced high-carbon pig iron, which needs to be smelted further to make
steel. Hence, almost all of the iron produced by backyard furnaces was practically useless.

2.2.13 Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry

• The industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries and is concentrated in the
advanced countries of North America, Europe and Asia.
• In the U.S.A, most of the production comes from the Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region
(Chicago, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point & Morrisville).
• The industry has also moved towards the southern state of Alabama (Birmingham).
• Pittsburgh area is now losing ground. It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A.
• In Europe, the U.K., Germany, France, Belgium, Netherlands & Russia are the leading producers.
• The vital steel centres are
✓ Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham and Sheffield in the U.K.;
✓ Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen in Germany;
✓ Le Creusot and St. Ettienne in France; and
✓ Moscow, St. Petersburgh, Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and
✓ Krivoi Rog, and Donetsk in Ukraine.
• In Asia, the important centres include
✓ Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama in Japan;
✓ Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan in China; and
✓ Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam and
Bhadravati in India.

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• At 51.3%, China is the world’s largest producer of steel.

• India has overtaken Japan to become the second-largest producer of steel.
• India’s steel production in 2018-19 stood at 111 million tonnes.
• The construction industry is the largest consumer of steel in India.
• The National Steel Policy, 2017, has envisaged 300 million tonnes of production capacity by 2030-31.

3. 70% More to Come

The above portion consists of only about 30% of the Industrial Locational Factors. The remaining 70% is half
baked at present. I need 5 days more (till 20/03/2020) to cook it fully. I tried my best, but the content is quite
exhaustive. I am referring to a lot of sources so that I don’t miss anything essential.

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Oceanography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

Websites: https://www.pmfias.com and https://store.pmfias.com

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Oceanography
PDF

1. Ocean Relief ................................................ 3 Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean

Currents.................................................... 30
1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features .................... 4 Types of Ocean Currents .......................... 31
Continental Shelf ........................................ 4 Pacific Ocean Currents ............................. 32
Continental Slope ....................................... 7 Phytoplankton and Fishing ....................... 34
Continental Rise.......................................... 7 Atlantic Ocean Currents ........................... 36
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain .................. 7 Indian Ocean Currents ............................. 40
1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features.................... 7 Effects of Ocean Currents ........................ 43
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ........................ 8 Desert Formation and Ocean Currents .... 44
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges .. 8 3.2 Tides ....................................................... 45
Abyssal Hills ................................................ 9 Tidal Bulge: Why there are two tidal
Submarine Canyons .................................... 9 bulges? ..................................................... 45
Atoll .......................................................... 10 Types of Tides........................................... 47
Bank, Shoal and Reef ................................ 11 Importance of Tides ................................. 51
Characteristics of Tides ............................ 52
2. Major Oceans and Seas ...............................12 Tidal bore ................................................. 53
2.1 Oceans of the World by Size .................. 12 Impact of Tidal Bore ................................. 54
2.2 The Pacific Ocean ................................... 13
4. Temperature Distribution of Oceans .......... 55
2.3 The Atlantic Ocean ................................. 15
2.4 The Indian Ocean ................................... 17 4.1 Source of Heat in Oceans ....................... 55
2.5 Marginal Seas ......................................... 20 4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature
Human Impact on marginal seas .............. 24 Distribution of Oceans................................... 56
Biomass Production and Primary 4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution of
Productivity .............................................. 25 Oceans ........................................................... 57
Water Circulation in Marginal Seas .......... 26 Thermocline ............................................. 58
2.6 Bays, gulfs, and Straits............................ 27 Three-Layer System .................................. 58
Bays........................................................... 27 4.4 Horizontal Temperature Distribution..... 60
Gulfs .......................................................... 27 4.5 General behaviour.................................. 61
Straits ........................................................ 28 4.6 Range of Ocean Temperature ................ 62
Isthmus ..................................................... 28 Sunspot .................................................... 62
3. Ocean Movements......................................29 5. Ocean Salinity ............................................ 62
3.1 Ocean Currents....................................... 29 5.2 Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity ............ 63
Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean Horizontal distribution of salinity ............ 63
Currents .................................................... 30

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5.3 Vertical Distribution of Salinity .............. 66 7.1 Ocean Deposits....................................... 75

Terrigenous Deposits ............................... 75
6. Coral Reefs .................................................66 Pelagic Deposits ....................................... 76
6.1 Coral Reef Relief Features ...................... 66 7.2 Mineral Resources .................................. 76
Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)..................... 67 Mineral deposits found on continental
Barrier Reefs ............................................. 67 shelves and slopes.................................... 76
Atolls ......................................................... 68 Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor
.................................................................. 79
6.2 Development of Major Coral Reef Types 69
6.3 Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth ......... 70 7.3 Energy Resources ................................... 84
Distribution of Coral Reefs ....................... 71 7.4 Fresh Water ............................................ 84
6.4 Corals and Zooxanthellae ....................... 71 7.5 Biotic Resources ..................................... 85
Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals and 7.6 United Nations International Conferences
Zooxanthellae ........................................... 71 on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ................... 85
Territorial waters ..................................... 86
6.5 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching 72 Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone ............. 87
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching ........ 73 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) ................ 87
Spatial and temporal range of coral reef High Seas .................................................. 87
bleaching .................................................. 75 Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel
Islands and Spratly Islands ....................... 88
7. Resources from the Ocean ..........................75

World Water Day – March 22

• Water on earth in liquid form came into existence in Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya).
• During the Hadean Eon, temperature on earth was extremely hot, and much of the Earth was molten.
• Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere which consisted of various gases along with water
vapour.
• Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust.
• The water vapour condensed to form rain and rainwater gradually filled the depressions on the newly solid-
ified crust.
• The water in the depressions merged to give rise to mighty oceans.
• During the Hadean Eon, the atmospheric pressure was 27 times greater than it is today and hence even at
a surface temperature of close to 200° C water remained liquid in the oceans.
• Over time, both temperature and atmospheric pressure dropped, and water continues to stay as liquid in
the oceans.

Water on the Earth’s surface

Reservoir Volume (Million Cubic km) % of the Total

Oceans 1,370 97.25

Icecaps and Glaciers 29 2.05

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Groundwater 9.5 0.68

Lakes 0.125 0.01

Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005

Atmosphere 0.013 0.001

Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001

Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004

1. Ocean Relief

• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes and their interac-
tions.
• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater.
• The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn, causes many variations in both oceans and atmos-
phere.
• The bottom relief of oceans also influences navigation and fishing.

Ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features:

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Ocean Relief Features

1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features

Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

1. the continental shelf,

2. the continental slope,
3. the continental rise,
4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.

Continental Shelf

• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradient of 1° or less) seaward extension of a continental plate.
• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans.
• Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the continental shelves.
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• Examples of continental shelves: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand Banks around
Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.

Formation

• The shelf is formed mainly due to

1. submergence of a part of a continent
2. relative rise in sea level

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3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers, glaciers

• There are various types of shelves based on different sediments of terrestrial origin —
1. glaciated shelf (e.g. Shelf Surrounding Greenland),
2. coral reef shelf (e.g. Queensland, Australia),
3. shelf of a large river (e.g. Shelf around Nile Delta),
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (e.g. shelf at the Mouth of Hudson River)
5. shelf along young mountain ranges (e.g. Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

Various types of shelves

Width and depth of continental shelves

• Continental shelves have an average width of 70-80 km.

• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along a convergent boundary. E.g. coasts of Chile.
• The width of continental shelf of eastern coast of USA varies between 100-300 km.
• Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest in the world and stretches up to 1,500 km from the coast.

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Width of various continental shelves

• Continental shelves may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.

Importance of continental shelves

• 20% of the world production of petroleum and gas comes from shelves.
• Continental shelves form the richest fishing grounds. E.g. Grand Banks around Newfoundland.

Grand Banks, the richest fishing grounds on earth

• Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves.

• They are sites for placer deposits and phosphorites (explained in Ocean Resources).

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Continental Slope

• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.

• The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to continental rise.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.

Continental Rise

• The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.

• When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise.
• With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

Shelf, Slope and Rise (Wikipedia)

Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world because of terrigenous (marine sediment erod-
ed from the land) and shallow water sediments that buries the irregular topography.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.

1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features

• Ridges (along a divergent boundary),

• Abyssal Hills (submerged volcanic mountains): Seamounts and Guyots,

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• Trenches (along a convergent boundary),

• Canyons (erosional landform),
• Island arcs (formed due to volcanism along a convergent boundary or hotspot volcanism),
• Atolls and Coral reefs.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

• The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow basins (Depressions).

• These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
• They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean-ocean convergence and ocean-continent conver-
gence.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of continental slopes and along is-
land arcs.
• The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold mountains or the island chains.
• The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost continuous ring along the western
and eastern margins of the Pacific.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a depth of
more than 11 kilometres.
• Trenches are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (like in Japan).
• Majority of the trenches are in the Pacific Ocean followed by the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges

• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression (divergent
boundary).
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on earth.

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Mid Ocean Ridge

• The ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow mountains.

Abyssal Hills

Abyssal Hills

• Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the sur-
face of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
• The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
• Guyots: The flat-topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots.
• Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean.

Submarine Canyons

Canyon: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it.
Gorge: a steep, narrow valley or ravine.
Valley: a low area between hills or mountains typically with a river or stream flowing through it.

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Canyon, George, Valley

• Submarine canyons are deep valleys often extending from the mouths of the rivers to the abyssal plains.
• They are formed due to erosion by sediments brought down by rivers that cut across continental shelves,
slopes and rises. The sediments are deposited on the abyssal plains.
• Submarine canyons can be far higher in scale compared to those that occur on land.

Submarine Canyon
Broadly, there are three types of submarine canyons:

• Small gorges which begin at the edge of the continental shelf and extend down the slope to very great
depths, e.g., Oceanographer Canyons near New England.
• Those which begin at the mouth of a river and extend over the shelf, such as the Indus canyons.
• Those which have a dendritic appearance and are deeply cut into the edge of the shelf and the slope, like
the canyons off the coast of southern California.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best-known canyon in the world.
• The largest canyons in the world occur in the Bering Sea off Alaska.

Atoll

• These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central depres-
sion.

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• It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or highly saline
water.

Atoll

Bank, Shoal and Reef

• These marine features are formed as a result of erosional, depositional and biological activity.
• These are produced upon features of diastrophic (earth movements) origin. Therefore, they are located
on upper parts of elevations.

Bank

• These marine features are formed as a result of erosional and depositional activity.
• A bank is a flat-topped elevation located in the continental margins.
• The depth of water here is shallow but enough for navigational purposes.
• The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic, Newfoundland are ex-
amples.
• The banks are sites of some of the most productive fisheries of the world.

Shoal

• A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow depths.

• Since they project out of water with moderate heights, they are dangerous for navigation.

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Shoal

Reef

• A reef is a predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that forms a mound or rocky
elevation like a ridge.
• Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of the Pacific Ocean where they are associated with seamounts and
guyots.
• The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia.
• Since the reefs may extend above the surface, they are generally dangerous for navigation.

Reef

2. Major Oceans and Seas

2.1 Oceans of the World by Size

Rank Ocean Area (million km2) (%) Average Depth (m)

1 Pacific Ocean 168 (46.6%) 3,970

2 Atlantic Ocean 85 (23.5%) 3,646

3 Indian Ocean 70 (19.5%) 3,741

4 Antarctic Ocean 21 (6.1%) 3,270

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5 Arctic Ocean 15 (4.3%) 1,205

• Total surface area of earth: 510 million km2

• Total water surface area: 70.8% (361 million km2)
• Total land surface area: 29.2% (149 million km2)

2.2 The Pacific Ocean

• Largest and deepest ocean.

• Covers about one-third of the earth’s surface.
• Average depth is generally around 7,300 metres.
• Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at the Bering Strait.
• Many marginal seas, bays and gulfs occur along its boundaries.
• Nearly 20,000 islands dot this vast ocean.

North and Central Pacific

• Characterized by maximum depth and a large number of deeps, trenches and islands.
• Some well-known trenches are Aleutian and Kuril.
• There are also a large number of seamounts and guyots (E.g. Hawaiian Hotspot).

West and South-West Pacific

• Average depth is about 4,000 m.

• It is marked by a variety of islands, marginal seas, continental shelves and submarine trenches.
• Mariana Trench and Mindanao Trench are very deep with a depth of more than 10,000 metres.

South-East Pacific

• This part is conspicuous for the absence of marginal seas and has submarine ridges and plateaus.
• The Tonga and Atacama trenches are prominent.

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Pacific Ocean Topography (Exaggerated) showing trenches and spreading sites

2.3 The Atlantic Ocean

• The Atlantic is the second largest ocean after the Pacific.

• It is roughly half the size of the Pacific Ocean.
• Its shape resembles the letter ‘S’.
• In terms of trade, it is the most significant of all oceans.

Continental Shelf

• It has prominent continental shelf with varying widths.

• The length of the continental shelf is maximum in Northern Atlantic coasts.
• The largest width occurring off north-east America and north-west Europe.

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Atlantic Ocean Topography (Exaggerated) showing trenches and spreading sites

• Grand banks continental shelf is the most productive continental shelf in the world.
• The Atlantic Ocean has numerous marginal seas occurring on the shelves, like the Hudson Bay, the Baltic
Sea, and the North Sea, and beyond the shelves like the Gulf of Florida (Mexican Gulf).

Mid-Atlantic Ridge

• The most remarkable feature of the Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which runs from north to the
south paralleling the ‘S’ shape of the ocean.
• The ridge has an average height of 4 km and is about 14,000 km long.

Seamounts and guyots

• They are present in significant numbers but not as significant as in Pacific Ocean.
• Several seamounts form islands of the mid-Atlantic. Examples include Pico Island of Azores, Cape Verde
Islands, Canary Islands etc.
• Also, there are coral islands like Bermuda and volcanic islands like St Helena etc.

Trenches

• Atlantic Ocean lacks significant troughs and trenches, which are most characteristic to the Pacific Ocean.
• North Cayman and Puerto Rico are the two troughs and Romanche and South Sandwich are the two
trenches in the Atlantic Ocean.

2.4 The Indian Ocean

• Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions.

• Smaller and less deep than the Atlantic Ocean.

Submarine ridges

• Submarine ridges in this ocean include the Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge (Reunion Hotspot Volcanism),
the Socotra-Chagos Ridge, the Seychelles Ridge, the South Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge etc..
• These ridges divide the ocean bottom into many basins. Chief among these are the Central Basin, Arabian
Basin, South Indian Basin, Mascarene Basin, West Australian and South Australian Basins.

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Indian Ocean Topography (Exaggerated) showing trenches and spreading sites

Islands

• Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean are continental islands and are present in the north and west.
• These include the Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar.
• The Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral islands and Mauritius and the Reunion Islands are of volcanic
origin.

Continental Shelf

• The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 mi) in width.
• An exception is found off Australia's northern coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 kilometres (620
mi).
• The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,762 ft).

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Trenches

• Linear deeps are almost absent. Few exceptions are Sunda Trench, which lies to the south of the island of
Java and Diamantina Trench, west of Australia.
• Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m. Sunda Trench off the coast of
Java is also considerably deep.

Straits

• Most of the straits in Indian Ocean are important trade roots.

• The major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb (between Yemen and Djibouti, Eritrea), Strait of Hor-
muz (separates Persian Gulf from the Gulf of Oman), the Lombok Strait (connects Java Sea to the In-
dian Ocean), the Strait of Malacca (between Malay peninsula and Sumatra Island) and the Palk Strait.

2.5 Marginal Seas

• In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or peninsulas.

• Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal, Bering Sea, Black
Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four of the Siberian Seas
(Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian).
• The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are associated with depth and proximity
to landmasses.
• Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are more influenced by human activities,
river runoff, climate, and water circulation.

Marginal Seas map: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1myJlOn-mMCNWJYSWtMZTItVGM/view?usp=sharing

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Major Marginal Seas

Human Impact on marginal seas

• Marginal seas are more susceptible to pollution than open ocean regions.
• The greatest human impact on marginal seas is related to the fisheries industry.
• 90% of the world's fisheries exist within coastal waters that are located less than 200 km from the shoreline.
• Other human activities that have adversely affected marginal seas include industrial sewage disposal, off-
shore oil drilling, accidental releases of pollutants, radioactive waste, etc.

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• Pollutants from the nearby landmasses are introduced into marginal seas in concentrations that are thou-
sands of times greater than in open oceans.

Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in Marginal Seas

• The Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea are marginal seas found in proximity to one another. The colors
difference is due to a phytoplankton bloom occurring in the Black Sea.

Phytoplankton bloom in the Black Sea

• Phytoplankton are good as fish feed on them. But when they proliferate indiscriminately, they consume
too much oxygen during nights, thus depriving other marine organisms of oxygen.
• For example, the discharge of domestic sewage leads to elevated nutrient concentrations (particularly
phosphates) which can result in harmful algal blooms.

Biomass Production and Primary Productivity

• Marine biomass production originates with primary productivity, which in turn is affected by the availability
of sunlight, carbon dioxide, nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates, and trace elements.
• Marginal seas generally exhibit intermediate levels of primary production, with the highest rates found in
coastal upwelling regions and the lowest primary production occurring in open ocean regions.
• For nearshore regions, the dominant processes influencing primary productivity are river runoff, water col-
umn mixing, and turbidity.
• River runoff and water column mixing introduce dissolved nutrients and trace elements into the photic
(light) zones of nearshore regions.

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• Although the addition of dissolved nutrients and trace elements serve to increase primary production, the
addition of suspended particles increases water turbidity, which results in reduced sunlight penetration
and decreased primary productivity.

Water Circulation in Marginal Seas

• Water circulation patterns in marginal seas depend largely on shape of the sea, fresh-water input (e.g., river
runoff and precipitation) and evaporation.
• If river runoff and precipitation exceed evaporation, as is the case in the Black and Baltic Seas, the excess
fresh water will tend to flow seaward near the sea surface.
• If evaporation exceeds river runoff and precipitation, as in the Mediterranean Sea, the marginal sea water
becomes saltier, then sinks and flows towards the less salty open ocean region.

Circulation Patterns in Major Marginal Seas:

Black Sea and Baltic Sea

• The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins both possess sills that restrict subsurface water circulation.
• While the surface waters of the Black and Baltic Seas are able to flow over the sills and introduce lower sa-
linity water into the open ocean, the flow of the saltier subsurface waters is blocked by these sills.
• This type of subsurface-water restriction often leads to stagnation, which may eventually result in local
oxygen depletion.

Mediterranean Sea

• The Mediterranean Sea, which is divided by a 400-meter sill into two sub-basins, is connected to the Atlan-
tic Ocean via the Straits of Gibraltar, to the Black Sea via the Bosporus Strait, and to the Red Sea via the
humanmade Suez Canal.
• Atlantic Ocean water enters this marginal sea through the Straits of Gibraltar as a surface flow. This ocean
water replaces a fraction of the water that evaporates in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
• In Mediterranean Sea evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence salinity increases.

Gulf of Mexico

• The Gulf of Mexico is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida and the Caribbean Sea via
the Yucatán Strait.

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• In the northern Gulf of Mexico region, Mississippi River runoff influences surface waters as far as 150 meters
away from the shore, resulting in salinities as low as 25.
• A unique feature of the Gulf of Mexico's surface circulation pattern is the Loop Current, which results from
the Caribbean Current entering the Gulf of Mexico through the Yucatán Strait and upon arrival, turning
in a clockwise direction and "looping" around a warm "dome" of Gulf of Mexico surface water.

2.6 Bays, gulfs, and Straits

• Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water bodies that are contained within a larger body of water near land.
• These three water bodies are usually located at important points of human activities; thus, conflicts with
nature and neighbours are common.

Bays

• A bay is a small body of water that is set off from a larger body of water generally where the land curves
inward.
• In simple words, bay is a water body surrounded on three sides by land with the fourth side (mouth) wide
open towards oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).
• A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
• Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
• An example of a bay at a river's mouth is New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson River (Hudson Es-
tuary).

Guantánamo Bay

• Guantánamo Bay is a sheltered inlet within the Caribbean Sea.

• During the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States gained access to the outer harbour of Guan-
tánamo Bay.
• Through an agreement signed with Cuba in 1903, the United States obtained the right to maintain a naval
base at Guantánamo Bay.
• In 1934, a treaty reaffirmed the U.S. right to lease the site. The treaty gave the United States a perpetual
lease on Guantánamo Bay.
• The infamous Guantánamo Bay prison is here.

Gulfs

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• A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes with a narrow mouth, that is almost completely surrounded by
land. The world's largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden (between the Red Sea and the Arabian
Sea), and the Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran).
• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to world energy because petroleum is transported through its
waters in oil tankers.

Straits

• A strait is a narrow passageway of water, usually between continents or islands, or between two larger bod-
ies of water.
• The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the world's most famous strait. It connects the Atlantic Ocean on its
west with the Mediterranean Sea on its east.
• Two other well-known straits are the Strait of Bosporus and the Strait of Hormuz.
• The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black Sea (from the north) and the Sea of Marmara (from the
south) and splits north-western Turkey.
• The Strait of Hormuz is located at the south-eastern end of the Persian Gulf. It is a narrow waterway that
can be (and has been) controlled to prevent ships from sailing through the gulf.

Choke Point

• When a body of water such as a strait is capable of being blocked or even closed in order to control trans-
portation routes, the body is called a "choke point."
• Historically, the Strait of Gibraltar has been one of the world's most important choke points.
• However, the Strait of Hormuz has become an important choke point in recent years because of increas-
ing Middle East tensions.
• The Strait is surrounded by the United Arab Emirates and Oman (on one side) and Iran (on the other side).

Isthmus

• Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait. i.e., a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land masses.
• Example: Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez.

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Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez

3. Ocean Movements

• The movements that occur in oceans are categorized as waves, tides and currents.
• Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface water layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger
the wave. They die out quickly on reaching the shore or shallow waters.
• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water.
• Coriolis force and differences in water level gradient also play a major role.
• Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences caused by temperature and salinity changes.
• Tsunami, storm surge and tides are tidal waves (meaning waves with large wavelengths).

3.1 Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of their influence on climatology of
various regions.
• Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path
and direction.
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
• The primary forces that influence the currents are:
1. heating by solar energy;
2. wind;
3. gravity;
4. Coriolis force.
• The secondary forces that influence the currents are:

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1. Temperature difference;
2. Salinity difference

Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents

Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do they influence regional cli-
mates, fishing and navigation? (Mains 2015)

Influence of insolation

• Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand.

• Near the equator, the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
• Gravity tends to level the differences by pulling the water down the pile (along the gradient).

Influence of wind (atmospheric circulation)

• Frictional force of the wind drags the surface ocean water.

• Winds are responsible for both magnitude and direction (Coriolis force) of the ocean currents.
• Example: Monsoon winds are responsible for the seasonal reversal of ocean currents in the Indian ocean.
• The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation pattern.
• The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic (sub-tropical High-Pressure
Belt) The oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same.
• At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this pattern.

Influence of Coriolis force

• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere.
• These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres. These produce large circu-
lar currents in all the ocean basins. One such circular current is the Sargasso Sea.

Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents

• Temperature difference and salinity difference are the secondary forces. They create density differ-
ences.
• Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents (vertical currents).
• Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity.
• Similarly, cold water is denser than warm water.
• Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.

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Types of Ocean Currents

Based on depth the ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep wa-
ter currents:

• Surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean; these waters are the upper 400
m of the ocean.
• Deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These waters move around the
ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
• For instance, heavy surface water (due to increase in salinity) of the Mediterranean Sea sinks and flows
westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface current.

Based on temperature ocean currents are classified as cold currents and warm currents.

• Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator as subsurface flow.
• Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the poles to replace
the sinking cold water.
1. Cold currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents (because of clockwise flow in north-
ern hemisphere and anti-clockwise flow in southern hemisphere) in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
2. Warm currents are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere, they are found on the west coasts of continents in high lat-
itudes.

Convergence: warm and cold currents meet.

Divergence: a single current splits into multiple currents flowing in different directions.

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Cold and Warm Ocean Currents

Pacific Ocean Currents

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Pacific Ocean Currents

Equatorial currents – warm

• Under the influence of prevailing trade winds [tropical easterlies], the north equatorial current and the
south equatorial current start from the eastern Pacific (west coast of Central America) and traverses a dis-
tance of 14,500 km moving from east to west.
• This raises the level of western Pacific (near Indonesia and Australia) ocean by few centimetres.
• And this creates a counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial current and the
south equatorial current in west-east direction.

Factors that aid the formation of Counter-Equatorial current

1. Piling up of water in the western Pacific due to trade winds.

2. The presence of doldrums (calm region in equatorial low-pressure belt) in between the north equatorial
current and the south equatorial current.

Question Prelims 2015: What explains the eastward flow of the equatorial counter-current?

a) The Earth’s rotation on its axis

b) Convergence of the two equatorial currents
c) Difference in salinity of water
d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the equator

Point 1: Earth’s rotation creates Coriolis force, but Coriolis force is not responsible for counter-current.
Point 2: Convergence is a prerequisite, but not all convergences lead to counter-currents.
Point 3: Salinity greatly influences vertical currents and its influence on horizontal movement is less significant.
So, ruled out.
Point 4: This is the main reason behind counter equatorial current (the backward movement of equatorial wa-
ters). Doldrums are calm regions facilitating the backward movement of water.
Answer: D

Kuroshio current – warm

• The north equatorial current turns northward off the Philippines to form the Kuroshio current.
• It flows in the sub-tropical high-pressure belt, and its northern part is under the influence of westerlies.

Oyashio Current and Okhotsk current – cold

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• Oyashio flows across the east coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to merge with the warmer waters of Kuroshio.
• Okhotsk current flows past Sakhalin Islands to merge with the Oyashio current off Hokkaido (Northern
Japanese Island).
• The convergence of cold and warm currents makes the zone one of the richest fishing grounds.

North-Pacific current – warm

• From the south-east coast of Japan, under the influence of prevailing westerlies, the Kuroshio current
turns eastwards and moves as the North-Pacific current, reaches the west coast of North America, and bi-
furcates into two.

Alaska current – warm

• The northern branch of North-Pacific current flows anti-clockwise along the coast of British Columbia and
Alaska and is known as the Alaska current.
• The water of this current is relatively warm as compared to the surrounding waters in this zone.

Californian current – cold

• The southern branch of the North-Pacific current moves as a cold current along the west coast of USA and
is known as the Californian current.
• The Californian current joins the north equatorial current to complete the circuit.

East Australian current – warm

• Following the pattern in the northern hemisphere, the south equatorial current flows from east to west and
turns southwards as the East Australian current.
• It then meets the South Pacific current near Tasmania which flows from west to east.

Peru current or Humboldt Current – cold

• Reaching the south-western coast of South America, South Pacific current turns northward as the Peru cur-
rent. It is a cold current, which finally feeds the south equatorial current, thus completing the great circuit.
• The zone where Peru Cold current meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is an important fishing
zone.

Phytoplankton and Fishing

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Mixing zones of Cold and Warm Ocean Currents (Grand Banks) and cold water upwelling zones (Peru
coast) are the most productive fishing grounds on earth. Why?

• Phytoplankton are the primary producers in the marine food chain and hence they are called the grass of
the sea.
• Phytoplankton are predominantly microscopic, single-celled organisms.
• Some species of algae are large, multicellular and live on the ocean bottom.
• They are insignificant players in the marine ecosystem compared to the phytoplankton as they only inhabit
a narrow zone around the coast.

Aquatic Food Web (Left); Types of Phytoplankton (Right)

Why are cold and warm current mixing zones the good fishing grounds? Why are tropical waters highly
unproductive?

• Algae and other plants are able to photosynthesise to produce organic material from inorganic nutrients.
• And the organic material forms the building block for all animals higher up in the food chain.
• Almost all biomass in the ocean is derived from the phytoplankton and to a lesser extent the benthic al-
gae (found on the bottom of a sea or lake).
• However, there is a fundamental problem phytoplankton in the open ocean have to face. They need both
sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be able to photosynthesise.
• Sunlight is only available in the uppermost layers.
• During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton, so they are not available for
long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances.

This is indeed the case in tropical waters, and as a result, they are very unproductive.

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• To escape this problem the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nutrient-rich deep waters
up to the sunlight zone where the phytoplankton can grow.

Phytoplankton production is highest at high latitudes

This is one of the reasons why cold and warm currents convergence zones (mixing happens; e.g. Grand
Banks) and upwelling zones (e.g. upwelling near Peruvian coast) are very productive.

• Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than oceanic temperatures,
the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
• This increases the density of the surface waters and causes them to sink and therefore causes mixing (nutri-
ent deficient water sinks, and nutrient-rich water is upwelled).

Both of these factors play a role in Icelandic waters, resulting in the very productive ocean environment
around Iceland.

Atlantic Ocean Currents

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North Atlantic Ocean Currents

Equatorial Atlantic Ocean Currents – warm

• Under the influence of prevailing trade winds (easterly trade winds), the north equatorial current and
the south equatorial current start from the eastern Atlantic (west coast of Africa), moving from east to west.
• This raises the level of western Atlantic (north of the Brazil bulge) ocean by few centimetres.
• And this creates a counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial current and the
south equatorial current in west-east direction.

Antilles current – warm

• The south equatorial current bifurcates into two branches near Cape de Sao Roque (Brazil).
• Part of the current enters the Caribbean Sea along with north equatorial current into the Mexican Gulf,
while the remainder passes along the eastern side of the West Indies as the Antilles current.
• There is a rise in water level in the Mexican Gulf because of large amounts of water brought by the Missis-
sippi River and branches of north and south equatorial currents.

Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift – warm

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• Antilles current creates a current that flows out through the Strait of Florida as Florida current, which
mixes with Antilles current from the south.
• This combined current moves along the east coast of USA and is known as the Florida current up to the
Cape Hatteras and as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
• Near the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream mixes with cold Labrador and East Greenland currents and
flows eastward across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic Drift.
• Here, westerly movement of North Atlantic Drift is due to the influence of westerlies.

Norwegian current – warm

• The North Atlantic Current breaks up into two branches on reaching the eastern part of the ocean.
• The main current, continuing as the North Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles from where it flows along
the coast of Norway as the Norwegian current and enters the Arctic Ocean.
• Norwegian current is very important as it keeps ocean to the north of Norway partly free from ice and
also moderates the extremes of climate.
• It is because of this current, Russia is able to move cargo in summers through Arctic ocean (Barents Sea).
• The southerly branch flows between Spain and Azores as the cold Canary current.
• This current finally joins the north equatorial current completing the circuit in the North Atlantic.
• The Sargasso Sea, lying within this circuit, is full of large quantities of seaweed and is an important geo-
graphical feature.

Sargasso Sea – a sea without a land boundary

• The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean.
• It is the only sea on Earth which has no coastline.
• It is bounded on the
1. west by the Gulf Stream;
2. north, by the North Atlantic Current;
3. east, by the Canary Current; and
4. south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
• This system of ocean currents forms the North Atlantic Gyre.
• All the currents deposit the marine plants they carry into this sea.

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Sargasso Sea

Grand Banks-Richest Fishing Grounds on Earth

• The two cold currents—East Greenland current and the Labrador current—flow from the Arctic Ocean into
the Atlantic Ocean.
• The Labrador current flows along part of the east coast of Canada and meets the warm Gulf Stream.
• The confluence of these two currents, one hot and the other cold, produce the famous fogs around New-
foundland.
• As a result of mixing of cold and warm waters, one of the world's most important fishing grounds is
created.

South Atlantic Ocean Currents

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Brazil current – warm

• In the South Atlantic Ocean, the south equatorial current, flowing from east to west, splits into two branch-
es near Cape de Sao Roque (Brazil).
• The northern branch joins the north equatorial current (a part of it flows in Antilles Current and other into
Gulf of Mexico), whereas the southern branch turns southward and flows along the South American coast
as the warm Brazil current.
• The south-flowing Brazil current swings eastward at about latitude 35°S (due to westerlies) to join the West
Wind Drift flowing from west to east.
• A small branch of West Wind Drift splits and flows between Argentinian coast and Falkland Islands, and
this current is called as Falkland cold current.
• It mixes with warm Brazil current at the southern tip of Brazil.

Benguela current – cold current

• A branch of the South Atlantic splits at the southern tip of Africa and flows along the west coast of South
Africa as the cold Benguela current, which joins the south equatorial current to complete the circuit.

Prelims 1999: In the given map, which one of the following pairs of ocean currents are shown?

a) Bengula and Falkland

b) Canary and Humboldt
c) Agulhas and Guinea
d) Benguela and Guinea

Indian Ocean Currents

• Indian ocean is half an ocean, hence the behaviour of the North Indian Ocean Currents is different from
that of Atlantic Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean Currents.

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• Also, monsoon winds in Northern Indian ocean are peculiar to the region, which directly influence the
ocean surface water movement (North Indian Ocean Currents)

Indian Ocean Currents and Monsoons

• The currents in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean change their direction from season to season in
response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
• The effect of winds is comparatively more pronounced in the Indian Ocean.

North Indian Ocean Currents

Winter Circulation

• Under the influence of prevailing trade winds, the north equatorial current and the south equatorial cur-
rent start from the south of Indonesian islands, moving from east to west.
• This raises the level of western Indian (south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few centimetres.
• And this creates a counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial current and the
south equatorial current in west-east direction.

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• The north-east monsoons drive the water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to circulate in an anti-
clockwise direction.
• Similarly, the water along the coast of Arabian Sea also circulate in an anti-clockwise circulation.

Summer Circulation – North Equatorial Current & Counter-Equatorial Current are Absent

• In summer, due to the effects of the strong south-west monsoon and the absence of the north-east trades,
a strong current flow from west to east, which completely obliterates the north equatorial current.
• Hence, there is no counter-equatorial current as well.
• Thus, the circulation of water in the northern part of the ocean is clockwise during this season.

South Indian Ocean Currents

Southern Indian Ocean Currents

• The general pattern of circulation in southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite similar to that of southern
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is less marked by the seasonal changes.
• The south equatorial current, partly led by the corresponding current of the Pacific Ocean, flows from east
to west.

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• It splits into two branches, one flowing to the east of Madagascar known as Agulhas current and the other
between Mozambique and Western Madagascar coast known as Mozambique current.
• At the southern tip of Madagascar, these two branches mix and are commonly called as the Agulhas cur-
rent. It still continues to be a warm current, till it merges with the West Wind Drift.
• The West Wind Drift, flowing across the ocean in the higher latitudes from west to east, reaches the
southern tip of the west coast, of Australia.
• One of the branches of this cold current turns northwards along the west coast of Australia. This current,
known as the West Australian current, flows northward to feed the south equatorial current.

Effects of Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on human activities.

Desert formation

• Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west coast regions of the tropical and
sub-tropical continents.
• There is fog, and most of the areas are arid due to desiccating effect (loss of moisture ― fog or tem-
perature inversion inhibits convection).

Rains

• Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors. Example: Summer Rainfall in British
Type climate (North Atlantic Drift).
• Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes. This
results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.

Moderating effect

• They are responsible for moderate temperatures at coasts. (North Atlantic Drift brings warmness to Eng-
land. Canary cold current brings cooling effect to Spain, Portugal etc.)

Fishing

• Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents bear richest fishing grounds in the world.
• Example: Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern Coast of Japan.
• The mixing of warm and cold currents helps to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of planktons,
the primary food for fish population.
• The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.

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Drizzle

• Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents create foggy weather where precipitation occurs in the form of
drizzle (Newfoundland).

Climate

• Warm and rainy climates in tropical and subtropical latitudes (Florida, Natal etc.),
• Cold and dry climates on the western margins in the sub-tropics due to desiccating effect,
• Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones,
• Moderate clime along the western costs in the sub-tropics.

Tropical cyclones

• They pile up warm waters in tropics, and this warm water is the major force behind tropical cyclones.

Navigation

• Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain
speeds over five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 kmph).
• At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots.
• Ships usually follow routes which are aided by ocean currents and winds.
• Example: If a ship wants to travel from Mexico to Philippines, it can use the route along the North Equatori-
al Drift which flows from east to west.
• When it wants to travel from Philippines to Mexico, it can follow the route along the doldrums when there
is counter equatorial current flowing from west to east.

Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do they influence regional cli-
mates, fishing and navigation? (Mains 2015)

Desert Formation and Ocean Currents

Mains 2013: Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on
the western side of the continents. Why?

• Major hot wind deserts include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
desert is the Great Australian Desert.
• The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds; hence they are also
called Trade Wind Deserts.

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Why between 20 – 30 degree?

• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts where the air is
descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any kind to take place.

Offshore winds

• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside the desert
limits (outside tropics).
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative humidity is
lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated.

Why on western coast?

• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-coming
air. This inhibits convection in the air (because of temperature inversion).
• This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls.
• The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the
mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.

3.2 Tides

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and
the moon, is called a tide.
• The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in frequency, magni-
tude and height.
• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are
the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of earth.
• Tides occur due to a balance between all these forces.

Tidal Bulge: Why there are two tidal bulges?

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Formation of Tidal Bulges

• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major tidal
bulges on the earth.
• The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational attraction of
the moon and the centrifugal force.
• On the surface of the earth nearest to the moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than
the centrifugal force, and so there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon.

Why is there a tidal bulge on the other side?

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• On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the moon, the
centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon.
• This creates the second bulge away from the moon.

Factors Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of Tides

• The movement of the moon in relation to the earth.

• Changes in position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth.
• Uneven distribution of water over the globe.
• Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans.

Types of Tides

• Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to time.
• Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24 hours or
based on their height.

Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide

• It is the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day (it varies be-
tween 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4 is normal).
• The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

High tide and low tide (Wikipedia). Hide tides and low tides are formed due to earth’s rotation relative to moon

Ebb and Flood

• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
• The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.

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Flood (between low tide and high tide)

Ebb (between high tide and low tide)

Although tides occur twice a day, their interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead, they occur at regular in-
tervals of 12 hours and 25 minutes. (This is because of the changing relative positions of the moon and
the sun)

• This is because the moon revolves around the earth from west to east, and each day it moves a bit to the
east if observed from the same place on earth at the same time on two consecutive days.
• This time lag explains the tide interval of 12 hours and 25 minutes, as tides occur twice a day.
• Southampton experiences tides 6-8 times a day (2 high tides from North Sea + 2 high tides from Eng-
lish Channel + 2 low tides from North Sea + 2 low tides from English Channel).
• This happens because the North Sea and the English Channel push the water at different intervals.

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Southampton

Diurnal tide

• There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day.
• The successive high and low tides are approximately of the same height.

Mixed tide

• Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally occur along the west
coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

• The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon with
respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.

Spring tides

• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide height.
• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during
new moon period.

Spring Tides (New Moon and Full Moon)

Neap tides

• Normally, there is a seven-day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.

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• At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other, and the forces of the sun and moon tend
to counteract one another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting
force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
• Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.

Neap tide (Half Moon – First Quarter and Last Quarter)

Spring tide: high tide is higher than normal; low tide is lower than normal
Neap tide: high tide is lower than normal; low tide is higher than normal

Magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee

• Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides oc-
cur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal.
• Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited,
and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.

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Perigee and Apogee

Magnitude of tides based on Perihelion and Aphelion

• When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides.
• When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less
than average.

Importance of Tides

• Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides can be pre-
dicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities.

Navigation

• Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow ‘bars’
at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour.
• High tides help in navigation. They raise the water level close to the shores. This helps the ships to arrive at
the harbour more easily.

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• Tides generally help in making some of the rivers navigable for ocean-going vessels. Port of London and
Haldia Port, Kolkata (tidal ports) have become important ports owing to the tidal nature of the mouths
of the Thames and Hooghly respectively.

Fishing

• The high tides also help in fishing. Many more fish come closer to the shore during the high tide. This ena-
bles fishermen to get a plentiful catch.

Desilting

• Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from river estuaries.

Other

• Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
• A 3 MW tidal power project was constructed at Durgaduani in Sundarbans of West Bengal.

Characteristics of Tides

• On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide-generating forces are more important than the vertical
forces in generating the tidal bulges.
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-
oceanic islands, they become low.
• The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.

Landform affected by tides

• When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and estuaries, they are called tidal currents (tidal
bore is one such tidal current).
• Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. Example: Bay of Fundy –– Highest tidal range.
• The highest tides occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is 15-16 m.

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Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada

Tidal bore

• Tides also occur in gulfs. The gulfs with wide fronts and narrow rears experience higher tides.
• The in and out movement of water into a gulf through a channel is called a tidal current.

Tidal bore

• When a tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river, the front of the tidal wave appears to be ver-
tical owing to the piling up of water of the river against the tidal wave and the friction of the river bed.
• The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of water rushing upstream and is known as a tidal bore.
• The favourable conditions for tidal bore include strength of the incoming tidal wave, slim and depth of the
channel and the river flow.
• There are exceptions. The Amazon River is the largest river in the world. It empties into the Atlantic Ocean.
The mouth of the Amazon is not narrow, but the river still has a strong tidal bore.
• A tidal bore develops here because the mouth of the river is shallow and dotted by many low-lying islands
and sand bars.
• In India, tidal bores are common in the Hooghly river.
• Most powerful tidal bores occur in Qiantang River in China.

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Enormous Tidal bore

• The name ‘bore’ is because of the sound the tidal current makes when it travels through narrow channels.
• Bores occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range, typically more
than 6 metres (20 ft) between high and low water.
• A tidal bore takes place during the flood tide and never during the ebb tide (Tidal bores almost never
occur during neap tides).

Impact of Tidal Bore

• Tides are stable and can be predicted. Tidal bores are less predictable and hence can be dangerous.
• The tidal bores adversely affect the shipping and navigation in the estuarine zone.
• Tidal bores of considerable magnitude can capsize boats and ships of considerable size.
• Strong tidal bores disrupt fishing zones in estuaries and gulfs.
• The tidal-bore affected estuaries are the rich feeding zones and breeding grounds of several forms of wild-
life. Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the ecology of estuaries.
• Animals slammed by the leading edge of a tidal wave can be buried in the silty water. For this reason, carni-
vores and scavengers are common sights behind tidal bores.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Upward and downward movement of ocean water is known as the:

(a) tide
(b) wave
(c) current
(d) none of the above
2. Neap tides are caused:
(a) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally in the same direction.
(b) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally in the opposite direction.

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(c) Indention in the coastline.

(d) None of the above.
3. The distance between the earth and the moon is minimum when the moon is in:
(a) Aphelion
(b) Perihelion
(c) Perigee
(d) Apogee
4. The earth reaches its perihelion in:
(a) October
(b) July
(c) September
(d) January
Answers: 1. A) Tide 2. D) None 3. C) Perigee 4. B) July

4. Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for determining the
1. movement of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
2. type and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of oceans,
3. climate of coastal lands, etc.

4.1 Source of Heat in Oceans

• The sun is the principal source of energy (Insolation).

• The ocean is also heated by the inner heat of the ocean itself (at the ocean bottom, the crust is only about
5 to 30 km thick). But this heat is negligible compared to that received from sun.

The ocean water is heated by three processes

• Absorption of sun’s radiation.

• The conventional currents: Since the temperature of the earth increases with increasing depth, the ocean
water at great depths is heated than the subsurface and intermediate water layers.
• Also, the temperate are high along mid-ocean ridges because of volcanism.
• So, convectional oceanic circulations develop causing circulation of heat in water.
• Heat is produced due to friction caused by the surface wind and the tidal currents.

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The ocean water is cooled by

1. Back radiation (heat budget) or long wave terrestrial radiation from the seawater.
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere if there is temperature difference.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere gains this heat in the
form of latent heat of condensation).

How does deep water marine organisms survive in spite of absence of sunlight?

• Photic zone (the zone that receives sunlight) is only about few hundred meters.
• It depends on a lot of factors like turbidity, presence of algae etc.
• There are no enough primary producers below few hundred meters till the ocean bottom.
• At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by earth’s interior to prepare food. So,
they are the primary producers at the depths.
• Other organisms feed on these primary producers and subsequent secondary producers.
• So, the heat from earth supports wide-ranging deep water marine organisms.

But the productivity is too low compared to ocean surface.

Why is diurnal range of ocean temperatures too small?

• The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower than land due to vertical and horizontal
mixing and high specific heat of water.
• (More time is required to heat a Kg of water compared to heating the same unit of a solid at same temper-
atures and with equal energy supply).

4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.

• Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
• The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea water is increased in the case of
higher salinity and vice versa (if Salinity is increased ➔ Boiling point will increase ➔ Evaporation will
decrease).
• The presence of submarine ridges and sills: Temperature is affected due to lesser mixing of waters on the
opposite sides of the ridges or sills (e.g. subsurface layers in Mediterranean Sea).

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• The shape of the ocean (enclosed seas): enclosed seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher tem-
perature than the open seas (due to less mixing and higher overall insolation); whereas the enclosed seas in
the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
• E.g. Mediterranean Sea records higher temperature than the longitudinally extensive Gulf of California.
• Local weather conditions such as cyclones.
• Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat due
to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
• Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The winds blowing from the
land towards the oceans (off-shore winds: moving away from the shore) drive warm surface water away
from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below (this happens near Peruvian Coast
during normal years).
• Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents) pile up warm water near
the coast, and this raises the temperature (this happens near the Peruvian coast during El Nino event).
• Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents decrease
the temperature in warm ocean areas.
• Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West
Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east
coast of North America (Near Newfoundland).

4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• Photic or euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic zone receives adequate
solar insolation.
• Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not receive adequate sunrays.

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Thermocline (Praveenron, Wikipedia)

Thermocline

• The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers.
• The boundary usually begins around 100-400 m below the sea surface and extends several hundred of me-
ters downward.
• This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline.
• About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this
zone, temperatures approach 0° C.

Three-Layer System

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• The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a three-layer sys-
tem from surface to the bottom.
• The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water, and it is about 500m thick with temperatures
ranging between 20° and 25° C.
• This layer, within the tropical region, is present throughout the year but in mid-latitudes, it develops only
during summer.
• The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterized by rapid de-
crease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500-1,000 m thick.
• The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the temperature becomes almost
stagnant.

Pycnocline

• Pycnocline is a boundary separating two liquid layers of different densities.

• Pycnocline exists in oceans at a depth of 100-1000 m because of large density difference between surface
waters and deep ocean water.
• Pycnocline effectively prevents vertical currents except in polar regions.
• Pycnocline is almost absent in polar regions. This is because of the sinking of cold water near poles.
• Formation of pycnocline may result from changes in salinity or temperature.
• Because the pycnocline zone is extremely stable, it acts as a barrier for surface processes.
• Thus, changes in salinity or temperature are very small below pycnocline but are seasonal in surface waters.

Pycnocline
Similar Terms: Thermocline, Halocline.

Thermohaline Circulation

• Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface.

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• However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface.
• These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s density, which is controlled by tempera-
ture (thermo) and salinity (haline).
• This process is known as thermohaline circulation.
• The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or
the global conveyor belt.
• Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermohaline circulation.

Thermohaline Circulation (Wikipedia)

4.4 Horizontal Temperature Distribution

• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C, and it gradually decreases from the
equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude.

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Ocean Temperature Distribution

4.5 General behaviour

• In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the temperature
change with the depth is very slight (ice is a very bad conductor of heat).
• Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.

The rate of decrease of temperature with depths is greater at the equator than at the poles.

• The surface temperature and its downward decrease is influenced by the upwelling of bottom water (e.g.
near Peruvian coast during normal years).
• In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions, sinking of cold water and its movement towards lower latitudes is
observed.
• In equatorial regions the surface, water sometimes exhibits lower temperature and salinity due to high
rainfall, whereas the layers below it has higher temperatures.
• The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher latitudes record higher temperatures at the bottom.
• The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have
high bottom temperatures due to high insolation throughout the year and lesser mixing.
• In the case of the high latitude enclosed seas, the bottom layers of water are warmer as water of
slightly higher salinity and temperature moves from outer ocean as a sub-surface current.
• The presence of submarine barriers may lead to different temperature conditions on the two sides of the
barrier.

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• For example, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the submarine barrier (sill) has a height of about 366 m.
• The subsurface water in the strait is at high temperature compared to water at same level in Indian ocean.
The temperature difference is greater than nearly 20° C.

4.6 Range of Ocean Temperature

• The oceans and seas get heated and cooled slower than the land surfaces.
• Therefore, ocean surface temperature is highest at 2 p.m. and the lowest, at 5 a.m.
• The average diurnal or daily range of temperature is barely 1 degree in oceans and seas.
• The annual range of temperature is influenced by the annual variation of insolation, the nature of ocean
currents and the prevailing winds.
• The maximum and the minimum temperatures in oceans are slightly delayed than those of land areas (the
maximum being in August and the minimum in February (tropical cyclones occur mostly between August
and October. It is slightly different in Indian Ocean due to its shape).
• The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans (less intense prevailing winds) have a greater range of
temperature than their southern parts (more extensive ocean currents).
• Besides annual and diurnal ranges of temperature, there are periodic fluctuations of sea temperature also.
• For example, the 11-year sunspot cycle causes sea temperatures to rise after a 11-year gap.

Sunspot

• Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots
compared to surrounding regions.
• They correspond to concentrations of magnetic field that inhibit convection and result in reduced sur-
face temperature compared to the surrounding photosphere.
• Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven years. The point of highest sunspot activity during this cycle is
known as Solar Maximum, and the point of lowest activity is Solar Minimum.

5. Ocean Salinity

• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in seawater.
• It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
• It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.

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• Salinity of 24.7 ppt (the symbol for ppt is ‰) has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate ‘brack-
ish water’.
• Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption of insolation,
evaporation and humidity.
• It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and the distribution of fish and other
marine resources.

Share of different salts is as shown below

• sodium chloride — 77.7%

• magnesium chloride—10.9%
• magnesium sulphate — 4.7%
• calcium sulphate — 3.6%
• potassium sulphate — 2.5%

Dissolved Salts in Sea Water (gm of Salt per kg of Water)

1. Chlorine 18.97

2. Sodium 10.47

3. Sulphate 2.65

4. Magnesium 1.28

5. Calcium 0.41

6. Potassium 0.38

5.2 Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity

• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
• Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the freshwater flow from rivers, and in polar re-
gions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
• Wind also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
• The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations.
• Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density
influences the salinity of an area.

Horizontal distribution of salinity

All values are in ppt (parts per thousand or ‰)

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• The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.

Ocean surface salinity (Source)

• The regions of high salinity in vast oceans coincide with high-pressure cells.
• Here, there is hardly any rain and subsiding dry winds cause lots of evaporation.

High salinity regions

• In the landlocked Red Sea, it is as high as 41.

• In the Mediterranean Sea in Europe the salinity is very high – 38 or more.
• In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70.

Low salinity regions

• In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get mixed) and the Arctic and Ant-
arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 to 35, seasonally (fresh water coming from ice caps).

Atlantic

• The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36-37.

• The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean has a salinity of about 35.
• Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums.

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• The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large amounts of fresh water from the melt-
ing of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32.
• Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W (high-pressure cells).

Indian Ocean

• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35.

• The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water by the river Ganga.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh wa-
ter.

Marginal seas

• The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water
brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
• Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous freshwater influx by rivers.

Inland seas and lakes

• The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers fall-
ing into them.
• These water bodies becomes progressively more saline due to evaporation.
• For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt Lake, (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and the Lake Van in Turkey is
more than 200.

Highest salinity in water bodies

• Lake Van in Turkey (330 ppt)

• Dead Sea (238 ppt)
• Great Salt Lake, Utah (220 ppt)

Cold and warm water mixing zones

• Salinity decreases from 35 to 31 on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of the influx of
melted water from the Arctic region.

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5.3 Vertical Distribution of Salinity

• With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject to latitudinal difference.
• The decrease is also influenced by cold and warm currents.
• In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases up to 35 metres and then
it decreases. At the equator, sub-surface salinity is lower.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline (compare this with
thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
• High salinity seawater general, sinks below the lower salinity water. This leads to stratification by salinity.

Questions

1. Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in seawater per (a) 10 gm (b) 1,000 gm (c) 100
gm (d) 10,000 gm
2. Which one of the following is the smallest ocean? (a) Indian Ocean (b) Arctic Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean (d)
Pacific Ocean

Answers: 1. B) 1000 gm 2. B) Arctic

6. Coral Reefs

• Coral reefs are made up of calcareous skeletons of thousands of tiny marine organisms called coral polyps
• Polyps are related to anemones and jellyfish.
• They are shallow warm water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton.
• The polyps extract calcium salts from seawater to form these hard skeletons.
• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky seafloor.
• The tubular skeletons grow as a cemented calcareous rocky mass, collectively called corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton (coral) on which new polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals.
• Shallow rock layers created by the depositions of corals is called a coral reef.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral islands (e.g. Lakshadweep).
• The corals occur in different forms and colours, depending upon the nature of salts they are made of.
• Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium carbonate contributing to coral growth.

6.1 Coral Reef Relief Features

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• Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are the most important relief
features.

Coral Reef Relief Features

Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)

• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore.

• They are very narrow (1-2 km wide) and are located very close to the land.
• A shallow lagoon exists between the beach and the main body of the reef.

A lagoon refers to a comparatively wide band of water that lies between the shore and the main area of reef de-
velopment and contains at least some deep portions.

• Fringing reef grows from the deep sea bottom with the seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea.
• Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and large increase in depth.
• The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs.
• Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the southern coast of
Florida.

Fringing Reef

Barrier Reefs

• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reefs that run parallel to the shore and are separated from it by a lagoon.

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• This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, runs for hundreds of kilometres and is sev-
eral kilometres wide.
• It extends as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island, running almost parallel to it.
• Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls.
• The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the world's largest barrier reef.
• The GBR is not a single reef, but rather a very large complex consisting of many reefs.

Barrier Reef

Atolls

• An atoll is a roughly circular oceanic reef system surrounding a large central lagoon.
• The lagoon has a depth of 80-150 metres and may be joined with sea water through a number of channels
cutting across the reef.
• Atolls are located at great distances from deep sea platforms.
• They form on submarine features such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone which reaches a level
suitable for coral growth.
• An atoll may have any one of the following three forms-
1. true atoll: a circular reef enclosing a lagoon with no island;
2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an island;
3. a coral island or an atoll island which is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the process of erosion and
deposition of waves with island crowns formed on them.
• Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean.
• The Fiji atoll is a well-known example of atolls.

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• In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common in French Pol-
ynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
• A large number of atolls occur in the Lakshadweep Islands.
• Others are found in the Maldives and Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos s.

Atoll

6.2 Development of Major Coral Reef Types

Formation of Lakshadweep Islands (You must include the concept of Reunion Hotspot)

• The basic coral reef classification scheme described earlier was first proposed by Charles Darwin and is still
widely used today.
1. Step 1: A fringing reef forms first and starts growing in the shallow waters close to a tropical island.
2. Step 2: Over time, the island subsides, and the reef grows outwards, and the distance between the land
and the reef increases. The fringing reef develops into a barrier reef.
3. Step 3: If the island completely subsides, all that is left is the reef. The reef retains the approximate shape of
the island it grew around, forming a ring enclosing a lagoon (atoll).

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Development of Major Coral Reef Types

6.3 Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth

• Stable climatic conditions: Corals are highly susceptible to quick changes. They grow in regions where
climate is significantly stable for a long period (Equatorial oceans with warm ocean currents).
• Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive in tropical waters (30°N and 30°S latitudes, the temperature of
water is around 20°C) where diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very narrow.

Why are coral reefs absent on west coast of tropical continents? Because of Cold Ocean Currents.

• Shallow water: Coral require fairly good amount of sunlight to survive. The ideal depths for coral growth
are 45 m to 55 m below sea surface, where there is enough sunlight available.
• Clear salt water: Clear salt water is suitable for coral growth, while both freshwater and highly saline water
are harmful.

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• Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic marine food, called plankton (phyto-
plankton), is essential for growth. As the plankton is more abundant on the seaward side, corals grow rap-
idly on the seaward side.
• Little or no pollution: Corals are highly fragile and are vulnerable to climate change and pollution and
even a minute increase in marine pollution can be catastrophic.

Distribution of Coral Reefs

Distribution of Coral Reefs

6.4 Corals and Zooxanthellae

• Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association with corals, with tight resource cou-
pling and recycling, allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that
they are referred to as the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans.
• Scleractinian corals build skeletons of calcium carbonate sequestered from the water.
• Scleractinian corals come under Phylum Cnidaria, and they receive their nutrient and energy resources in
two ways.
1. They use the traditional cnidarian strategy of capturing tiny planktonic organisms with their tentacles.
2. Having a symbiotic relationship with a single cell alga known as zooxanthellae.
• Zooxanthellae are autotrophic (prepare their own food) microalgae belonging to various taxa in the
Phylum Dinoflagellata.

Coral ➔ Phylum Cnidaria

Zooxanthellae ➔ Phylum Dinoflagellata

Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals and Zooxanthellae

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• Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient production
through its photosynthetic activities.
• These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance calcification, and
mediate elemental nutrient flux.
• The host coral polyp in return provides zooxanthellae with a protected environment to live within, and a
steady supply of carbon dioxide for its photosynthetic processes.
• The symbiotic relationship allows the slow-growing corals to compete with the faster growing multicellular
algae.
• The corals feed by day through photosynthesis and by night through predation.

The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colours of the coral reef but are instead
clear. The corals receive their colouration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.

6.5 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching

Coral Bleaching

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• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events.

• Recent accelerated coral reef decline is related mostly to anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, over-
fishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading).
• Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding, high and low-
temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, subaerial exposures, predatory
outbreaks and epizootics.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various disturbances mentioned
above.
• Bleaching occurs when
1. the densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
2. the concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall. (it is no more useful
for the coral and the coral will bleach it)

Coral Bleaching

• When corals bleach, they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each zooxanthellae may
lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it decreases in time, the affected corals usually re-
gain their symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months.
• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae populations do
not recover, the coral host eventually dies.

Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching

Temperature

• Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin, and anomalously low, and high sea
temperatures can induce coral bleaching.
• Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense upwelling episodes (El-
Nino), seasonal cold-air outbreaks.

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• While the rising temperatures have increased the frequency and intensity of bleaching, acidification has
reduced corals calcifying ability.
• Small temperature increases over many weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a few days will result in coral
dysfunction.
• Coral bleaching has occurred mostly during the summer seasons or near the end of a protracted warming
period.
• They are reported to have taken place during times of low wind velocity, clear skies, calm seas and low
turbidity. The conditions favour localised heating and high ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea waters. The corals actually contain UV-absorbing compounds, but
rising temperatures mean reduction in the concentration of these UV absorbing compounds in corals.

Subaerial exposure

• Sudden exposure of corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea
level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
• The consequent exposure to high or low temperatures, increased solar radiation, desiccation, and seawater
dilution by heavy rains could all play a role in zooxanthellae loss.

Fresh Water Dilution

• Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been demonstrated to
cause coral reef bleaching.
• Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, near shore areas.

Inorganic Nutrients

• Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient concentrations (e.g.
ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times.
• Although eutrophication (excessive nutrients that results in harmful algal blooms) is not directly in-
volved in zooxanthellae loss, it could cause secondary adverse effects such as lowering of coral resistance
and greater susceptibility to diseases.

Xenobiotics

• When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants like copper, herbicides and oil,
coral bleaching happens.

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Epizootics

• Pathogen induced bleaching is different from other sorts of bleaching.

• Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole colony death and sloughing of soft tissues, resulting in a white
skeleton (not to be confused with bleached corals).

Bleaching may also be Beneficial: Recent research has revealed that corals that are consistently exposed to low
levels of stress may develop some kind of resistance to bleaching.

Spatial and temporal range of coral reef bleaching

• Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and
western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree of coral bleaching and mor-
tality during the 1980s.
• Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral moralities were related to non-thermal disturbances such as storms,
aerial exposures during extreme low tides, and Acanthaster planci outbreaks (crown-of-thorns seastar, a
large starfish that preys upon coral polyps).

7. Resources from the Ocean

7.1 Ocean Deposits

• Ocean deposits are unconsolidated sediments deposited on the ocean floor.

• They are broadly divided into two types —
1. the terrigenous deposits (deposits derived from land; found mainly on the continental shelves and
slopes), and
2. the pelagic deposits (found over deep sea plains and the deeps).

Terrigenous Deposits

• They are mainly inorganic deposits (compounds not containing carbon) derived from disintegrated rock
material (due to weathering and water erosion).
• The proportion of organic matter (in the form of shells, corals and skeletons) is quite negligible.
• The disintegrated rock material is carried from land to the sea mainly by running water.
• The terrigenous deposits are found mainly on the continental shelves and slopes.
• Except for fine volcanic ash, little terrigenous material is carried on to the sea surface.

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Pelagic Deposits

• Pelagic deposits cover nearly 75% of the total sea floor.

• The pelagic deposits consist of both organic (remains of plants and animals) and inorganic material.
• Organic material is in the form of liquid mud called ooze which contains remnants of shells and skeletons.
• Inorganic material is in the form of red clay which is of volcanic origin.
• The chief constituents of red clay are silicon and aluminium dioxide.
• The red clay is the most widely spread pelagic deposit of the sea floor.
• The red clay covers more than half of the Pacific floor.

7.2 Mineral Resources

• Both metallic and non-metallic resources are found in seas.

• Most of these minerals are carried from land to sea by running water.
• The remaining are formed from to undersea volcanism and detritus (leftover parts) of marine organisms.
• At present, mining of only a handful of marine mineral resources is economically viable.
• Among them are offshore oil and natural gas, extraction of sodium chloride, salts of magnesium and bro-
mine, etc.

Mineral deposits found on continental shelves and slopes

• The surface deposits on the continental shelves and slopes are found mixed with sand.
• Sands are mined to extract calcium carbonate along the Bahamas coast.
• Coral sands are mined in Hawaii and Fiji for calcium carbonate.

Marine Placer deposits

• A placer deposit is an accumulation of valuable heavy minerals that have been weathered and eroded
from their source rocks.
• As a result of their high density, placer minerals accumulate just a few tens of kilometres away from their
source rocks.
• Marine placers deposits accumulate on the continual shelves very close to the shoreline.
• The most economically important of placer minerals are cassiterite (ore of tin), ilmenite (titanium), rutile
(titanium), zircon (zirconium), chromite (chromium), monazite (thorium), magnetite (iron), gold and
diamonds.

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• The beach sands of western India, coastal Brazil, Australia have zircon, monazite (thorium is extracted
form monazite sands found across the Kerala coast) and rutile.
• Kerala's placer deposits contain 90 per cent of the world's monazite reserves.
• The eastern and western coasts of Australia account for about 30 per cent of rutile.
• Placer diamonds are mainly mined in shelf sediments along the west coast of South Africa and Namibia.
• Gold placers occur along the coast of Alaska on the East Pacific shelf.
• The tin ore, cassiterite, a residue of granite weathering, occurs in the shelf of South East Asia.

Marine hydrocarbon deposits

• Generally, large quantities of hydrocarbons can be formed only at depths within organic-rich layers great-
er than 1,000 - 2,000 meters.
• Formation of exploitable reservoirs of hydrocarbons requires migration (from their source rocks) to geolog-
ical traps comprising a porous reservoir rocks and overlain by an impermeable horizon.

Anticline trap (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons)

• Common geological traps for hydrocarbons include shales, salt domes (evaporites; also rich in sulphur),
and anticlinal folds of permeable and non-permeable strata.
• In addition to liquid hydrocarbons, natural gas is also common.

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Oil and Gas traps (MagentaGreen, Wikipedia Commons)

• The estimated reserves of oil worldwide at the beginning of the 21st Century are about one trillion barrels.
• Of this amount, about 252 billion barrels (25%) lie in marine environments.
• Similarly, the total worldwide resources of natural gas are estimated at about 4,000 trillion cubic feet, of
which about 26 per cent are marine.
• These reserves of oil and gas are located as subsurface deposits almost exclusively on the continental
shelves.
• The abyssal plains probably contain insufficient thickness of sediments (less than 1 km) to yield hydrocar-
bon accumulations.
• Of the twenty-five largest offshore production fields, eight are in the Persian Gulf and eight others are in
the North Sea (here hydrocarbons are available at a shallow depth).
• The remaining ones are located in the Gulf of Mexico, East Asia (South China Sea), South Asia, etc.
• The western coast of India has shown promising reserves.

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• Besides oil, submerged coal deposits are to be found in the coast of Maharashtra in India.

Challenges in harnessing marine hydrocarbon resources

• The cost of production from deep marine environments is economically unviable considering the present
demand.
• Gas and oil exploration increase the risk of marine pollution from accidental oil spills. Existing response
technologies are inadequate to contain and recover spills.

Marine phosphorite deposits

• Phosphorites are natural compounds containing phosphate (used in the production of fertilizers).
• They are found in shallow waters and in the form of nodules on the continental shelves and slopes.
• At present, no offshore deposits are being mined because of the availability of non-marine phosphates.

Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor

• The deep sea has two main types of mineral deposits of economic importance: manganese nodules (also
called as polymetallic nodules) and metalliferous sediments.

Marine manganese nodules (Polymetallic nodules) and crusts

• Manganese nodules are concentrations of iron and manganese oxides, that can contain economically val-
uable concentrations of manganese (~30%), nickel (1.25-1.5%), copper (~1%) and cobalt (~0.25%).
• Other constituents include iron (6%), silicon (5%) and aluminium (3%).
• They are thought to have formed from the precipitation of metals from seawater, hot springs associated
with volcanic activity and metal hydroxides through the activity of microorganisms.
• Their abundance, composition, and their occurrence as loose material lying on the surface of the seabed
make nodules potentially attractive to future mining.
• Manganese-rich crusts, similar in composition to the nodules, occur on rocky outcrops.
• The top ten countries that have the greatest resource potential of nodules and crusts are the United States
of America, Madagascar, Brazil, Antarctica, Argentina, Japan, South Africa, Canada and India.
• Papua New Guinea is one of the few places where nodules were located in shallow waters.
• However, the expense of bringing the ore up to the surface proved to be expensive.

Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB)

• Manganese nodules in Indian Ocean cover a large area, over 10 million sq. km.

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• Large areas in the basins east of the Central Indian Ridge (ridge along the Reunion Hotspot) contains nod-
ules with a high percentage of manganese, nickel and copper.
• India has exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules from seabed in Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB).
• These rights are over 75000 sq. km of area in international waters allocated by International Seabed Au-
thority for developmental activities for polymetallic nodules.

Challenges

• Difficulty and expense of developing and operating mining technology that could economically remove the
nodules from depths of five or six kilometres.
• Continuing availability of the key minerals from land-based sources like nickel at market prices.
• Mining is not economically viable for the next two decades.

Locations of known polymetallic nodules. From World Ocean Review 3, (2014) (Source)

Marine gas hydrate deposits

• Gas hydrate is an icy crystalline compound located at great ocean depths and in shallow polar waters.
• It is composed of gas molecules, normally methane, encaged within water molecules.
• At great ocean depths due to cold temperatures and high ocean pressure gas hydrate remain solid.
• The source of the dissolved gas is from the breakdown of organic matter trapped within marine sediment.

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• Hence, gas hydrate deposits are likely to occur everywhere the seafloor exceeds 500 m (or 300 m in high
latitudes), and where there is a source of unoxidsed organic carbon in marine sediments.

Gas Hydrate deposits (Source)

• On dissociation at standard atmospheric pressure, gas hydrate yields approximately 164 times its own vol-
ume of methane gas.
• Gas hydrates are estimated to hold many times more methane than presently exists in the atmosphere
and up to twice the amount of energy of all fossil carbon-based fuels combined.
• Gas hydrates are known from the Atlantic and Pacific margins of both North and South America, especially
at equatorial latitudes.

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Global gas hydrate deposits

Challenges in economic exploitation of gas hydrate deposits

• Harnessing methane from gas hydrates is extremely challenging as they are stored deep in the ocean.
• Methane hydrates break at higher temperatures and lower pressures, presenting a challenge in the mining.

Methane is a greenhouse gas that traps heat twenty times more proficiently than carbon dioxide

• Gas hydrate reservoirs are extremely sensitive to climate change.

• They can catastrophically accentuate global warming by releasing methane.
• Gas hydrates break into smaller pieces and float upwards.
• Once they hit warmer waters and lower pressures, they break down into methane gas.
• The driving force behind the release of methane gas is the warming of oceans worldwide.
• Mining could unlock excess methane into atmosphere.

Natural gas hydrate in North Indian Ocean

• 2016: ONGC discovered large, highly enriched accumulations of natural gas hydrate in the Bay of Bengal.
• ONGC plans to start pilot production from its discovery from 2017.

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Accumulations of natural gas hydrate in North Indian Ocean

Source

Marine Polymetallic sulphides

• Deep seabed Poly-Metallic Sulphides (PMS) containing iron, copper, zinc, silver, gold, platinum in varia-
ble constitutions.
• They are formed due to the precipitation of hot fluids from upwelling hot magma discharged along the
mid-ocean ridges.
• Considerable interest has been sparked by the discovery of polymetallic sulphides in Western Indian
Ocean.
• India has received a 15 years contract from International Seabed Authority (ISA) for exploration of PMS in
the area of 10,000 sq km in parts of Central and South - West Indian Ridges (SWIR).
• In the SWIR, PMS found near the Galapagos rift system contain 48 per cent sulphur, 43 per cent iron, 11 per
cent copper and smaller quantities of zinc, tin, molybdenum, lead and silver.

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Marine evaporite deposits

• Marine evaporites, formed by evaporation of sea water in geologic basins comprise mainly anhydrite and
gypsum (calcium sulphates), sodium and magnesium salts and potash-bearing minerals.
• Rock salt cause upward protrusion forming salt domes, plugs, and other diapiric structures (salt domes ex-
plained in Volcanism).
• They can form structures in the sedimentary strata that are favourable for the accumulation of hydrocar-
bons.
• However, rock salts are abundantly available on land, and there is little value in marine deposits.

7.3 Energy Resources

Energy from Tides

• The tides, during rise and fall, release a lot of energy by striking against the shore. This piston action can be
used to operate a turbine and produce electricity.
• The USA, the CIS, Japan and France are producing power from tides.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

• In tropical seas, the surface temperature is about 25 °C to 30 °C, while the sub-surface temperature is 5 °C.
• This vertical difference of 25 °C is enough to generate electricity, but it is an expensive option.
• Belgium and Cuba are producing power in this way.
• 2008: An experimental 1MW plant at Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu was set up.

Geothermal Energy

• This means tapping heat from fracture zones and active volcanoes undersea.

7.4 Fresh Water

• Several desalination technologies are in operation, but as yet they are not being used on a large scale, as
they are costly.

Technologies adopted in desalinization of sea water

• Electrodialysis employs iron-selective membranes for the desalination of brackish water.

• Flash distillation technique is in use in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Island, Pakistan, Chile, and India.

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• Reverse osmosis is the most widely used method. Suitable osmotic membranes are used which reject salts
and allow water to pass through when sea water is put under high pressure.

7.5 Biotic Resources

• At the base of the food chain are the planktons—phytoplankton and zoo-planktons. These are the food for
many marine animal species.
• Benthos (sea surface) resources include animals such as crustaceans (prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster) and
shellfish or molluscs (mussels, oysters).
• Marine animals provide oil, fur, leather, glue and cattle feed.
• Marine plants and animals are used in curative medicine.
• Seafoods are of high nutritional value.
• Edible fish are of three main types, based on the location of habitat.
1. Pelagic fish (mackerel, herring, anchovies, tuna) breed near the surface of seas.
2. Demersal fish (haddock, cod, halibut, sole in the temperate region, and snapper and garoupa in tropical
waters) feed on or near the sea bed of the continental shelf.
3. Then there are the migratory anadromous fish (salmon) that live in the sea but move into fresh water of
coastal rivers every year.
• Whales are mammals of the ocean and have been caught not only for food but for industrial and medicinal
purposes as well.

Algae

• Algae such as sea lettuces are used in soups and salads and as flavouring.
• Kelp can be cultivated for producing methane gas and used as an energy source by bioconversion
• Brown algae produce algin.
• Algin used as stabilisers in the paints industry, to strengthen ceramics, and to thicken jams.
• Red algae provide agar and carrageenan.
• Agar is an important medium for bacterial culture in research.
• It is also an ingredient in desserts and pharmaceutical products.
• Carrageenan is used as a stabiliser and emulsifier in ice-creams, and in cosmetics and medicines.

7.6 United Nations International Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UN-
CLOS)

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• UNCLOS is an international agreement that defines the rights and responsibilities of nations where use
of the oceans’ waters by them is concerned.
• UNCLOS deal with aspects like delimitation, control of environmental pollution, commercial activities in the
seas, technology transfer and settlement of disputes between States with reference to ocean matters.
• It also creates a legal regime for controlling mineral resource exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond na-
tional jurisdiction, through an International Seabed Authority.
• The UNCLOS came into force in the year 1994.
• As of today, it has been signed by more than 150 countries.
• The USA has signed the treaty but has not ratified it.
• The UN provides support for Convention meetings. However, the UN does not have a direct part in the im-
plementation of the Convention.
• But organizations like the International Maritime Organisation and the International Whaling Commis-
sion have a role to play.
• UNCLOS uses a consensus process rather than a majority vote to discourage groups of nation-states dom-
inating negotiations.
• Four main decisions have been widely accepted since 1978.

UNCLOS Coastal Zones

Territorial waters

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• Territorial waters are those waters over which a state has full sovereignty
• Territorial waters extend for 19 km (12 miles) from the coast.
• Territorial waters include fjords, estuaries and land between the mainland and offshore islands in the inter-
nal waters.

Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone

• A further contiguous zone of 19 km is recognized in which the coastal state can act against those who
break the law (smugglers, pirates, illegal immigrants etc.) within the true territorial waters.
• This, in other words, is a pursuit zone.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

• Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) starts at the same baseline as the territorial waters.
• EEZ extend for 320-km (200-mile) from the baseline.
• Within the EEZ the coastal state has the right to exploit all economic resources — fish, minerals, oil and
gas and energy production.
• The state may extend these rights to the edge of the shelf — as much as 1280 km (800 miles) in some cases
— though this does not include rights to the sea itself beyond the 320 km EEZ.
• Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged states can participate on an equitable basis in exploiting an
appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the EEZs of coastal states.
• In the EEZ and on the continental shelf, all marine scientific research is subject to relevant coastal State's
consent. The coastal states, in turn, are expected to grant consent for peaceful purposes to other States.

High Seas

• Beyond all the zones in which individual countries can claim control are the high seas.
• The high seas are free for navigation by vessels of all nations.
• The oceans may also be used freely for the laying of submarine cables, and the airspace over them is also
free.
• The oceans may also be freely fished by all nations, though some international agreements seek to control
overfishing, which endangers some species.
• The States must share with the international community part of the revenue derived from exploiting
resources on the continental shelf extending beyond 200 miles.
• Special protection should be accorded to highly migratory species of fish and sea mammals.

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Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel Islands and Spratly Islands

Parcel Islands and Spratly Islands in South China Sea (Voice of America, Wikipedia)

• The Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands are two of the most contested areas in the South China Sea.
• However, unlike other parts of the South China Sea, these areas do not hold large resources of oil and
natural gas.
• Most fields containing discovered oil and natural gas are clustered in uncontested parts of the South China
Sea, close to shorelines of the coastal countries.
• The Paracel Islands, however, contain significant natural gas hydrate resources.
• Under the UNCLOS, ownership of habitable islands can, however, extend the exclusive access of a country
to surrounding energy resources (200 mile EEZ).

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• Hence, the country that wins the dispute would have the right to explore and develop whatever the re-
sources that are available in the EEZ.

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Oil and Gas reserves around Spratly Islands and Parcel Islands (Source)

Economic and Strategic importance of South China Sea

• 10% of world’s fisheries.

• 30% of global shipping trade.
• Population is 2.2 billion in the region.
• 11 billion barrels of oil.
• 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.

Source

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Indian Geography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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PDF

1. India as a Geographical Unit ......................................................................................................................... 4

1.2 India's Frontiers ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Major Physical Divisions of India ....................................................................................................................................... 10

2. Rock System Based on Geological History of India.................................................................................. 12

2.1 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks).............................................................................................................. 15
Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old) ................................................................................................................... 15
Dharwar System (1 to 4 billion years old) ....................................................................................................................................... 15
Purana Rock System (600 to 1400 million years old) ................................................................................................................. 15

2.2 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) ................................................................................................................................. 16

Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) .......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.3 Aryan Rock System.................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Gondwana System .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Jurassic System .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Deccan Trap ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Tertiary System .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18

3. Himalayan Ranges ....................................................................................................................................... 18

3.2 Shiwalik Range .......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Formation (Formation of Himalayas explained in C-C Convergence) ................................................................................. 19

3.3 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or The Himachal........................................................................ 20

Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas .................................................................................................................................... 21

3.4 The Greater Himalaya............................................................................................................................................................. 22

Passes in the Greater Himalayas ......................................................................................................................................................... 23

3.5 The Trans Himalayas ............................................................................................................................................................... 24

Ranges in The Trans Himalayas ........................................................................................................................................................... 24

3.6 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ................................................................................................................................................... 24

3.7 Himalayas – Regional Divisions .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Punjab Himalayas...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Western Himalayas ................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Central Himalayas ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Eastern Himalayas ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 30

3.8 Important Valleys in Himalayas .......................................................................................................................................... 31

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Karewas ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31

3.9 Snow in Himalayas – Snowline ........................................................................................................................................... 32

3.10 Glaciers in Himalayas.............................................................................................................................................................. 32
3.11 Significance of the Himalayas ............................................................................................................................................. 33
3.12 Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub-continent .............................................................................................. 35

4. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ............................................................................................................. 42

4.1 The formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ................................................................................................. 43
4.2 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain............................................................................................................. 45
Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ............................................................................................................................ 46
Regional Divisions of the Great Plains .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Significance of the Plain ......................................................................................................................................................................... 50

5. Peninsular Plateau ....................................................................................................................................... 51

5.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau ....................................................................................................................... 51
Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Central Highland ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Bundelkhand Upland ............................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Malwa Plateau ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Baghelkhand ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Chotanagpur Plateau............................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Meghalaya Plateau ................................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Deccan Plateau .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 55

5.2 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau .............................................................................................................................. 57

Aravalli Range............................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
Vindhyan Range ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Satpura Range ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) ...................................................................................................................................................... 60
Eastern Ghats .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 61
Significance of the Peninsular Plateau ............................................................................................................................................. 62

6. Coastline of India ......................................................................................................................................... 63

6.1 East Coast of India ................................................................................................................................................................... 64
6.2 West Coast of India ................................................................................................................................................................. 64
6.3 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence................................................................................................................. 65
6.4 Western Coastal Plains of India .......................................................................................................................................... 65
Kutch and Kathiawar region ................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Gujarat Plain ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Konkan Plain ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Karnataka Coastal Plain .......................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Kerala Plain .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66

6.5 Eastern Coastal Plains of India ............................................................................................................................................ 67

Utkal Plain .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Andhra Plain ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 67
Tamil Nadu Plain ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 68

6.6 Significance of the Coastal Plains ...................................................................................................................................... 68

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7. Indian Islands ............................................................................................................................................... 68

7.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands............................................................................................................................................ 70
7.2 Lakshadweep Islands .............................................................................................................................................................. 71
7.3 New Moore Island ................................................................................................................................................................... 72

8. Drainage Systems of India .......................................................................................................................... 73

8.2 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea ................................................................................................... 74
8.3 Major River System or Drainage Systems in India ...................................................................................................... 75
8.4 Indus River System .................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Indus River ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Jhelum River ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Chenab River ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Ravi River ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Beas River ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Sutlej River ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84

8.5 Ganga River System ................................................................................................................................................................ 84

Ganga River ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 86
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga ................................................................................................................................................ 87
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River ........................................................................................................................................ 90

8.6 Brahmaputra River System ................................................................................................................................................... 92

8.7 Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage ......................................................................................................... 94
Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage ............................................................................................................................................... 95
Comparison: Himalayan River System & Peninsular River System ....................................................................................... 96
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers............................................................................................................................................................. 97
West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular India .............................................................................................................................. 112
Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage .................................................................................................................................................... 122

1. Indian Monsoons ....................................................................................................................................... 122

1.2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on Modern Theories .......................................................................... 124
March to May .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone) .............................................................................. 132
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream Theory ................................................................................................................... 134
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) ............................................................................. 136
Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) (African Easterly Jet) .................................................................. 143
Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet .................................................................................................................................................... 144
Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet .......................................................................................................................................... 146
Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole ..................................................................................................................... 146

2. Indian Climate ............................................................................................................................................ 148

2.1 Features of Indian Climate ................................................................................................................................................. 149
Rainfall ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 149
Temperature ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 149

2.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate.................................................................................................................................. 150

Latitudinal location ................................................................................................................................................................................ 150
Distance from the Sea .......................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Himalayas .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 151
Physiography ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 151
Monsoon Winds ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 152
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Upper Air Circulation ............................................................................................................................................................................ 153

Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances ............................................................................................................................ 153
El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO ................................................................................................................................................................ 154

2.3 Indian Climate – Seasons .................................................................................................................................................... 154

Winter Season in India ......................................................................................................................................................................... 155
Summer Season in India ..................................................................................................................................................................... 161
Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season ........................................................................................................................... 167
North East Monsoon Season – Retreating Monsoon Season .............................................................................................. 175
Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons) .................................................................................... 176

2.4 Climatic Regions of India .................................................................................................................................................... 178

Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India ................................................................................................................. 179
Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India ............................................................................................................... 181

3. Natural Vegetation of India ...................................................................................................................... 183

3.1 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India .............................................................................................................. 184
A. Moist Tropical Forests ..................................................................................................................................................................... 185
B. Dry Tropical Forests ......................................................................................................................................................................... 189
C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests .................................................................................................................................................... 191
D. Montane Temperate Forests ........................................................................................................................................................ 193
E. Alpine Forests ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 194

4. Biogeography – Soils ................................................................................................................................. 195

4.1 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy................................................................................................................................. 195
4.2 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon) .................................................................................................................................................... 195
4.3 Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions .................................................................................... 198
Parent Material ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 199
Relief ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Climate ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 201
Natural Vegetation ................................................................................................................................................................................ 202

4.4 Major Soil Groups of India ................................................................................................................................................. 202

Alluvial Soils ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 203
Black Soils ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 204
Red Soils .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 206
Laterite – Lateritic Soils ........................................................................................................................................................................ 207
Forest – Mountain Soils ....................................................................................................................................................................... 208
Arid – Desert Soils ................................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Saline – Alkaline Soils ........................................................................................................................................................................... 209
Peaty – Marshy Soils ............................................................................................................................................................................. 211

1. India as a Geographical Unit

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Locational Extent of India

East-West Extent (~30°) 68° 7' East to 97° 25' East longitude

South-North Extent of mainland India (Including POK) (~29°) 8° 4' North to 37° 6' North latitude

South-North Extent of India (Including POK and the Andaman 6° 45' North to 37° 6' North latitude
and Nicobar Islands) (~31°)

Map of Jammu and Kashmir showing the occupied regions

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Location: Indira Col and NJ9842

• The southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point, or Indira Point is located at 6° 45' N lati-
tude.
• North-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir to Kanyakumari is 3,214 km.
• East-west width from the Rann of Kutch to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
• With an area of 32,87,263 km2, India is the seventh largest country in the world.
• India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total surface area of the world.

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World by Area

Rank Country Capital City Continent Area (km2)

1 Russia Moscow Europe 1,70,98,242
2 Canada Ottawa North America 99,84,670

3 USA Washington DC North America 98,26,675

4 China Beijing Asia 95,96,961

5 Brazil Brasilia South America 85,14,877

6 Australia Canberra Oceania 77,41,220

7 India New Delhi Asia 32,87,263

8 Argentina Buenos Aires South America 27,80,400

9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 27,24,900

10 Algeria Algiers Africa 23,81,741

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country dividing it into two latitudinal halves.
• The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is near twice the area which lies to the south of it.
• South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a peninsula.

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• East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs. (A difference of 1° longitude will make a difference of 4 minutes
in time. ~30 x 4 = ~120 minutes or ~2 hours).

India, Tropical or Temperate Country?

• The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer) is twice the area of the tropical part.
• But India has always been treated as a tropical country for two different reasons – physical and cultural.

Physical Geographical (Climatic) Reasons

• The country is separated from the rest of Asia by the Himalayas.

• The tropical monsoons dominate its climate.
• Himalayas blocks the cold temperate air masses.
• Although winter night temperatures are low, yet clear skies and intense insolation raise the day tempera-
tures to a tropical level.

Cultural Geographical Reasons

• Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary economic activities are all tropical in nature.

It is primarily because of the Himalayas that India is a predominantly tropical country.

1.2 India's Frontiers

Data from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)

• India has 15106.7 Km of land border running through 17 States.

• Indian has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian islands)
touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
• Barring Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other States in the
country have one or more international borders or a coastline and can be regarded as frontline States
from the point of view of border management.
• India's longest border is with Bangladesh while the shortest border is with Afghanistan.
• The length of India’s land borders with neighbouring countries is given in the table below.

Neighbour Length of the border (in Km)

1) Bangladesh 4,096.7

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2) China 3,488

3) Pakistan 3,323

4) Nepal 1,751

5) Myanmar 1,643

6) Bhutan 699

7) Afghanistan 106

15,106.7

Border with China

• This is the second longest border of India, next only to its border with Bangladesh.
• Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pra-
desh touch the Indian boundary with China.
• The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors namely: (i) the Western sector, (ii) the Middle
sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector.

The Western Sector

• Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India from the Xinjiang province of China.
• The western sector boundary is largely the outcome of the British policy towards the state of Jammu and
Kashmir.
• China claims the Aksai Chin, the Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso area of north-
east Ladakh.
• China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Pakistan).

The Middle Sector

• Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border.

The Eastern Sector

• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near
Diphu pass (Talu-Pass) at the tri-junction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.

Diphu Pass is a mountain pass around the area of the disputed tri-point borders of India, China, and Myanmar.
It is Talu pass on the Burmese side, and Diphu pass on the Indian (Tibetan) side.

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• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign secretary of
British India, who negotiated the boundary agreement between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla accord in
1913-14.

The India-Nepal Boundary

• Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch the Nepalese
border with India.
• The border is a porous one with an unrestricted movement of goods and people between Indian and Ne-
pal.
• Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction almost along the foothill of the Shi-
walik Range.

The Indo-Pakistan Boundary

• The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the partition of the country in 1947 under the Radcliffe award
of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the chairman.
• Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major disputed regions.

Creeks in the Kutch Region

The India-Bangladesh Border

• India's 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is the longest.

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• This boundary has been determined under the Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile province of
Bengal into two parts.

India-Myanmar Boundary

• This boundary runs roughly along the watershed between the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy rivers.
• It passes through thickly forested regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on the Indian side and
Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.

India-Sri Lanka Boundary

• India and Sri Lanka are separated from each other by a narrow and shallow sea called Palk Strait.
• Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is only 32 km away from Talaimanar in Jaffna peninsula in
Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by a group of islets forming Rama Setu (Adam's Bridge).

1.3 Major Physical Divisions of India

1. The Himalayas (young fold mountains),

2. Indo-Gangetic Plain (monotonous topography – featureless topography),
3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most stable landmasses; one of the oldest plateaus of the world),
4. Coastal Plains (sedimentation due to fluvial action).
5. The Indian Islands (Coral Islands ➔ coral reef built up on atolls. E.g. Lakshadweep Islands. Tectonic
➔ Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Interaction between the Indian Plate and Eurasian plate).

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Physical Map of India

Peninsular Plateau

• Includes entire south India, central India, Aravallis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya plateau, Kutch-Kathiawar
region (Gujarat) etc.
• It is the oldest and the most stable landmass of India.

Himalayas

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• Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar) and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands (but we consider these as islands only).
• It is the youngest and highly unstable landmass of India. (Continent-Continent Convergence)
• Tectonic movements are widespread.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

• The monotonous region (featureless topography) between Peninsular and Himalayan region.
• Most youthful region prone to tectonic forces.

Coastal Plains

• Eastern Coastal Plains and Western Coastal Plains.

• It is formed due to the consolidation of sediments brought by rivers (fluvial deposits).
• Highly stable just like the peninsular plateau.

Indian Islands

• Two major groups – Lakshadweep (coral islands) and, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (tectonic islands).
• Lakshadweep (part of Reunion Hotspot Volcanic chain) are a group of atolls occupied by coral reefs.
• There has been no significant volcanism or tectonic activity in the recent past.
• The islands are highly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a continuation of Arakan Yoma.
• The islands have volcanoes (Barren Island is the only active volcano) and are tectonically active.

Type of Topography Extent in %

Mountainous (more than 2135 m above sea level) 10.7

Hilly area (305 – 2135 m above sea level) 18.6

Plateau (305 – 915 m above sea level) 27.7

Plains 43

2. Rock System Based on Geological History of India

1) The Archaean Rock System.

2) The Purana Rock System.
3) The Dravidian Rock System.

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4) The Aryan Rock System.

Rock System Based on Geological History of India

Rock System Based on Geological History of India

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Geologic Time Scale:

https://www.pmfias.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Precambrian-Supereon-Geological-Time-Scale.jpg
https://www.pmfias.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Phanerozoic-Eon-Geological-Time-Scale.jpg

2.1 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks)

• Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian system.

• The Archaean rock system includes:

Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old)

Gneiss ➔ Mineral composition varies from granite to gabbro.

Schists ➔ mostly crystalline, include mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.

• Oldest rocks (formed in the pre-Cambrian era – about 4 billion years ago).
• These rocks were formed due to solidification of molten magma – the earth’s surface was very hot then.
• They are known as the ‘Basement Complex’ (they are the oldest and forms the base for new layers)
• They are azoic or unfossiliferous plutonic intrusions (magma solidified below the surface).
• They are foliated (consisting of thin sheets).
• They are thoroughly crystalline (because they are volcanic in origin).

Dharwar System (1 to 4 billion years old)

• Formation period ranges from 4 billion years ago to – 1 billion years ago.
• They are highly metamorphosed sedimentary rock-system (formed due to the metamorphosis of sedi-
ments of Archaean gneisses and schists).
• They are the oldest metamorphosed rocks.
• They are found in abundance in the Dharwar district of Karnataka.
• They are economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable minerals like high-grade
iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.

Purana Rock System (600 to 1400 million years old)

• Includes two divisions: the Cuddapah System and the Vindhyan System.

Cuddapah System

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• Unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones and limestones was deposited in synclinal basins (depression be-
tween two folds).
• Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh.
• These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
• They contain large deposits of cement grade limestones.

Vindhyan System

• This system derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
• The system comprises of ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick) superimposed on the Archaean base.
• They are mostly unfossiliferous.
• A large area of this belt is covered by the Deccan Traps.
• The Vindhyan system have diamond bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda diamonds have
been mined.
• It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but provides large quantities of durable stones, ornamental stones,
limestone, pure glassmaking sand etc.

2.2 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic)

• Formed about 600 – 300 million years ago.

• Found in the extra-Peninsular region (the Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very rare in Peninsular
India. (The name ‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in South India)
• They are sedimentary rocks, and abundant fossils can be found in them.
• The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods fall under the Dravidian
system.

Carboniferous rocks (350 million years)

• The Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale and quartzite.
• Mount Everest is composed of Upper Carboniferous limestones.
• Coal formation started in the Carboniferous age.
• Carboniferous in geology means coal bearing. (most of the coal found in India is not of the
Carboniferous period; High-quality coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and Ruhr region is Carbonif-
erous coal).

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2.3 Aryan Rock System

• Upper Carboniferous to the Recent.

Gondwana System

• The Gondwana System (derives its name Gonds, tribes from Telangana and Andhra Pradesh)
• They are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface.
• As the sediments accumulated, the loaded troughs subsided.
• Freshwater and sediments accumulated in these trough and terrestrial plants and animals thrived.
• This happened since the Permian period (250 million years ago).

Gondwana Coal

• Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per cent of India’s coal reserves.

• Gondwana coal is much younger than the Carboniferous coal, and hence its carbon content is low.
• They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium and antimony.
• Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are used as building materials.

Jurassic System

• The marine transgression in the latter part of the Jurassic gave rise to a thick series of shallow water de-
posits in Rajasthan and in Kutch.
• Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates and shales occur in Kutch.
• Another transgression on the east coast of the Peninsula is found between Guntur and Rajahmundry.

Deccan Trap

• The volcanic outburst over a vast area of Peninsular India from the end of the Cretaceous till the beginning
of the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh km2.
• These volcanic deposits have a flat top and steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’ meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’
in Swedish.
• The process of weathering and erosion (denudation) since millions of years has reduced the Deccan Trap to
almost half of its original size.

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• At present Deccan Traps covers about 5 lakh km2 mainly in parts of Kutch, Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the
Malwa plateau and northern Karnataka.
• The thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000 metres along the west which is reduced to 600-800 metres to-
wards the south, 800 metres in Kutch and only 150 metres at the eastern limit.
• The weathering of these rocks for a long time has given birth to black cotton soil known as regur.

The Deccan Trap has been divided into three groups:

Group Found in Inter-trappean beds Layers of volcanic ash

The Upper Trap Maharashtra and Saurashtra Present Present

The Middle Trap Central India and Malwa Very rare to absent Present

The Lower Trap Madhya Pradesh Present Very rare to absent

• In basaltic volcanism (Deccan traps, Siberian shield, Laurentian shield), some sediments settle on the
cooled and solidified basaltic layer.
• This sediment layer is covered further by basaltic volcanism and again some sediments settle over it.
• These successive layers of sediments separated by the basalt are called inter-trappean beds.

Tertiary System

• Formed between Eocene to Pliocene (60 to 7 million years ago).

• The tertiary is the most significant period in India's geological history because the Himalayas were born,
and India's present form came into being in this period.

3. Himalayan Ranges

Division of the Himalayas

1. The Shiwaliks or The Outer Himalayas

2. The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or The Himachal
3. The Greater Himalayas or The Himadri
4. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan Himalayas
5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of hills in North-East India
• Himalayan ranges are a series of several parallel or converging ranges.
• The ranges are separated by deep valleys creating a highly dissected topography (plateau or upland di-
vided by a number of deep valleys).

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• The southern slopes have steep gradients, and northern slopes have comparatively gentler slopes.

Scaling Mount Everest is less hectic from the northern side. But China places restrictions, so climbers take the
steeper southern slopes from Nepal.

• Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slopes are partly situated in Ti-
bet (trans-Himalayas) while the western extremity lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
• The Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain is a succession of three parallel ranges.

3.2 Shiwalik Range

• Also known as The Outer Himalayas.

• Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser Himalayas.
• The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 metres.
• Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar Plateau (west) to the Brahmaputra valley (east).
• The southern slopes are steep while the northern slopes are gentle.
• The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 km in Arunachal
Pradesh.
• They are an almost unbroken chain of low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is occupied by the valley
of the Tista River and Raidak River.
• Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick forests, but the forest cover de-
creases towards west from Nepal (because of the decrease in the quantum of rainfall from east to west).
• The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost devoid of forest cover.
• These slopes are highly dissected by seasonal streams called Chos.
• Valleys are part of synclines and hills are part of anticlines or antisynclines.

Syncline and Anticline (antisyncline)

Formation (Formation of Himalayas explained in C-C Convergence)

• Shiwaliks were formed last of all the ranges (2-20 million years ago).
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• The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands, gravels and conglomerate deposits (alluvial fans – fluvial depositional
landform) which were brought by the rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
• These deposits were folded and hardened due to compression offered by the northward movement of the
Indian plate.

The Shiwaliks are known by different names in different areas

Name of Shiwaliks Region

Jammu Region Jammu Hills

Dafla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi Hills Arunachal Pradesh

The Dhang Range, Dundwa Range Uttarakhand

Churia Ghat Hills Nepal

Explain the formation of Duns (Duras)

• Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, silt, gravel, debris etc.).
• These conglomerates, in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed the courses of the rivers draining from
the higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed temporary lakes.
• With the passage of time, these temporary lakes accumulated more and more conglomerates. The con-
glomerates were well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
• When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the lakes filled with conglomerate deposits, the
lakes were drained away leaving behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west and ‘duars’ in the east.
• Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best example (75 km long and 15-20 km wide)
• Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are other important duns.

3.3 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or The Himachal

• In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Greater Himalayas in the north.
• Runs almost parallel to both the ranges.
• They are also called the Lower Himalaya.
• The Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and about 2400 km in length.
• Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m above sea level.
• Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above sea level and are snow-covered throughout the year.
• The Lower Himalayas have steep, bare southern slopes (steep slopes prevent soil formation) and gen-
tler, forest covered northern slopes.
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• In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba ranges.
• The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal, is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range.
• East of the Kosi River, the Sapta Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent the lower
Himalayas.
• The Middle Himalayan ranges are more friendly to human contact.

Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling,
etc. are located here.

Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas

Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas Region

The Pir Panjal Range Jammu and Kashmir (The range is south of
Kashmir Valley)

The Dhaola Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh

The Mussoorie Range and The Nag Tiba Range Uttarakhand

Mahabharat Lekh Nepal

The Pir Panjal range

• The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range.
• It extends from the Jhelum river to the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
• It rises to 5,000 metres and contains mostly volcanic rocks.

Passes in Pir Panjal

• Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal Pass (2,835 m).
• The Banihal Pass was used by the Jammu-Srinagar highway and Jammu-Baramulla railway.
• The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the Chenab cut through the range.
• Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing through Dalhousie,
Dharamshala, and Shimla.

Important Valleys

• Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies the valley of Kashmir (average
elevation is 1,585 m above mean sea level).

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• The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with alluvial, lacustrine (lake deposits), fluvial (river action) and
glacial deposits.
• Jehlum River meanders through these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir Panjal through which it drains.
(Kashmir is a basin with very few outlets. Hence the region is extremely vulnerable to flooding).
• In Himachal Pradesh, there is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and extends from the foot of the Dhaola
Dhar Range to the south of Beas.
• On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the upper course of the Ravi is a transverse valley.

Strike valley vs. Transverse valley

• A valley perpendicular to the slope or parallel to the ridge (also called as a longitudinal valley)
• In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys parallel to the slope (along the dip).

Strike valley vs. Transverse valley

3.4 The Greater Himalaya

• Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or Himadri.

• Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and an average width of about 25 km.
• It is mainly formed of the central crystallines (granites and gneisses) overlain by metamorphosed sedi-
ments (limestone).
• The folds in this range are asymmetrical with steep south slope and gentle north slope giving hogback (a
long, steep hill or mountain ridge) topography.
• This mountain arc convexes to the south just like the other two.
• The Himadri terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends.
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• One in the Nanga Parbat in the north-west and the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.

Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas

• The Himalayas extend in the east-west direction from the Indus gorge in the west to the Brahmaputra
gorge in the east.
• Himalayan ranges take sharp southward bends at these gorges. These bends are called syntaxial bends of
the Himalayas.
• The western syntaxial bend occurs near the Naga Parbat (western tip of The Zaskar Range) where the
Indus river has cut a deep gorge.
• The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near the Namche Barwa.
Nanga Parbat means Naked Mountain. It is called so due to its isolation from the Karakoram range that
has many similar high peaks (eight-thousanders)

• This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world, most of which remain under perpetual snow.

Regional name of Mount Everest Region

Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky) Nepal

Chomolungma (Mother of the World) China (Tibet)

Mount Everest was first located by George Everest, the then Surveyor General of India in 1841 and 1852 it was
established as the highest peak of the world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.

Passes in the Greater Himalayas

• The passes are generally higher than 4,570 m above sea level and are snowbound for most of the year.

State Passes of Greater Himalayas

Jammu and Kashmir • Burzil Pass

• Zoji La (La means pass)

Himachal Pradesh • Bara Lacha La

• Shipki La (The Hindustan-Tibet Road through Shipki La connects Shimla
with Gartok in Western Tibet)

Uttarakhand • Thaga La
• Niti Pass
• Lipu Lekh

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Sikkim • Nathu La
• Jelep La (important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near Darjeeling)
with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m))

3.5 The Trans Himalayas

• The Trans Himalayas are the Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range.
• Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of it lies in Tibet.
• The average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level.
• The average width of this region is 40 km at the extremities and about 225 km in the central part.
• It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in the east-west direction (occur only in the western part of
the Himalayas).

Ranges in The Trans Himalayas

• The Zanskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the Karakoram are the main ranges.
• The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is in The Zaskar Range.
• North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range.
• Only a few peaks of this range attain heights of over 6000 metres.
• The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh Range.
• The highest peak is Mount Kailas (6714 m).
• River Indus originates from the northern slopes of the Kailas range.
• The northernmost range of the Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the Karakoram Range also known as
the Krishnagiri range.
• Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the Pamir for about 800 km.
• It is a range with lofty peaks (elevation 5,500 m and above). It is the abode of some of the greatest glaci-
ers of the world outside the polar regions.
• Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 meters above sea level. K2 (8,611 m) (Godwin Austen or Qogir in
Karakoram Range) is the second highest peak in the world and the highest peak in the Indian Union.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of the Karakoram Range. It has been dissected into a number of
plains and mountains (Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang Chenmo)

3.6 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills

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• Eastern Hills or The Purvanchals are the southward extensions of the Himalayas running along the north-
eastern edge of India.
• At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a series of comparatively low
hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
• Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
• They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in
the south.

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Purvanchal Hills

• Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong sandstone; elevation varys from 2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges into
Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.
• Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
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• South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills which are generally less than 2,500 metres in elevation.
• The Barail range separates Naga Hills from Manipur Hills.
• Further south the Barail Range swings to the west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills which are an eastward
continuation of the Indian peninsular block.
• They are separated from the main block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
• South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai hills) which have an elevation
of less than 1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.

3.7 Himalayas – Regional Divisions

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Himalayan Ranges and Hills

Punjab Himalayas

• The Himalayan region between the Indus and the Satluj rivers (560 km long).
• All the major rivers of the Indus river system flow through Punjab Himalayas.
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• A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Hence, they are also
called the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
• Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar are the major ranges in this section.
• The general elevation falls westwards.

Q. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer:

List-I (Climatic conditions) List-II (Reasons)

A. Madras is warmer than Calcutta 1. North-east monsoon

B. Snowfall in the Himalayas 2. Altitude

C. Rainfall decreases from West Bengal to Punjab 3. Western depressions

D. Sutlej-Ganga plain gets some rain in winter 4. Distance from the sea

5. Latitude

Codes:

a) A – 1; B – 2; C – 4; D – 5
b) A – 4; B – 5; C – 1; D – 3
c) A – 5; B – 2; C – 4; D – 3
d) A – 5; B – 1; C – 3; D – 4
• Madras is warmer than Calcutta because Madras is closer to the equator.
• Snowfall in the Himalayas is due to altitude.
• Rainfall decreases from east to west due to increasing distance from the sea.
• Sutlej-Ganga plain gets some rain in winter due to Western Disturbances (remnants of the temperate cy-
clone)

Answer: c) A – 5; B – 2; C – 4; D – 3

Western Himalayas

• Between the Indus in the west and the Kali river in the east (880 km).
• Spread across three states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
• It encompasses three physiographic provinces namely Kashmir Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya and Ku-
maon Himalaya (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
• The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir valley are two important areas of the Kashmir Himalayan region.

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• In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater Himalaya is represented by the Zaskar range, lesser Himalaya by Pir
Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges and the Outer Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
• The southern slopes are rugged, steep and forested while the northern slopes are bare and gentle.
• The Kumaon Himalayas lie in Uttarakhand and extend from the Satluj to the Kali river.
• The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon Himalaya is represented by the Mussoorie and Nag Tiba ranges.
• The Shiwalik in this region runs south of the Mussoorie range between the Ganga and the Yamuna rivers.
• The flat valleys between the Lesser Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are called ‘doons’ or ‘Duns’ of
which Dehra Dun is the most famous.

Central Himalayas

• 800 km between river Kali in the west and river Tista in the east.
• The Great Himalaya range attains maximum height in this portion.
• Some of the world famous peaks Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapurna, Gosainthan and
Dhaulagiri, are located here.
• The Lesser Himalaya is known as Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
• The range is crossed by rivers like Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc.
• In between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and Pokhra lacustrine valleys (pre-
viously, they were lakes).
• The Shiwalik range comes very close to the lesser Himalaya towards the east and is almost non-existent be-
yond Narayani (Gandak).

Eastern Himalayas

• Also known as the Assam Himalayas, this part of the Himalayas lies between the Tista river in the west and
the Brahmaputra river in the east and stretches for a distance of about 720 km.
• Elevation here is much lesser than that of the Nepal Himalayas.
• The southern slopes are very steep, but the northern slopes are gentle.
• The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow and are very close to the Greater Himalayas.
• The Assam Himalayas show a marked dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy rainfall.
• The Himalayas take a sudden southward turn after the Dihang gorge and the hill ranges running in a more
or less north-south direction along India's border with Myanmar are collectively known as the Purvanchal.
• Purvanchal hills are known by various local names such as Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Kohima hills, Ma-
nipur hills, Mizo hills (previously known as the Lushai hills), Tripura hills and Barail range.
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• The extension of the Purvanchal Himalaya continues southwards up to Andaman and Nicobar Islands
through the Myanmar range (Arakan Yoma) and even up to the Indonesian archipelago.

In the eastern section, the Himalayas rise abruptly from the plains of Bengal and Oudh and suddenly attain great
elevations within a short distance. Thus, the peaks of Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a few kilometres from
the plains.
In contrast, the western Himalayas rise gradually from the plains through a series of ranges. Their peaks of per-
petual snow are 150 to 200 km away from the plain areas.

3.8 Important Valleys in the Himalayas

The most important valleys in the Himalayan region are

1) the valley of Kashmir and the Karewas,

2) the Kangra and Kulu valley in Himachal Pradesh;
3) the Dun valley (Doon valley, Dehradun valley); the Bhagirathi valley (near Gangotri) and the Manda-
kini valley (near Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
4) the Kathmandu valley in Nepal.

Karewas

• Karewas are lacustrine deposits (deposits in the lake) in the Valley of Kashmir and Bhadarwah Valley of the
Jammu Division.
• These are the flat-topped mounds that border the Kashmir Valley on all sides.
• They are characterised with fossils of mammals and at places by peat.

Formation

• During the Pleistocene Period (1 million years ago), the entire Valley of Kashmir was under water.
• Subsequently, due to endogenic forces, the Baramullah Gorge was created, and the lake was drained
through this gorge.
• The deposits left in the process are known as karewas.
• The thickness of karewas is about 1400 m.
• The karewas have been elevated, dissected and removed by denudation as well as by the Jhelum river giv-
ing them the present position.

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Economic Significance

• The karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, apple and orchards.

3.9 Snow in the Himalayas – Snowline

• The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual snow) varies in different parts of the Himalayas depending up-
on latitude, amount of precipitation and local topography.
• In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon Himalayas, the snowline is around 3,500 m above sea level where-
as in the western Himalayas snowline is about 2,500 m above sea level.
• This difference in snowline is partly due to the increase in latitude from 28° N in Kanchenjunga to 36° N in
the Karakoram.
• But the major factor is precipitation. Precipitation in the western Himalayas is comparatively low and oc-
curs mostly as snowfall whereas in the eastern Himalayas the precipitation is greater and occurs mostly in
the form of rain.
• In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snow line is at a lower elevation on the southern slopes than on the
northern slopes because the southern slopes receive more precipitation as compared to the northern
slopes.

3.10 Glaciers in the Himalayas

• There are about 15,000 glaciers in the Himalayas.

• The total area of Himalayas is about five lakh square kilometres (area of India is nearly 32 lakh square km).
About 33,000 square km area is covered by snow.

Glaciers of the Karakoram Range

• Maximum development of glaciers occurs in the Karakoram range.

• Some of the largest glaciers outside the polar and sub-polar regions are found in this range.
• The southern side of this range has many gigantic glaciers.
• The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in Nubra valley has the distinction of being the largest glacier outside
the polar and the sub-polar regions.
• The second largest is the 74 km long Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs).
• Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62 km long and occupies a tributary of the Hunza River.

Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range

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• The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are less numerous and smaller in size as compared to those of the Ka-
rakoram Range.
• The longest Sonapani Glacier in the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region is only 15 km long.

Others

• Glaciers of the Kumaon-Garhwal Region: In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the Himalayas, the largest is the
30 km long Gangotri Glacier which is the source of the river Ganga.

Garhwal Region

• Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon region, on
the south by Uttar Pradesh state, and on the northwest by Himachal Pradesh state.
• It includes the districts of Chamoli, Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal,
and Uttarkashi.

Garhwal Region

• Glaciers of Central Nepal: Zemu and the Kanchenjunga glaciers are the major ones.

3.11 The significance of the Himalayas

Influence on Indian Climate

• They intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea causing pre-
cipitation in the entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern Hills.

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• They direct the monsoon winds towards north-western India (Punjab, Haryana etc. But these regions re-
ceive most of the rainfall due to Western Disturbances coming from the Mediterranean regions).
• They protect northern-plains from the cold continental air masses of central Asia.
• The Himalayas influence the path of Sub-tropical Jet stream flowing in the region. They split the jet stream,
and this split jet stream plays an important role in bringing monsoons to India.
• Had there been no Himalayas, the whole of India would have been a desert and its winters would have
been very severe.

Source of Rivers

• Rivers that feed nearly half a billion population of India originate in the Himalayas.
• All the rivers are perennial supplying water year round.

Fertile Soil

• The swift flowing rivers from the Himalayas bring an enormous amount of silt (alluvium) which continually
enrich the Ganga and Brahmaputra plains.

Hydroelectricity

• Due to its natural topography and swift flowing perennial rivers, the Himalayan region offers several natural
sites with great hydroelectric power generation potential.
• Many hydroelectric power plants have already been constructed.
• But all this comes at a tremendous environmental cost.

Forest Wealth

• The Himalayan host rich coniferous and evergreen forests.

• Lower levels have tropical evergreen forests, and higher levels have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous).
• The Himalayan forests provide fuelwood and a large variety of timber for industries.
• Himalayan forests host a wide variety of medicinal plants.
• Several patches are covered with grass offering rich pastures for grazing animals.

Agriculture

• Due to rugged and sloped terrain, the Himalayas are not potential agricultural sites.
• Some slopes are terraced for cultivation. Rice is the main crop on the terraced slopes.

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• The other crops are wheat, maize, potatoes, etc.

• Tea is a unique crop which can be grown only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in the region.
• Fruit cultivation is a principal occupation. A wide variety of fruits such as apples, pears, grapes, mulberry,
walnut, cherries, peaches, apricot, etc. are also grown in the Himalayan region.

Tourism

• Himalayan ranges have a large number of tourist spots.

• The hilly areas in the Himalayas are not affected by hot winds like the loo. Hence, they offer cool and com-
fortable climate.
• The increasing popularity of winter sports has increased the rush of tourists in winters.
• Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala, Chamba, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Al-
mora, Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are important tourist centres in the Himalayas.

Cultural Tourism

• Himalayas host many Hindu and Buddhist shrines.

• Kailas, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishnu Devi, Jwalaji, Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc.
are important places of pilgrimage.

Defense

• The Himalayas are a natural defense barrier.

• But the Chinese aggression on India in 1962 has reduced the defence significance of the Himalayas.

Mineral Resources in the Himalayas

• Geosynclinal (geosynclinical) deposits in tertiary rocks are regions of potential coal (peat) and oil reserves.
• Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious and precious stones oc-
cur at some places in the Himalayas.
• But the exploitation of these resources requires advanced technologies which are not yet available.

3.12 Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub-continent

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• Sela Pass is between Bum La and Bom Di La. Tawang is between Bum La and Sela Pass.

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Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub-continent

• Most of the Himalayan passes remain closed in winter (Nov – Apr) due to heavy snow fall.

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Passes of the Western Himalayas

Jammu and Kashmir

Name Significance (connects) Comments

Mintaka Pass Kashmir and China Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan border

Parpik Pass Kashmir and China • East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China border

Khunjerab Pass Kashmir and China • Indo-China border

Aghil Pass Ladakh with the Xinjiang • 5000 m above sea level.
Province (China) • north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India)

Banihal Pass Jammu and Srinagar • 2832 m

• across the Pir-Panjal Range
• remains snow covered during the winter season

• The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956 when Jawahar
Tunnel was constructed under the pass.
• The road now passes through the tunnel, and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for
road transport.
• Another 11 km long tunnel provides a railway link between Banihal and Kazigund.
It was thrown open to railway transport in 2013.

Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet • altitude of 5360 m

• This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La Baba after
whom the temple has been named

Khardung La near Leh in the Ladakh • 5602 m

range • The world's highest motorable road passes through
this pass
• remains closed in winter due to heavy snowfall

Lanak La India and China (Akasai- • this pass provides passage between Ladakh and Lhasa.
Chin area of Jammu and • A road to connect Xinjiang Province with Tibet has been
Kashmir) constructed by the Chinese

Pir-Panjal pass across the Pir Panjal range • provides the shortest and the easiest metal road be-
tween Jammu and Kashmir Valley.
• But this route had to be closed down as a result of the
partition of the subcontinent.

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Qara Tag La Indo-China border across • located at an elevation of over six thousand metres
the Karakoram Range

Imis La Ladakh region of India and

Tibet in China

Pensi La a vital link between the • remains closed to traffic from November to mid-May
Kashmir Valley and Kargil due to heavy snowfall

Zoji La important road link be- • The road passing through this pass has been
tween Srinagar on one designated at the National Highway (NH-1D)
side and Kargil and Leh • Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for
on the other side maintaining the road and cleaning it off snow during
winter.
• In spite of all these efforts, the road through this pass
remains closed from December to mid-May

Himachal Pradesh

Bara Lacha La Himachal Pradesh and • Elevation: 4,890 m

Jammu and Kashmir • National highway connecting Mandi in Himachal Pra-
desh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes through
this pass.
• Being situated at high altitude, it remains snow covered
in winter and is not used as a transport route.

Debsa Pass link between Kullu and • elevation of 5270 m above sea level
Spiti districts • It offers a much easier and shorter alternative route to
traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route between Kullu and
Spiti

Rohtang Pass road link between Kullu, • Elevation: 3979 m

Lahul and Spiti Valleys • Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for con-
structing and maintaining roads in this area.
• Rohtang pass is a great tourist attraction, and traffic
jams are very common because this route is widely used
by the military, public and private vehicles.

Shipki La Himachal Pradesh and Ti- • Elevation: 6000 m

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bet • Remains closed in the winter season (Nov - Apr)

Uttarakhand

Lipu Lekh trijunction of Uttarakhand • Kailash-Mansarovar pilgrims use this pass.

(India), Tibet (China) and
Nepal borders

Mana Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet • elevation of 5610

• Situated a little north of Badhrinath
• Remains closed in the winter season (Nov - Apr)

Mangsha Dhura Uttarakhand with Tibet • It is used by pilgrims going to Kailash-Mansarowar

Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet • Remains closed in the winter season (Nov - Apr)

Muling La Uttarakhand and Tibet • situated in the north of Gangotri at an elevation of 5669
m in the Great Himalayas

Passes of the Eastern Himalayas

Sikkim

Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet • altitude of 4310 m

• it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk Route
• an important trade route between India and China
• It was closed after the Chinese aggression on India in
1962 but was reopened in 2006 as the governments of
the two countries decided to enhance their trade
through land routes

Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border • altitude of 4538 m

• passes through Chumbi Valley
• an important link between Sikkim and Lhasa

Arunachal Pradesh

Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh with • altitude of 4331 m

Bhutan • Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the eastern
boundary of Bhutan in the Greater Himalayas, this pass
connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa (Tibet)

Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh and • elevation of more than 4000 m it provides passage

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Myanmar.

Yonggyap Pass Arunachal Pradesh with

Tibet

Dipher Pass trijunction of India, China • easy access between Arunachal Pradesh and Mandalay
(Diphu pass) and Myanmar in Myanmar.
• It is an important land trade route between India and
Myanmar and remains open throughout the year.

Kumjawng Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar

Hpungan Pass

Chankan Pass

4. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain

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Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plains

4.1 The formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain

• The formation of the Indo-Gangetic plain is closely related to the formation of Himalayas.

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Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra trough

• The rivers which were previously flowing into Tethys sea (before Indian Plate collided with Eurasian) depos-
ited a huge amount of sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline (a huge depression).
• The Himalayas are formed out of these sediments which were uplifted, folded and compressed due to
northern movement of Indian Plate.
• Northern movement of the Indian Plate also created a trough to the south of Himalayas.

Depositional Activity

• During the initial stages of upliftment of sediments, the already existing rivers changed their course several
times and they were rejuvenated each time (perpetual youth stage of rivers).
• The rejuvenation is associated with intense headward and vertical downcutting of the soft strata overlying
the harder rock stratum.
• Headward erosion and vertical erosion of the river valley in the initial stages, lateral erosion in later stages
contributed a huge amount of conglomerates (rock debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried downslope.

Headward erosion: Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back away from
the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.

• These conglomerates were deposited in the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or Indo-Gangetic syn-
cline) (the base of the geosyncline is hard crystalline rock) between peninsular India and the conver-
gent boundary (the region of present-day Himalayas).

New rivers and more alluvium

• The raising of the Himalayas and the subsequent formation of glaciers gave rise to many new rivers.
• These rivers along with glacial erosion supplied more alluvium which intensified the filling of the depres-
sion.
• With the accumulation of more and more sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea started receding.
• With the passage of the time, the depression was completely filled with alluvium, gravel, rock debris (con-
glomerates) and the Tethys completely disappeared leaving behind a monotonous aggradational plain.

Monotonous: featureless topography; Aggradational plain: plain formed due to depositional activity.

• Upper peninsular rivers have also contributed to the formation of plains, but to a very small extent.

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• During recent times (since a few million years), depositional work of three major river systems viz., the In-
dus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra have become predominant.
• Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also known as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.

Elevation of the major physiographic divisions of India

4.2 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain

• Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the largest alluvial tract of the world.

• It stretches for about 3,200 km from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga.
• Indian sector of the plain accounts for 2,400 km.
• The northern boundary is well marked by the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary is a wavy irregular line
along the northern edge of Peninsular India.
• The western border is marked by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges.
• On the eastern side, the plains are bordered by Purvanchal hills.
• It is widest in the west where it stretches for about 500 km. Its width decreases in the east.
• The thickness of the alluvium deposits also varies from place to place. The maximum depth of the alluvium
up to the basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not uniform and varies greatly from place to place).
• Extreme horizontality of this monotonous plain is its chief characteristic.
• Its average elevation is about 200 m above mean sea level, highest elevation being 291 m above mean sea
level near Ambala (This elevation forms the drainage divide or watershed between Indus system and
Ganga system).
• Its average gradient from Saharanpur to Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it decreases to 15 cm per km
from Varanasi to the Ganga delta.

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Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain

• Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger khadar and older
bhangar soils.

The Bhabar

• It is a narrow, porous, northernmost stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.

• It is about 8-16 km wide running in an east-west direction along the foothills (alluvial fans) of the Shiwa-
liks.
• They show a remarkable continuity from the Indus to the Tista.
• Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial fans.
• These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged together to build up the bhabar belt.
• The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature.
• The porosity is due to deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
• The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity.
• Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
• The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the west.

The area is not suitable for agriculture, and only big trees with large roots thrive in this belt.

The Terai

• Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the south of Bhabar running
parallel to it.
• The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
• The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt.

This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wildlife. (Jim Corbett National Park in Utta-
rakhand and Kaziranga National Park in Assam lie in terai region)

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The Terai Marshes

• The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than in the west because the eastern parts receive a
comparatively higher amount of rainfall.
• The terai soils are silty and rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in phosphate.
• Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, has been turned into agricul-
tural land which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice and wheat.

The Bhangar

• The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the flood plain.
• The terraces are often impregnated with calcareous concretions (beds of lime nodules) known as ‘Kankar’.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the middle Ganga and
Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.

Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the banks of the Ganga river especially in the upper Gan-
ga-Yamuna Doab.
This has been formed due to the accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot, dry months of the year.

• Bhangar contains fossils of animals like rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.

• The soil is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark coloured.

The Khadar

• The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.
• A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year.
• This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
• They are sandy clays and loams, drier and more leached and less calcareous.

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Reh or Kollar

• Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana.

• Reh areas have spread in recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the surface).

Regional Divisions of the Great Plains

1. Sindh Plain
2. Rajasthan Plain.
3. Punjab Plain.
4. Ganga Plain.
5. Brahmaputra Plain.
6. Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta

Sindh Plain (Pakistan)

• Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains.

• Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are the remnants of the course of former rivers.
• Dhand: Alkaline lakes on some dhors.

Rajasthan Plain

• Occupied by Thar or the Great Indian Desert.

• This plain is an undulating plain (wave-like) whose average elevation is about 325 m.
• The desert region is called Marusthali and forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
• It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists and granites which proves that geologically it is a part of the Pen-
insular Plateau. It is only at the surface that it looks like an aggradational plain.
• In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky while its western part is covered by shifting sand
dunes locally known as dhrian.
• The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to the Aravalli Range is a semi-arid plain known as Rajasthan Bagar.
• It is drained by a number of short seasonal streams originating from the Aravallis and supports agriculture
in some patches of fertile tracts.
• Luni is an important seasonal stream which flows into Rann of Kutch. The tract north of the Luni is known
as thali or sandy plain.

Saline Lakes

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• North of the Luni, there is inland drainage having several saline lakes. They are a source of common salt
and many other salts.
• Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman, etc. are some of the important lakes. The largest is the Sambhar
lake near Jaipur.

Punjab Plain

• This plain is formed by five important rivers of the Indus system.

• The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ — the land between two rivers.
• The depositional process by the rivers has united these doabs giving a homogenous appearance.
• Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the following rivers: the Jhe-
lum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
• The average elevation of the plain is about 250 m above mean sea level.
• The eastern boundary of Punjab Haryana plain is marked by subsurface Delhi-Aravali ridge.
• The northern part of this plain (Shiwalik hills) has been intensively eroded by numerous streams called
Chos. This has led to enormous gullying.
• To the south of the Satluj river, there is Malwa plain of Punjab.
• The area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often termed as ‘Haryana Tract’.
It acts as water-divide between the Yamuna and the Satluj rivers.

The only river between the Yamuna and the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is considered to be the present
day successor of the legendary Saraswati River.

Ganga Plain

• This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata (about 3.75 lakh sq km).
• The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the Himalayans have brought large
quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here to build this extensive plain.
• The peninsular rivers such as Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga river system have also con-
tributed to the formation of this plain.
• Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections of Ganges as a result of which the area is marked by local prom-
inences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes, ravines, etc.
• Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to frequent floods.
• The Kosi river is very notorious in this respect. It has long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.

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Regional divisions of Ganga plains

• Rohilkhand plains
• Avadh Plains
• Mithila Plain
• Magadh Plain.

Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta

• This is the largest delta in the world.

• The slope of the land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two-thirds of the area are below 30 m above mean sea
level (Highly vulnerable to sea level changes).
• The seaward face of the delta is studded with a large number of estuaries, mudflats, mangrove swamps,
sandbanks, islands and forelands.
• A large part of the coastal delta is covered by tidal forests. These are called the Sundarbans because of
the predominance of Sundari trees here.

Brahmaputra Plain

• This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as most of the Brahmaputra
valley is situated in Assam.
• Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the boundary of the lower Ganga
Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal hills.
• It is an aggradational plain built up by the depositional work of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra river coming from the north form a number of alluvial fans.
• Consequently, the tributaries branch out in many channels giving birth to river meandering leading to the
formation of bill and ox-bow lakes.
• There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris have led to
the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.

The significance of the Plain

• This one-fourth of the land of the country hosts half of the Indian population.
• Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow-moving perennial rivers and favourable climate facilitate the intense
agricultural activity.

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• The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary of
India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
• The entire plain except the Thar Desert has a close network of roads and railways which has led to large
scale industrialisation and urbanisation.
• Cultural tourism: There are many religious places along the banks of the sacred rivers like the Ganga and
the Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus.
• Here flourished the religions of Buddha and Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti and Sufism.

5. Peninsular Plateau

• Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus and hill ranges.

• The Peninsular Plateau is one of the oldest landforms of the earth.
• It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and schists.
• Since a few hundred million years, it has never been submerged beneath the sea except in a few places.
• It covers a total area of about 16 lakh square km.
• The average height of the plateau is 600-900 m above sea level (varies from region to region).
• Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating its general slope.
• Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which flow from east to west in a rift.

5.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau

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Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau

Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau

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• It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan (Marwar plain is to the west of Aravallis whereas Marwar plateau is to
the east).
• The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level, and it slopes down eastwards.
• It is made up of sandstone, shales and limestones of the Vindhyan period.
• The Banas river, along with its tributaries (Berach river, Khari rivers) originate in the Aravalli Range and
flow towards northwest into Chambal river.
• The erosional activity of these rives makes the plateau top appear like a rolling plain.

Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not completely flat: there are slight rises and fall in the landform. Ex: Prairies of
USA

Central Highland

• Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau.

• It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar Upland.
• Most of the plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river which flows in a rift valley.
• The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Pratap Sagar, The Banas flowing through Mewar plateau and The Par-
wan and the Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh are its main tributaries.
• It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow here.
• To the north are the ravines or badlands of the Chambal river (they are typical to Chambal river basin).

Bundelkhand Upland

• Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan Scarplands to the east and south-
east and Malwa Plateau to the south.
• It is the old dissected (divided by a number of deep valleys) upland of the ‘Bundelkhand gneiss’ comprising
of granite and gneiss.
• Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh.
• The average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from the Vindhyan Scarp toward
the Yamuna River.
• The erosional work of the rivers flowing here have converted it into an undulating (wave-like surface) area
and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
• The region is characterised by senile (characteristic of or caused by old age) topography.
• Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow through the plateau.

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Malwa Plateau

• The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by the Aravalli Range in
the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north and Bundelkhand to the east.
• This plateau has two systems of drainage; one towards the Arabian sea (The Narmada, the Tapti and the
Mahi), and the other towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
• In the north, it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries like the Kali, the Sindh and
the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of the Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa.
• It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils.
• The general slope is towards the north (decreases from 600 m in the south to less than 500 m in the north).
• This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by the Chambal ravines.

Baghelkhand

• North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand.

• Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and granite in the east.
• It is bounded by the Son river on the north.
• The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage system in the north and the
Mahanadi river system in the south.
• The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.

Chotanagpur Plateau

• Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian Peninsula.

• Mostly in Jharkhand, the northern part of Chhattisgarh and Purulia district of West Bengal.
• The Son River flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
• The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m above sea level.
• This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks.
• The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in different directions and presents a radial drain-
age pattern.
• Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South Koel and the Barkar have devel-
oped extensive drainage basins.
• The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to east. Gondwana
coal fields which provide the bulk of coal in India are situated here.

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• North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600 m above mean sea
level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
• The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m above mean sea level. Most
of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m) is located.
• At places, it is interrupted by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock rising above a
peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical hills.
• The Rajmahal Hills forming the northeastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly made of basalt
and are covered by lava flows.
• They run in a north-south direction and rise to an average elevation of 400 m (highest mount is 567 m).
• These hills have been dissected into separate plateaus.

Meghalaya Plateau

• The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from Meghalaya or the Shillong
plateau. The eastward extinction is known as Karbi Anglong plateau.
• Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau from the main block.
• This gap was formed by down-faulting (normal fault: a block of earth slides downwards).
• It was later filled by sediments deposited by the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border.
• The western, central and the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills (900 m), the Khasi-
Jaintia Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m).
• Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.

Deccan Plateau

• It covers an area of about five lakh square km.

• It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the north-west, the Mahadev
and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
• Its average elevation is 600 m.
• It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to 500 m in the north.
• Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers.
• Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.

Maharashtra Plateau

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• The Maharashtra Plateau lies in Maharashtra.

• It forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau.
• Much of the region is underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin (Most of the Deccan Traps lies in this re-
gion).
• The area looks like a rolling plain due to weathering.
• The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap topography (step-like).

Step like appearance of Deccan Traps

• The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are flanked (bordered on the op-
posite sides) by flat-topped steep-sided hills and ridges.
• The entire area is covered by black cotton soil known as regur.

Karnataka Plateau

• The Karnataka Plateau is also known as the Mysore plateau.

• Lies to the south of the Maharashtra plateau.
• The area looks like a rolling plateau with an average elevation of 600-900 m.
• It is highly dissected by numerous rivers rising from the Western Ghats.
• The general trend of the hills is either parallel to the Western Ghats or across it.
• The highest peak (1913 m) is at Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in Chikmagalur district.
• The plateau is divided into two parts called Malnad and Maidan.
• The Malnad in Kannada means hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys covered with dense forests.
• The Maidan, on the other hand, is formed of rolling plain with low granite hills.

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• The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south and merges with the
Nilgiri hills there.

Telangana plateau

• Its average elevation is 500-600 m.

• The southern part is higher than its northern counterpart.
• The region is drained by three river systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Penneru.
• The entire plateau is divided into Ghats and the Peneplains (a vast featureless, undulating plain which the
last stage of the deposition process).

Chhattisgarh Plain

• The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the Peninsular plateau.
• It is a saucer-shaped depression drained by the upper Mahanadi.
• The whole basin lies between the Maikal Range and the Odisha hills.
• The region was once ruled by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty-six forts (Chhattisgarh) it derives its
name.
• The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the west.

5.2 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau

• Most of the hills in the peninsular region are of the relict type (residual hills).
• They are the remnants of the hills and horsts formed many million years ago (horst: uplifted block; graben:
subsided block).
• The plateaus of the Peninsular region are separated from one another by these hill ranges and various river
valleys.

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Major Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau

Aravalli Range

• They are aligned in north-east to south-west direction.

• They run for about 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.

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• They are one of the oldest (very old) fold mountains of the world and the oldest in India.
• After its formation, its summits were nourishing glaciers, and several summits were probably higher than
the present-day Himalayas.
• Now they are relict (remnants after severe weathering and erosion since millions of years) of the world's
oldest mountain formed as a result of folding.
• They continue up to Haridwar buried under the alluvium of Ganga Plains.
• The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan (continuous range south of Ajmer where it rises to 900 m.) but be-
comes less distinct in Haryana and Delhi (characterised by a chain of detached and discontinuous ridges
beyond Ajmer).
• According to some geographers, one Branch of the Aravallis extends to the Lakshadweep Archipelago
through the Gulf of Khambhat and the other into Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Its general elevation is only 400-600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m.
• At the south-west extremity, the range rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu (1,158 m), a small hilly block, is
separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas.
• Guru Shikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu.
• Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movement by roads and railways.

Vindhyan Range

• The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a view of from above) the Narmada valley, rises as an escarpment
(a long, steep slope at the edge of a plateau or separating areas of land at different heights) flanking
(neighbouring on one side) the northern edge of the Narmada-Son Trough (the rift through which the
Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of ridge. It is a narrow depression).
• It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada Valley in an east-west direction from Jobat in Gujarat to
Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over 1,200 km.
• The general elevation of the Vindhyan Range is 300 to 650 m.
• Most parts of the Vindhyan Range are composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of ancient age.
• The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Barner and Kaimur hills.
• This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river systems of south India.
• The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken, rise within 30 km of the Narmada.

Satpura Range

• Satpura range is a series of seven mountains (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ = mountains)
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• It runs in an east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the Tapti, roughly
parallel to these rivers.
• It stretches for a distance of about 900 km.
• Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and upheaved. They are regarded as structural uplift or ‘horst’.
• Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.
• Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak.

Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)

• They form the western edge of the Deccan tableland.

• Run from the Tapti valley (21° N latitude) to a little north of Kanniyakumari (11° N latitude) for a distance of
1,600 km.
• The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a stepped topography facing the
Arabian Sea coast.
• This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which on weathering, have given a characteristic ‘landing stair
aspect’ to the relief of this mountain chain.
• The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average elevation of 1,000 m from the Western
Coastal Plain.
• But they slope gently on their eastern flank and hardly appear to be a mountainn when viewed from the
Deccan tableland.
• South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Annamalai, etc. present quite different landscape due to the difference in
geological structure.

The northern section

• The northern section of the Ghats from Tapti valley to a little north of Goa is made of horizontal sheets of
Deccan lavas (Deccan Traps).
• The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level, but some peaks attain
more heights.
• Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher (1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik, Mahabaleshwar
(1,438 m) and Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are important peaks.
• Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes which provide passage by road and rail between the Kon-
kan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.

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Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and Goa coast

Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka coast

The Middle Sahyadri

• The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to Nilgiri hills.

• This area is covered with dense forests.
• The western scarp is considerably dissected by headward erosion of the west flowing streams.
• The average height is 1200 m, but many peaks exceed 1500 m.
• The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pushpagiri (1,714 m) are important peaks.
• The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the tri-junction of Karnataka, Kerala and TN, rise abruptly to
over 2,000 m.
• They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with the Eastern Ghats.
• Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are important peaks of this area.

The southern section

• The southern part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Pal ghat Gap (Pa-
lakkad Gap).
• The high ranges terminate abruptly on either side of this gap.
• Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is used by a number of roads and railway lines to connect the
plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala.
• It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon can penetrate some distance
inland, bringing rain to the Mysore region.
• South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged slopes on both the eastern and
western sides of the Ghats.
• Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India.
• Three ranges radiate in different directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the Anaimalai (1800-2000
m) to the north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or the Ealaimalai to
the south.

Eastern Ghats

• The Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India leaving broad plains between their base
and the coast.

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• It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in
Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
• They neither have structural unity nor physiographic continuity. Therefore, these hill groups are generally
treated as independent units.
• It is only in the northern part, between the Mahanadi and the Godavari that the Eastern Ghats exhibit true
mountain character. This part comprises the Maliya and the Madugula Konda ranges.
• The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m, and Mahendra Giri
(1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.
• The Madugula Konda range has higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m and 1,400 m with several peaks
exceeding 1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda (1,680 m), Gali Konda
(1,643 m) and Sinkram Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
• Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly character and are occupied
by Gondwana formations (KG Basin is here).
• The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of
Andhra Pradesh where they are called as Nallamalai Range (Naxalite hideout in AP) with a general eleva-
tion of 600-850 m.
• The southern part of this range is called the Palkodna range.
• To the south, the hills and plateaus attain very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and the Shevroy-Kalrayan
Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
• The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore district attain a height of 1,279 m.
• Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.

The significance of the Peninsular Plateau

• Primary Mineral Base of India: There are huge deposits of iron, manganese, copper, bauxite, chromium, mi-
ca, gold, etc.
• 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular Plateau.
• Besides, there are large reserves of slate, shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
• A large part of the north-west plateau is covered with fertile black lava soil which is extremely useful for
growing cotton.
• Some hilly regions in south India are suitable for the cultivation of plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
etc.
• Some low lying areas of the plateau are suitable for growing rice.
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• The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests which provide a large variety of for-
est products.
• The rivers originating in the Western Ghats offer a great opportunity for developing hydroelectricity and
providing irrigation facilities to the agricultural crops.
• The plateau is also known for its hill resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty), Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal,
Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron, Mount Abu, etc.

6. Coastline of India

Coastline of India

• India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian islands)
touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).

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• The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of faulting of the Gondwanaland during the Creta-
ceous period.
• As such the coast of India does not offer many sites for good natural harbours.

Indented coastlines of Europe provide good natural harbours whereas African and Indian coastlines are
not indented.

• The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea came into being during the Cretaceous or early Tertiary period
after the disintegration of Gondwanaland.

6.1 East Coast of India

• Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.

• It extends from the Ganga delta to Kanyakumari.
• It is marked by deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
• Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon) are the important geographical features of the east coast.

Regional Names of The East Coast of India

• In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal coast.

• From the southern limit of the Utkal plain, stretch the Andhra coast.
• In the south of the Andhra plain is the Tamil Nadu coast.
• The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra coast together are known as Coramandal Coast or Payan Ghat.

6.2 West Coast of India

• The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north to Cape Comorin
(Kanyakumari).
• Starting from north to south, it is divided into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii) the Karnataka coast and (iii) the
Kerala coast.
• It is made up of alluvium brought down by the short streams originating from the Western Ghats.
• It is dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered waterway such as
an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a few estuaries.
• The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapti, are the major ones.
• The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the largest being the Vem-
banad Lake.
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Regional Names of The West Coast of India

• Konkan coast ➔ Maharashtra coast and Goa coast.

• Malabar Coast ➔ Kerala and Karnataka coast.

6.3 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence

• Coastline of emergence is formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.
• The coastline of submergence is an exact opposite case.
• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical features of emergence.
• The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
emergence.
• The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent.
• The northern portion of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern portion, that is the
Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.
Coromandel coast (Tamil Nadu) ➔ Coastline of emergence
Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ➔ Coastline of emergence
Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) ➔ Coastline of submergence

6.4 Western Coastal Plains of India

• Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanyakumari in the South.

• These are narrow plains with an average width of about 65 km.

Kutch and Kathiawar region

• Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of the Deccan
Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as an integral part of the Western
Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.
• The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. These seas and lagoons were later
filled by sediment brought by the Indus River which used to flow through this area. Lack of rains in recent
times has turned it into an arid and semi-arid landscape.
• Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern continuation, known as the Little
Rann lies on the coast and south-east of Kachchh.

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• The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kachchh. The central part is a highland of Mandav Hills
from which small streams radiate in all directions (Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) is the highest
point and is of volcanic origin.
• The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is covered with dense forests
and is famous as the home of the Gir lion.

Gujarat Plain

• The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes towards the west and south-west.
• Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes the southern part of Gujarat
and the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
• The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support agriculture, but the greater part near the coast is
covered by windblown loess (heaps of sand).

Konkan Plain

• The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80 km wide).
• It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in the Arabian Sea.
• The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important embayment (a recess in a coastline forming a bay) which
provides an excellent natural harbour.

Karnataka Coastal Plain

• Goa to Mangalore.
• It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km near Mangalore.
• At some places, the streams originating in the Western Ghats descend along steep slopes and make water-
falls.
• The Sharavati while descending over such a steep slope makes an impressive waterfall known as Gersoppa
(Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. (Angel falls (979 m) in Venezuela is the highest waterfall on earth. Tugela
Falls (948 m) in Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is the second highest.)
• Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.

Kerala Plain

• The Kerala Plain is also known as the Malabar Plain.

• Between Mangalore and Kanyakumari.
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• This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a low lying plain.
• The existence of lakes, lagoons, backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant characteristic of the Kerala coast.
• The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the
coastline.
• The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10 km wide and gives
rise to a 55 km long spit (Marine Landforms).

6.5 Eastern Coastal Plains of India

• Extending from the Subarnarekha river along the West Bengal-Odisha border to Kanyakumari.
• A major part of the plains is formed as a result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone (relating to or on
the shore of the sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery comprising some of
the largest deltas.
• In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these are extensive plains with an average width of 120 km.
• This plain is known as the Northern Circars between the Mahanadi and the Krishna rivers and Carnatic
between the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.

Utkal Plain

• The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of Odisha.

• It includes the Mahanadi delta.
• The most prominent physiographic feature of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
• It is the biggest lake and biggest brackish (salt) water (lagoon) lake in the country and its area varies
between 780 sq km in winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon months. Its length is around 64 km.
• South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the plain.

• Vembanad Lake (Kerala) is the longest lake in India with a length of 96 km.
• Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir), is the largest freshwater lake of India (260 sq km).
• Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam) (UP), is the largest human-made lake of India by volume.
• Shivaji Sagar Lake of Koyna Dam is the largest human-made lake of India by surface area.
• Rajasthan’s Sambhar Lake is the largest inland saltwater lake of India (200 sq km).
• Tso Lhamo Lake (Sikkim) is India’s highest lake (5,330 m) in India.

Andhra Plain

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• South of the Utkal Plain and extends up to Pulicat Lake. This lake has been barred by a long sand spit
known as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch facility).
• The most significant feature of this plain is the delta formation by the rivers Godavari and Krishna.
• The two deltas have merged and formed a single physiographic unit.
• The combined delta has advanced by about 35 km towards the sea during recent years. This is clear from
the present location of the Kolleru Lake which was once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far inland
(Coastline of Emergence).
• This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly lacks good harbours with the exception of Vishakha-
patnam and Machilipatnam.

Tamil Nadu Plain

• The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from Pulicat lake to Kanyakumari along the coast of Tamil Nadu.
Its average width is 100 km.
• The most important feature of this plain is the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130 km wide.
• The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities have made the Cauvery delta the granary of South India.

6.6 The significance of the Coastal Plains

• Large parts of the coastal plains of India are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown. Rice
is the main crop of these areas.
• Coconut trees grow all along the coast.
• The entire length of the coast is dotted with big and small ports which help in carrying out the trade.
• The sedimentary rocks of these plains are said to contain large deposits of mineral oil (KG Basin).
• The sands of Kerala coast have a large quantity of monazite which is used for nuclear power.
• Fishing is an important occupation of the people living in coastal areas.
• Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for producing salt.
• Kerala backwaters are important tourist destinations.
• Goa provides good beaches. This is also an important tourist destination.

7. Indian Islands

• The major island groups of India are Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (a chain of islands similar in origin)
in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea.

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• Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed due to the collision between Indian Plate and Burma Minor
Plate (part of Eurasian Plate) (Similar to the formation of Himalayas).
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the southward extension of Arakan Yoma range (Myanmar) (Arakan
Yoma in itself is an extension of Purvanchal Hills).
• Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands. These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot volcanic chain.

Reunion Hotspot volcanic chain

• Other than these two groups there are islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta (they are more a part of the delta
than islands) and between India and Sri Lanka (Remnants of Rama Setu or Adams Bridge; formed due to
submergence).

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Rama Setu or Adams Bridge

7.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands (203 Andaman islands + 62 Nicobar Islands).
• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands extend from 6° 45' N to 13° 45' N and from 92° 10' E to 94° 15' E for a
distance of about 590 km.
• The Andaman Islands are divided into three main islands, i.e. North, Middle and South.
• Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
• The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the Nico-
bar group in the south (Prelims 2014).
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands, lies in the South Andaman.
• Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest.
• It is the southernmost island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia.
• The Car Nicobar is the northernmost island.
• Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale resting on basic and ultrabasic
volcanoes (Similar to the Himalayas).
• The Barren Island (the only active volcano in India) and Narcondam Islands (an extinct or dormant
volcano), north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands.
• Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick forests. Most of the
islands are mountainous.
• Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.

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Andaman and Nicobar Islands

7.2 Lakshadweep Islands

• In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands.

(1) Amindivi Islands
(2) Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major islands including Kavaratti) and
(3) Minicoy.
• At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep.
• The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 25 small islands.
• They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the Kerala coast.
• Amindivi Islands are the northernmost while the Minicoy island is the southernmost.
• All are tiny islands of coral origin (coral depositions on atolls) and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
• Andrott (4.9 sq km) is the largest Island. Minicoy (4.5 sq km) is the second largest.
• Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five meters above sea level (extremely
vulnerable to sea level change).
• Their topography is flat and relief features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent.

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Lakshadweep Islands

7.3 New Moore Island

• It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-
Brahmaputra Delta region.
• It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It keeps on emerging and
disappearing.
• Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations located on it,
both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it because of speculation over the existence of
oil and natural gas in the region.
• The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute over the Radcliffe Award methodology of
settling the maritime boundary between the two nations.

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New Moore Island

8. Drainage Systems of India

The contribution of Water by Various Rivers

River % Contribution of water

Brahmaputra ~ 40

Ganga ~ 25

Godavari ~ 6.4

Mahanadi ~ 3.5

Krishna ~ 3.4

Narmada ~ 2.9

Rest ~ 20

Drainage Systems Based on the Size of the Catchment Area

Division Size of catchment area in sq km

Major river 20,000

Medium river 20,000 – 2,000

Minor river 2,000 and below

Length of some important Indian Rivers

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Sl. No. River Length (km)

1. Brahmaputra (916 km in India) 2,900 (Longest river of India)

2. Indus (1114 km in India) 2,880 (2nd Longest river of India)

3. Ganga 2,525 (Longest river in India – river length within Indian

boundaries) (Length measured along the Bhagirathi and
the Hooghly – this entire course lies within India)

4. Godavari 1,465 (2nd Longest river in India)

5. Krishna 1,400

6. Narmada 1,312

7. Yamuna 1211

8. Mahanadi 851

9. Kaveri 800

10. Tapi (Tapti) 724

Government websites are showing different data.

I am going with http://www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Basins

Drainage Systems Based on Origin

• The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
• The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the
Narmada and the Tapti and their tributaries.

Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage

• Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
• Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin). Streams like the Sambhar in western Rajasthan are
mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the only
river that flows through the salt desert is the Luni.

8.2 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea

• The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal) (East flowing rivers)
• The Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain into the Arabian sea) (West flowing rivers).
• The rivers Narmada and Tapti flow almost parallel to each other but empty themselves in opposite direc-
tions (West flowing).

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• The two rivers make the valley rich in alluvial soil, and teak forests cover much of the land.

The Bay of Bengal drainage The Arabian Sea drainage

Rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal Rivers that drain into the Arabian sea

East flowing rivers West flowing rivers

~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the country is ~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the country is
oriented towards the Bay of Bengal oriented towards the Arabian sea

The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the The Indus, the Narmada, the Tapti, the Sabarmati, the
Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Penneru, the Mahi and the large number of swift flowing western
Penneiyar, the Vaigai, etc. coast rivers descending from the Sahyadris.

• The area covered by The Bay of Bengal drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are not proportional to the
amount of water that drains through them.
• Over 90 per cent of the water drains into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is drained into the Arabian Sea
or forms inland drainage.

Factors responsible for the Lopsided distribution

(Why the Bay of Bengal receives more fresh water compared to the Arabian Sea?)

• The Arabian Sea drainage or Western drainage receive less rainfall (Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab receive
very low rainfall).
• The Eastern drainage or the Bay of Bengal drainage receives rainfall both from South-west and North-east
monsoons.
• Most of the Himalayan waters (perennial rivers) flow into eastern drainage (Ganges and Brahmaputra).
• Indian Rivers that flow into the Arabian Sea are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni, Narmada, etc.).
• The occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall in the eastern parts is another major reason.

8.3 Major River System or Drainage Systems in India

• The entire country has been divided into 22 basins as per the Central Water Commission.

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22 basins as per the Central Water Commission

• The names of the basins along with their id and area are given in the table.

Sl. No Basin Code Basin Name Area (sq.km) Rank

1 1 Indus (Up to border) 3,21,289 3

2 2A Ganga 8,61,452 1

3 2B Brahmaputra 1,94,413 6

4 2C Barak and others 41,723

5 3 Godavari 3,12,812 4

6 4 Krishna 2,58,948 5

7 5 Cauvery 81,155 11

8 6 Subernarekha 29,196

9 7 Brahmani and Baitarni 51,822

10 8 Mahanadi 1,41,589 7

11 9 Pennar 55,213

12 10 Mahi 34,842

13 11 Sabarmati 21,674

14 12 Narmada 98,796 9

15 13 Tapi (Tapti) 65,145 12

16 14 West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri 55,940

17 15 West flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari 56,177

18 16 East flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar 86,643 10

19 17 East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari 1,00,139 8

20 18 West flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni 3,21,851 2

21 19 Area of inland drainage in Rajasthan

22 20 Minor rivers draining into Myanmar & Bangladesh 36,202

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Major Rivers and Lakes of India

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Himalayan Rivers

1. Indus River System

2. Brahmaputra River System
3. Ganga River System
• The major Himalayan Rivers existed even before the formation of Himalayas, i.e. before the collision of In-
dian Plate with the Eurasian plate. (Antecedent Drainage)
• They were flowing into the Tethys Sea. These rivers had their source in the now Tibetan region.
• The deep gorges of the Indus, the Sutlej, the Brahmaputra etc. indicate that these rivers are older than
the Himalayas.
• They continued to flow throughout the building phase of the Himalayas; their banks were rising steeply
while the beds went lower and lower due to vertical erosion (Vertical downcutting was significant and was
occurring at a rate faster than the rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep gorges.
• Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are typical examples of antecedent drainage.

Peninsular River Systems

• Godavari River System

• Krishna River System
• Cauvery River System
• Mahanadi River System

West Flowing Peninsular River Systems

• Narmada River System

• Tapti River System
• Rivers flowing down the Western Ghats into the Arabian Sea

8.4 Indus River System

Indus is called as Sindhu in Sanskrit.

Major Rivers Source Length

Indus • Kailas Range (Close to Manasarovar Lake) • 1114 km in India (2880 km total)

Jhelum • Verinag • 720 km

Chenab • Bara Lacha Pass • 1180 km

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Ravi • Near Rohtang Pass • 725 km

Beas • Near Rohtang Pass • 460 km

Sutlej • Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes • 1050 km in India (1450 km total)

Descending order according to length: Indus – Sutlej – Chenab – Ravi – Jhelum – Beas.
Left to Right: Indus – Jhelum – Chenab – Ravi – Beas – Sutlej.

Indus River

• India got her name from Indus.

• It flows in the north-west direction from its source (Glaciers of Kailas Range – Kailash range in Tibet near
Lake Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbat Range.
• Its total drainage area is about 1,165,000 square km (more than half of it lies in semiarid plains of Pakistan).
• Dhar River joins it near Indo-China border.
• After entering J&K, it flows between the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges.
• It flows through the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.
• The gradient of the river in J&K is very gentle (about 30 cm per km).

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Indus River System

• Average elevation at which the Indus flows through JK is about 4000 m above sea level.
• It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh (these kind of points are important for prelims).
• Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at an elevation of about 2,700 m.

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• The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the other Himalayan tributaries of the Indus.
• It crosses the Himalayas (ends its mountainous journey) through a 5181 m deep gorge, lying north of the
Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly bend here (syntaxial bend).
• Kabul river from Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock. Thereafter it flows through the Potwar plateau and
crosses the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar Plateau).
• Some of the important tributaries below Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the Zhob-Gomal.
• Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the five
eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej.
• The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge delta.

Jhelum River

• The Jhelum has its source in a spring at Verinag in the south-eastern part of the Kashmir Valley.
• It flows northwards into Wular Lake (north-western part of Kashmir Valley).
• From Wular Lake, it changes its course southwards. At Baramulla, the river enters a gorge in the hills.
• The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge through Pir Panjal Range below Baramula.
• At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp hairpin bend southward.
• After that, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
• After flowing through the spurs of the Salt Range, it debouches (emerge from a confined space into a
wide, open area) on the plains near the city of Jhelum.
• It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
• The river is navigable for about 160 km out of a total length of 724 km.

Chenab River

• The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
• Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its headwaters at an
altitude of 4,900 m.
• The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through the Pangi valley, parallel to
the Pir Panjal range.
• It enters the plain area near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir.
• It joins the Sutlej after receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.

Ravi River

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• The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• It drains the area between the Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.
• After crossing Chamba, it takes a south-westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the Dhaola Dhar range.
• It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan below Amritsar.
• It debouches into the Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab.

Beas River

• The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern end
of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
• It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range, and it takes a south-westerly direction and meets the Sutlej river at
Harike in Punjab.
• It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian territory.

Sutlej River

• The Sutlej rises from the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at the height of 4,570 m within 80 km
of the source of the Indus.
• Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course up to the Shipki La on the Tibet-Himachal Pradesh bounda-
ry.
• It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan ranges.
• Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous Bhakra dam (also
known as Bhakra-Nangal Dam. The dam forms the Gobind Sagar reservoir) has been constructed.
• The Beas joins it at Harike.
• From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for nearly 120 km.
• During its onward journey, it receives the collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum rivers.
• It joins the Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot.

Indus water treaty

• India and Pakistan share the waters of the Indus river system according to the Indus Water Treaty signed
between the two countries on 19th September 1960.
• According to this treaty, India can utilise only 20 per cent of its total discharge of water.

8.5 Ganga River System

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Ganga River System

River Source

Bhagirathi (Ganga) Gangotri glacier

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Yamuna Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak

Chambal Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range

Banas Aravalli Range

Betwa Bhopal district

Ken Barner Range

Son Amarkantak Plateau

Damodar (Sorrow of Bengal) Chotanagpur plateau

Ramganga River Garhwal district of Uttarakhand

Ghaghra River Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet

(river of the trans-Himalayan origin)

The Kali River (the border between Nepal and Utta- Glaciers of trans-Himalayas
rakhand)

Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border

Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border

Kosi (‘Sorrow of Bihar’) Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni north of the
Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.

Ganga River

• The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand at an
elevation of 7,010 m.
• Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag.
• From Devapryag the river is called as Ganga.

• The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007.
• Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin
(Blind Dolphin).

Major tributaries of Alaknanda Major tributaries of Bhagirathi

• East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at Karan Prayag) • Bheling

• Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi)
• Mandakini or Kali Ganga (joins Alaknanda at Rudra Prayag)
• Dhauliganga

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• Bishenganga.
(Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum)

• Ganga debouches (emerge from a confined space into a wide, open area) from the hills into plain area at
Haridwar.
• It is joined by the Yamuna at Prayagraj (Allahabad).
• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east.
• At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh (it
ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
• Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at Goalundo.
• The total length of the Ganga river from its source to its mouth (measured along the Hugli) is 2,525 km.

Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta

• Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, forms the largest delta of the
world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq km.
• The coastline of the delta is a highly indented area.
• A major part of the delta is a low-lying swamp which is flooded by marine water during high tide.

Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga

• Most of them except the Yamuna originate in the peninsular region.

Yamuna River

• Largest and most important tributary.

• It originates from the Yamunotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand
at an elevation of about 6,000 meters.
• It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
• It emerges out of the hilly area and enters plains near Tajewala.
• Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from the Bandarpunch glacier.
• It joins the Yamuna below Kalsi before the latter leaves the hills.
• At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.

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Yamuna River System

Non – Peninsular Tributaries Peninsular Tributaries

1. Rishiganga Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into the Ya-

2. Uma muna between Agra and Allahabad.
3. Hanuman Ganga 1. Chambal

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4. Tons 2. Sind
5. Hindon 3. Betwa
4. Ken.

• It unites with the Ganga near Triveni Sangam, Prayagraj (Allahabad).

• The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
• It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the In-
do-Gangetic plain.

Chambal River

• The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range.
• It flows through the Malwa Plateau.
• It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.
• The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall, and numerous deep
ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to badland topography.
• The total length of the river is 1,050 km.

Dams on the Chambal

• The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-
Madhya Pradesh border.
• The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is located downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam.
• The Jawahar Sagar Dam is located downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam.
• The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series located upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.

Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from the Chambal river irrigation project.

The Banas

• The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.

• It originates in the southern part of the Aravalli Range.
• It joins the Chambal on Rajasthan – Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai Madhopur.

The Sind

• The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of Madhya Pradesh.

• It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the Yamuna.

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The Betwa

• The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur.
• The Dhasan is its important tributary.

The Ken

• The Ken river rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.

The Son

• The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau.

• Its source is close to the origin of the Narmada.
• It passes along the Kaimur Range.
• It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of Bihar.
• The important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and the North Koel.
• Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank.

Damodar River

• The Damodar river rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley.
• Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial activity.
• It has a number of tributaries and sub-tributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
• The Barakar is the most important tributary of the Damodar.
• Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power. The valley is
called “the Ruhr of India”.
• The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar river.
• It used to cause devastating floods as a result of which it earned the name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Now the
river is tamed by constructing numerous dams.
• It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.

Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River

• These rivers originate in the Himalayas.

• The major tributaries apart from the Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra, the Gandak,
the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.

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Ramganga River

• The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.

• It joins the Ganga at Kannauj.

Ghaghra River

• Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan
origin).
• It is known as the Karnaili in Western Nepal.
• Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarayu (also known as Sarju) (Ayodhya is located on its
bank) and the Rapti.
• The river bed is sandy and sudden bends start occurring in the stream.
• The river has a high flood frequency and has shifted its course several times.

Kali River

• Rises in the high glaciers of trans-Himalaya.

• It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon.
• It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the plains.
• It joins the Ghaghra.

Gandak River

• Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a height of 7,620 m

• It receives a large number of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya.
• Its important tributaries are the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the Trishuli.
• It debouches into the plains at Tribeni.
• It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.

Burhi Gandak

• Originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border.
• It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.

Kosi River

• The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki.

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• These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region.
• The sources of seven streams of the Kosi are located in snow-covered areas which also receive heavy rain-
fall.
• Consequently, a huge volume of water flows with tremendous speed.
• Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi.
• They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
• The joins the Ganga near Kursela.
• Soon after debouching onto the plain the river becomes sluggish.
• Large scale deposition of eroded material takes place in the plain region.
• The river channel is braided, and it shifts its course frequently.
• This has resulted in frequent devastating floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into
wasteland in Bihar. Thus, the river is often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
• In order to tame this river, a barrage was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
• Embankments for flood control have been constructed as a joint venture of India and Nepal.

8.6 Brahmaputra River System

Region Name

Tibet Tsangpo (meaning 'The Purifier')

China Yarlung Zangbo, Jiangin

Assam Valley Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra

Bangladesh Jamuna River

Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra

Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna

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Ganga and Brahmaputra River System

• The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of Brahma). It is 2,900 km in length.

• Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m.
• Its source is very close to the sources of Indus and Sutlej.
• Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
• The Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km.
• In Tibet, it passes through the depression formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure Zone between the
Great Himalayas in the south and the Kailas Range in the north.
• In spite of the exceptionally high altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle slope.
• The river is sluggish and has a wide navigable channel for about 640 km.
• It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga Tsangpo meeting the
Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
• The river Ngangchu flows through the trade centre of Gyantse in the south and joins the main river.
• Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course abruptly takes a southward turn around Namcha Barwa
(7,756 m) (Syntaxial Bend).
• Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges from the
mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.

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• Here it first flows under the name of Siong and then as the Dihang.
• In the north-eastern parts of Assam Valley, it is joined by two important tributaries viz, the Dibang (or Si-
kang) from the north and Lohit from the south.
• From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this mighty river is known as the Brahmaputra.
• The main streams merging with the Brahmaputra from the north are, Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri
(north), Raidak, Tista etc.
• The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga before the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards
to join the Brahmaputra.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel (flow into shallow, interconnected channels divided by deposited
earth) for most of its passage through Assam where channels keep shifting. It carries a lot of silt, and there
is excessive meandering.
• The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most important of which is Majuli
(world's largest river island). It is 90 km long and measures 20 km at its widest.
• With rainfall concentrated during the monsoon months, only the river has to carry enormous quantities of
water and silt which results in disastrous floods. The Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of Sorrow.
• The river is navigable for a distance of 1,384 km up to Dibrugarh from its mouth and serves as an excellent
inland water transport route.
• The Brahmaputra bends southwards and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
• It flows for a distance of 270 km in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at Goalundo.
• The united stream of the Jamuna and the Ganga flows further in the name of Padma.
• About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is joined on the left bank by the Meghna, originating in the
mountainous region of Assam.
• From the confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river is known as the Meghna which makes a
very broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kolong.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Kameng, Manas, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri

8.7 Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage

• Rivers that drain into the Bay of Bengal: The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery and
several smaller rivers drains south-east into the Bay of Bengal.
• Rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapti, the Mahi flowing west as well as sever-
al small streams originating from the Western Ghats flow westwards into the Arabian Sea.
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• Rivers that drain into the Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna such as the Chambal, the
Betwa, the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in the north-easterly direction.
• Peninsula rivers are much older than the Himalayan rivers.
• The peninsular drainage is mainly concordant except for few rivers in the upper peninsular region.
• They are non-perennial rivers with a maximum discharge in the rainy season.
• The peninsular rivers have reached a mature stage and have almost reached their base level (vertical
downcutting is negligible).
• The rivers are characterized by broad and shallow valleys.
• The river banks have gentle slopes except for a limited tract where faulting forms steep sides.
• The main water divide in peninsular rivers is formed by the Western Ghats.
• The velocity of water and the load carrying capacity of the streams is low due to a low gradient.
• Most of the major rivers of the peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
• But the west flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapti as well as those originating from the Western Ghats and
falling in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas.
• There are few places where rivers form superimposed and rejuvenated drainage which are represented by
waterfalls.
• Examples: The Jog (289 m) on the Sharvati river, Yenna (183 m) of Mahabaleshwar, Sivasamundram
(101 m) on the Cauvery river, Gokak (55 m) on the Gokak river, Kapildhara (23 m) and Dhuandar (15
m) on the Narmada river are the major waterfalls in the Peninsular India.

Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage

Theory 1 (most probable)

• Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-Aravalli axis was the main water divide in the past.
• According to one hypothesis, the existing peninsula is the remaining half of the bigger landmass.
• The Western Ghats were located in the middle of this landmass.
• So, one drainage was towards east flowing into the Bay of Bengal and the other towards west draining into
the Arabian Sea.
• The western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea during the early Tertiary pe-
riod (coinciding with the formation of Himalayas).

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• During the collision of the Indian plate, the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence in few regions
creating a series of rifts (trough, faults).
• The now west flowing rivers of the Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the Tapti flow through these
rifts.
• Straight coastline, steep western slope of the Western Ghats, and the absence of delta formations on
the west coast make this theory a possibility.

Theory 2

• It is believed that the west flowing peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys formed by the rivers them-
selves.
• Rather they have occupied two fault rifts in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas.
• These faults are supposed to be caused by the bend of the northern part of the Peninsula at the time
of upheaval of the Himalayas.
• Peninsular block, south of the cracks, tilted slightly eastwards during the event thus giving the orientation
to the entire drainage towards the Bay of Bengal.
• Criticism: Tilting should have increased the gradient of the river valleys and caused some rejuvenation of
the rivers. This type of phenomenon is absent in the Peninsula, barring a few exceptions such as waterfalls.

Comparison: Himalayan River System & Peninsular River System

Features The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System

Origin • These rivets originate from the lofty • These rivers originate in the hills of Penin-
Himalayan ranges and are named as sular Plateau and are named as Peninsular
the Himalayan rivers. rivers.

Catchment ar- • These rivers have large basins and • These rivers have comparatively small ba-
ea catchment areas. sins and catchment areas.
• The total basin area of the Indus, the • The Godavari has the largest basin area of
Ganga and the Brahmaputra are 11.78, 3.12 lakh square kilometres.
8.61 and 5.8 lakh square kilometres re-
spectively.

Valleys • The Himalayan rivers flow through • The Peninsular rivers flow in comparatively
deep V-shaped valleys called gorges. shallow valleys.
• These gorges have been carved out by • These are more or less completely graded

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down cutting carried on side by side valleys.

with the uplift of the Himalayas. • The rivers have little erosional activity to
perform.

Drainage Type • These are examples of antecedent • These are examples of consequent drain-
drainage. age.

Water Flow • The Himalayan rivers are perennial in • The Peninsular rivers receive water only
nature, i.e., water flows throughout the from rainfall and water flows in these rivers
year in these rivers. in rainy season only.
• These rivers receive water both from • Therefore, these rivers are seasonal or non-
the monsoons and snow-melt. perennial.
• The perennial nature of these rivers • As such these rivers are much less useful
makes them useful for irrigation. for irrigation.

Stage • These rivers flow across the young fold • These rivers have been flowing in one of
mountains and are still in a youthful the oldest plateaus of the world and have
stage. reached maturity.

Meanders • When they enter the plains, there is a • The hard rock surface and non-alluvial
sudden reduction in the speed of flow character of the plateau permits little
of water. scope for the formation of meanders.
• Under these circumstances, these rivers • As such, the rivers of the Peninsular Plateau
form meanders and often shift their follow more or less straight courses.
beds.

Deltas and Es- • The Himalayan rivers form big deltas at • Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as the
tuaries their mouths. Narmada and the Tapti form estuaries.
• Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is the larg- • Other rivers such as the Mahanadi, the
est in the world. Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
form deltas.
• Several small streams originating from the
Western Ghats and flowing towards the
west enter the Arabian Sea without form-
ing any delta.

East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

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• Mahanadi River
• Godavari River
• Krishna River
• Kaveri (Cauvery) River
• Pennar River
• Subarnarekha River
• Brahmani River
• Sarada River
• Ponnaiyar River
• Vaigai River

Mahanadi River

• The Mahanadi basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions
of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh Sq.km.
• Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin called the Chhattisgarh Plain.
• It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and east and by the
Maikal range on the west.
• The Mahanadi (Great River) has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of
Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.
• The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water potential and flood-producing
capacity, it ranks second to the Godavari.
• Other small streams draining directly into the Chilka Lake also forms the part of the Mahanadi basin.
• The major part of the basin is covered with agricultural land.
• It is one of the most-active silt-depositing streams in the Indian subcontinent.
• After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and enters Odisha state.
• At Sambalpur, the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river has formed a human-made
lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
• It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several channels.
• Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous pilgrimage site.

Tributaries of Mahanadi River

• Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.

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• Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel and the Jonk.

Tributaries of Mahanadi River

Projects on Mahanadi River

• Two important projects completed during the pre-plan period in the basin are the Mahanadi main canal
and Tandula reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
• During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango, Mahanadi Reservoir
Project were completed.

Industry in Mahanadi River Basin

• Three important urban centres in the basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
• Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral resource and adequate power resource, has a favourable in-
dustrial climate.
• The Important industries presently existing in the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at Bhilai, aluminium
factories at Hirakud and Korba, etc.
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• Other industries based primarily on agricultural produce are sugar and textile mills.
• Mining of coal, iron and manganese are other industrial activities.

Floods in Mahanadi River Basin

• The basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to an inadequate carrying capaci-
ty of the channels.
• The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides some amount of flood relief by storing part of flood water.
• However, the problem persists.

Godavari River

• The Godavari is the largest river system of Peninsular India and is revered as Dakshin Ganga.
• The Godavari basin extends over states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Union territory of Puducherry
(Yanam) having a total area of ~ 3 lakh Sq.km.
• The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the north, by the East-
ern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
• The Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra about 80 km from the
Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m.
• The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km.

Tributaries of Godavari River

• The left bank tributaries are more in number and larger in size than the right bank tributaries.
• The Manjra (724 km) is the only important right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari after passing through
the Nizam Sagar reservoir.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita (conveying the combined wa-
ters of Penganga, the Wardha and Wainganga), Pench, Kanha, Sabari, Indravati etc.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
• Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main streams, the Gautami Godavari on the east and
the Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms a large delta before it pours into the Bay of Bengal.
• The delta of the Godavari is of the lobate type with a round bulge and many distributaries.

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Tributaries of Godavari River

Mineral Resources in Godavari Basin

• The upper reaches of the Godavari drainage basin are occupied by the Deccan Traps containing minerals
like magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon, chlorite etc. (metallic minerals).
• The middle part of the basin is principally composed of phyllites, quartzites, amphiboles and granites
(rocks).
• The downstream part of the middle basin is occupied mainly by sediments and rocks of the Gondwana
group.
• The Gondwanas are principally detritals (organic matter produced by decomposition or loose matter pro-
duced by erosion) with some thick coal seams. E.g. Singareni Coal Seam (Telangana).
• The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower part of the drainage basin and are formed mainly from the Khonda-
lites.

Projects on Godavari River

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• Important projects completed during the plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari barrage, Upper
Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati, Upper Wardha.
• Among the on-going projects, the prominent ones are Prnahita-Chevala and Polavaram.

Industry in Godavari Basin

• The major urban centres in the basin are Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik, Rajahmundry.
• Nashik and Aurangabad have a large number of industries especially the automobiles.
• Other than this, the industries in the basin are mostly based on agricultural products such as rice milling,
cotton spinning and weaving, sugar and oil extraction.
• Cement and some small engineering industries also exist in the basin.

Floods and Droughts in Godavari Basin

• Godavari basin faces flooding problem in its lower reaches.

• The coastal areas are cyclone-prone.
• The delta areas face drainage congestion due to flat topography.
• A large portion of Maharashtra falling (Marathwada) in the basin is drought prone.

Krishna River

• The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula.
• The Krishna Basin extends over Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka having a total area
of ~2.6 lakh km2.
• It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the
Western Ghats on the west.
• The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats near Jor village of Satara district of Maharashtra at an
altitude of 1,337 m just north of Mahabaleshwar.
• The total length of the river from origin to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km.
• The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline of about 120 km.
• The Krishna delta appears to merge with that formed by the Godavari and extends about 35 km into the
sea.

Tributaries of Krishna River

• Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the Malprabha and the Tungabhadra.

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• Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and the Munneru.

• The Koyna is a small tributary but is known for Koyna Dam. This dam was perhaps the main cause of the
devastating earthquake (6.4 on the richter scale) in 1967 that killed 150 people.
• The Bhima originates from the Matheron Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur.
• The Tungabhadra is formed by the unification of the Tunga and the Bhadra originating from Gangamula
in the Central Sahyadri.
• At Wazirabad, it receives its last important tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the city of Hyderabad is
located.

Projects on Krishna River

• Important ones are the Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar, Malaprabha, Bhima, Bhadra and
Telugu Ganga.
• The major Hydro Power stations in the basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar,
Almatti, Naryanpur, Bhadra.
• Tungabhadra is a major inter-States project in the basin.

Resources in Krishna Basin

• The basin has rich mineral deposits, and there is good potential for industrial development.

• Krishna Godavari Basin (K-G Basin) is known for the D-6 block where Reliance Industries discovered the
biggest natural gas reserves in India in 2003.

Industry in Krishna Basin

• The major urban centres in the Basin are Pune, Hyderabad.

• Hyderabad is the state capital of Telangana and is now a major IT hub.
• Pune in Maharashtra has a number of automobiles and IT industry and is a major education centre.

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Tributaries of Krishna River

Drought and Floods in Krishna Basin

• Some parts of the basin are drought-prone.

• The delta area of the basin is subject to flooding.
• It has been observed that the river bed in the delta area is continuously raised due to silt deposition result-
ing in a reduction in carrying capacity of the channel.
• The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high intensity and short duration makes the flood problem worse.

Cauvery River

• The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as the Dakshin Ganga or the Ganga of the South.

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The Godavari is known as Dakshin Ganga for its size and Kaveri is also sometimes referred to as Dakshin Ganga
because of its spiritual significance. But if you have to choose only one among these then Godavari is the
Dakshin Ganga or the Ganga of the South.

• The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range, Kodagu
(Coorg) district of Karnataka.
• The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of
Puducherry draining an area of 81 thousand km2.
• It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and the south and by the
ridges separating it from Krishna basin and Pennar basin on the north.
• The Nilgiris, an offshoot of Western Ghats, extend Eastwards to the Eastern Ghats and divide the basin into
two natural regions, i.e., Karnataka plateau in the North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in the South.
• Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts – the Western Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore and
the Delta.
• The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin. The principal soil types found in the basin are black soils,
red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils.
• Red soils occupy large areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas.
• The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall mainly from the S-W Monsoon and partially from N-E Monsoon.
• The basin in Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the North-East Monsoon.
• Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the south-west monsoon and the lower
catchment area during the winter season by the retreating north-east monsoon.
• It is, therefore, almost a perennial river with comparatively fewer fluctuations in flow and is very useful
for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
• Thus, the Cauvery is one of the best-regulated rivers, and most of its irrigation and power production po-
tential already stands harnessed.

Tributaries of the Cauvery River

• Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
• Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the Amaravati
joins from the right.
• The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through the Shivanasam-
udram waterfalls (101 m high).
• At Shivanasamudram, the river branches off into two parts and falls through a series of falls and rapids.
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• The falls at this point is utilised for power generation by the power station at Shivanasamudram.
• The two branches of the river join after the fall and flow through a wide gorge which is known as Mekeda-
tu (Goats leap) (Mekedatu falls is here).
• At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
• Below Mettur reservoir the river widens with sandy bed and flows as Akhanda Cauvery.
• In the last stage, the river divides into two parts, the Northern branch being called ‘The Coleron’ and
Southern branch remains as Cauvery, and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
• After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam Island’.
• On the Cauvery, branch lies the "Grand Anicut" said to have been constructed by a Chola King in 1st Cen-
tury A.D.
• Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery and Vennar.

Tributaries of the Cauvery River

Floods in Cauvery Basin

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• The Cauvery basin is fan-shaped in Karnataka and leaf-shaped in Tamil Nadu. The run-off does not drain
off quickly because of its shape, and therefore no fast raising floods occur in the basin.

Projects on Cauvery River

• During the pre-plan period, many projects were completed in this basin which included Krishnarajasagar
in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in Tamil Nadu.
• Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are important projects completed during the plan period.

Industry in Cauvery Basin

• The city of Bangalore is situated just outside this basin.

• Important industries in the basin include the cotton textile industry in Coimbatore and Mysore, cement
factories in Coimbatore and Trichinapally and industries based on mineral and metals.
• The Salem steel plant and many engineering industries in Coimbatore and Trichinapally are also situated
in this basin.

Pennar River

• The Pennar (also known as Uttara Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the peninsula.
• The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kesava hill of the Nandidurg range, in Chikkaballapura district of Kar-
nataka and flows towards east eventually draining into the Bay of Bengal.
• The total length of the river from origin to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
• Located in peninsular India, the Pennar basin extends over states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• The fan-shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala range on the north, by the Nallamala and Velikonda
ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by the Nandidurg hills on the south and by the narrow ridge sep-
arating it from the Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on the west.
• The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river are the Seshachalam (famous for Red Sanders)
and Paliconda ranges.

Tributaries of Pennar River

• Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu and the Sagileru.

• Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni and the Cheyyeru.

Projects on Pennar River

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• Tungabhadra high-level canal in Krishna basin irrigates areas in Pennar basin also. The only major project in
the basin is the Somasila project.

Industry in Pennar Basin

• The only important town in the basin is Nellore.

Tributaries of Pennar River

• With limited water and power potential and mineral resources, the scope for industrial development is lim-
ited in the basin. There are no major industries.

Subarnarekha

• The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the boundary between West
Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
• It joins the Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.

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• Its total length is 395 km.

Subarnarekha Basin

Brahmani River

• The Brahmani river comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near Rourke-
la. It has a total length of 800 km.
• The basin is bounded in the North by Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South by the Mahanadi basin
and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
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• The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains into the Bay of Bengal.

Sarada River

• The river Sarada, an East flowing medium-sized river, lies in the district of Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pra-
desh.

Ponnaiyar River

• The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is confined to the coastal area only.
• It covers a small area in the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
• The Basin is bounded on the North-West and South by various ranges of the Eastern Ghats like the Ve-
likonda Range, the Nagari hills, the Javadu Hills, the Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills and the Kalrayan hills
and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.

Vaigai River

• South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest.
• The Vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12 basins lying between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
• This basin is bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the Cardaman hills and the Palani hills
on the West and by the Palk Strait and Palk Bay on the East.

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Minor East flowing rivers in Peninsular India

West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India

• The west flowing rivers of Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to their east flowing coun-
terparts.
• The two major west flowing rivers are the Narmada and the Tapti.
• This exceptional behaviour is because these rivers didn’t form valleys and instead, they flow through
faults (linear rift, rift valley, trough) created due to the bending of the northern peninsula during the
formation process of Himalayas.
• These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
• The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other rivers of Peninsular India which flow westwards.
• Hundreds of small streams originating in the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards and join the Arabian
Sea.
• Peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form deltas, but only estuaries.
• This is due to the fact that the west flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and the Tapti flow through hard
rocks and hence do not carry any good amount of silt.
• Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are very small, and hence they don’t contribute any silt.
• Hence these rivers are not able to form distributaries or a delta before they enter the sea.

Estuary

Estuary
• An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where freshwater from rivers and streams
meets and mixes with salt water from the ocean.
• Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to sea and fresh water to salt

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water.
• Primary productivity in estuaries is very high. Fishing is a dominant occupation around estuaries. Most
of the estuaries are good bird sanctuaries.
• Although influenced by the tides, they are protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and
storms by such landforms as barrier islands or peninsulas. (estuaries make good ports. E.g. New York
Harbour is at the mouth of the Hudson River; Mormugao port in Goa at the mouth of the Zuari river
and Mondovi river)
• Estuarine environments are among the most productive on earth, creating more organic matter each
year than comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or agricultural land.
• The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique communities of plants and animals.
• Estuaries benefits for tourism and recreational activities.
• Water draining from uplands carries sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants to estuaries. As the water
flows through estuaries, the sediments and pollutants are filtered out.
• Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine plants also help prevent erosion and stabilise shorelines (Man-
groves).

Narmada River

• The Narmada is the largest west flowing river of peninsular India.

• The Narmada flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the north and the
Satpura Range on the south.
• It rises from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of about 1057 m.
• Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.
• It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the south and by the
Arabian Sea on the west.
• Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is 1,310 km.
• The hilly regions are in the upper part of the basin, and lower middle reaches are broad and fertile areas
well suited for cultivation.
• Jabalpur is the only important urban centre in the basin.
• The river slopes down near Jabalpur where it cascades (a small waterfall, especially one in a series) 15 m
into a gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of Mist) Falls.
• Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is popularly known as the Marble Rocks.

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• Near Maheshwar, the river again descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara
Falls.
• There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.

Tributaries of Narmada River

• Since the river flows through a narrow valley confined by precipitous (dangerously high or steep) hills, it
does not have many tributaries.
• The absence of tributaries is especially noted on the right bank of the river where the Hathni River is the
only exception. The other right bank tributaries are the Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
• A few left bank tributaries drain the northern slopes of the Satpura Range and join the Narmada at different
places.
• The major Hydro Power Project in the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar, Bargi &
Maheshwar.

Tributaries of Narmada River

Tapti River

• The Tapti (also known as the Tapti) is the second largest west flowing river of Peninsular India and is
known as 'the twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada.
• It originates near Multai reserve forest in Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m.
• Flows for about 724 km before entering into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of
Khambhat).
• The Tapti River along with its tributaries flows over the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh and Gujarat and
large areas in the state of Maharashtra and a small area in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
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• Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is bounded by the Satpura range on the north, Mahadev hills on
the east, Ajanta Range and the Satmala hills on the south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
• The hilly region of the basin is well forested while the plains are broad and fertile areas suitable for cultiva-
tion.
• There are two well defined physical regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and plains; the hilly regions com-
prising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta and Gawilgarh hills are well forested.
• The plain covers the Khandesh areas (Khandesh is a region of central India, which forms the northwestern
portion of Maharashtra state) which are broad and fertile suitable for cultivation primarily.

Tributaries of Tapti River

• Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and the Aner.
• Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna, the Purna, the Mona
and the Sipna.

Projects on Tapti River

• Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapti Project (Maharashtra)

• Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project (Gujarat)
• Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project (Maharashtra)

Industry in the Tapti Basin

• Important industries in the basin are textile factories in Surat and paper and newsprint factory at Nep-
anagar.

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Tributaries of Tapti River

Sabarmati River

• The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
• The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of Kutch on the west and by
Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
• The basin is roughly triangular with the Sabarmati River as the base and the source of the Vatrak River as
the apex point.
• Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at an elevation of 762 m near village Tepur, in Udaipur district of
Rajasthan.
• The total length of the river from origin to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
• Rainfall varies from a meagre few mm in Saurashtra to over 100 cm in the southern part.
• Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati and the Vatrak.
• Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
• Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo reservoir project are major projects
completed during the plan period.

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Sabarmati River

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Industry in Sabarmati Basin

• Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the important urban centres in the basin.
• Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated on the banks of Sabarmati.
• Important industries are textiles, leather and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods, paper, newsprint, auto-
mobile, machine tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc.
• The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses the danger of water pollution.

Mahi River

• The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the east, by the Vin-
dhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west.
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of Madhya Pra-
desh.
• The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhat.
• Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
• Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the basin. There are not many industries in the basin.

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Mahi Basin

Luni River

• The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari in Sanskrit) is named so because its water is brackish below Balotra.
• Luni is the only river basin of any significance in Western Rajasthan, which forms the bulk of arid zone.
• Luni originates from western slopes of the Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772 m near Ajmer flowing in
South West direction and traversing a course of 511 km in Rajasthan; it finally flows into the Rann of Ka-
chchh (it gets lost in the marsh).
• The peculiarity of this river is that it tends to increase its width rather than deepening the bed because
the banks are of soils, which are easily erodible whereas beds are of sand.
• The floods develop and disappear so rapidly that they have no time to scour the bed.

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Luni Basin

West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats)

• About six hundred small streams originate from the Western Ghats and flow westwards to fall into the Ara-
bian Sea.

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• The western slopes of the Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the south-west monsoons and are able
to feed such a large number of streams.
• Although only about 3% of the areal extent flow swiftly down the steep slope and some of them make wa-
terfalls.
• The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made by the Sharavati river is the most famous waterfall of India.

Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage

• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
• Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage.
• The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage.
• It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms boundary between Har-
yana and Punjab.
• It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of 465 km.
• Earlier, this river was an affluent of the Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is still traceable.
• Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the Markanda, the Saraswati and the Chaitanya.
• It contains a lot more water in the rainy season when its bed becomes 10 km wide at places.
• Most of the streams draining western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up immediately after they enter the
sandy arid areas to the west of this range.

1. Indian Monsoons

• The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mausin or from the Malayan word monsin
meaning ‘season’.
• Monsoons are seasonal winds (Periodic Winds or Secondary winds) which reverse their direction with
the change of season.
• The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds – They flow from sea to land during the summer
(south-west monsoon winds) and from land to sea during winter (north-east monsoon winds).
• Monsoon winds can be called as land and sea breeze on a large scale or convection cells on a large scale.
• Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central Western Africa etc.
• They are more pronounced in the Indian Subcontinent compared to any other region.
• India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the annual rainfall during south-west
monsoon season whereas South East China, Japan etc., during north-east rainfall season.

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• South-west monsoons bring intense rainfall to most of the regions in India and north-east monsoons
bring rainfall to mainly south-eastern coast of India (Southern coast of Andhra Pradesh and the coast of
Tamil Nadu).
• South-west monsoons are formed due to intense low-pressure system formed over the Tibetan plateau.
• North-east monsoons are associated with high-pressure cells over Tibetan and Siberian plateaus.

Factors responsible for south-west monsoon formation

• Intense heating of Tibetan plateau during summer months.

• Permanent high-pressure cell in the South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of Madagascar in summer).

Factors that influence the onset of south-west monsoons

• Above points +
• Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ).
• Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.

Factors that influence the intensity of south-west monsoons

• Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and high pressure over the southern Indian Ocean.
• Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
• Somali Current (Findlater Current).
• Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.
• Indian Ocean Dipole.

Factors responsible for north-east monsoon formation

• Formation and strengthening of high-pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and Siberian Plateau in
winter.
• Westward migration and subsequent weakening of high-pressure cell in the Southern Indian Ocean.
• Migration of ITCZ to the south of India.

Theories that tried to explain the Mechanism of Indian Monsoons

• The origin of monsoons is not fully understood.

• There are several theories that tried to explain the mechanism of monsoons.

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Classical Theory

• The first scientific study of the monsoon winds was done by Arab traders.
• Arab traders used the sea route to carry out the trade with India and monsoon patterns were of prime im-
portance for them.
• In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab explorer, gave an account of the reversal of ocean currents and
the monsoon winds over the north Indian Ocean.
• In the seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as resulting from thermal contrasts
between continents and oceans due to their differential heating.

Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory

This theory considers Indian Monsoons as Land and Sea Breeze on a large scale.

Summer Monsoon

• In summer the sun’s apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Cancer resulting in high temperature and
low pressure in Central Asia.
• The pressure is sufficiently high over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence winds flowed from Oceans
flow towards landmass in summer.
• This air flow from sea to land bring heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.

Winter Monsoon

• In winter the sun’s apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
• The northwestern part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and the flow of the mon-
soon is reversed.

Drawbacks

• The monsoons do not develop equally everywhere on earth, and the thermal concept of Halley fails to ex-
plain the intricacies of the monsoons such as the sudden burst of monsoons, delay in onset of monsoons
sometimes, etc.

1.2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on Modern Theories

Modern Theories

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• Besides differential heating, the development of monsoon is influenced by the shape of the continents,
orography (mountains), and the conditions of air circulation in the upper troposphere (jet streams).

March to May

• As the summertime approaches, there is increased solar heating of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan
Plateau.
• During March to May, the building up of the monsoon cell is blocked by the STJ which tends to blow
to the south of the Himalayas.
• Northwest India and Plains region are occupied by Subtropical High-Pressure Belt. This high-pressure belt
undermines the influence of low-pressure cell over Tibet.
• As long as the STJ is in this position the development of summer monsoons is inhibited (the high-
pressure belt stays over north India).

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Between Late May and Early June

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• In the peak summer months (25th of May – 10th of Jun), with the apparent northward movement of the
sun, the southern branch of the Sub-Tropical Jetstream (STJ), which flows to the south of the Himalayas,
shifts to the north of the Himalayas.
• When the sun’s position is about to reach the Tropic of Cancer (June), the STJ shifts to the north of the
Tibetan Plateau (1st of Jun – 20th of June).
• The ITCZ is close to its peak position over the Tibetan Plateau.
• The altitude of the mountains initially disrupts the jet, but once it has cleared the summits, it is able to re-
form over central Asia.
• Its movement towards the north is one of the main features associated with the onset of the monsoon over
India.

The onset of Monsoons (1st or 2nd week of June)

• With the northward shift of STJ, an Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian plains. It generally forms in
the first week of June and lasts till late October.
• It can be traced in the upper troposphere right up to the west coast of Africa.
• The northward shift of STJ and ICTZ moves the subtropical high-pressure belt to the north of the Ti-
betan Plateau, and the Easterly Jet creates a low-pressure region in the Indian plains (Easterly Jet cre-
ates anticyclonic conditions in upper troposphere).
• With the STJ out of the way (high-pressure belt migrates to the north of Tibet) the subcontinental mon-
soon cell develops very quickly indeed, often in a matter of a few days.
• The low pressure in the northern plains coupled with the intense low of the Tibetan Plateau leads to the
sudden onset of south-west monsoons (1st of Jun – 20th of June).
• The monsoon cell is situated between the Indian Ocean (North of Madagascar) (High-Pressure Cell) and
Tibetan plateau (Low-Pressure Cell).

Rainy season

• The sub-tropical easterly jet fluctuates between the plains region of India and peninsular India vary-
ing the intensity of rainfall from location to location.
• Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell by a lower level tropical jet stream (Somali Jet) which brings
with its air masses laden with moisture from the Indian Ocean.

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The end of Monsson season

• The end of the monsoon season is brought about when the atmosphere over the Tibetan Plateau begins to
cool (August – October), this enables the STJ to transition back across the Himalayas.
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• With the southward shift of ITCZ, subtropical high-pressure belt returns to the Indian plains, and the
rainfall ceases.
• This leads to the formation of an anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified by sinking air masses over
India and relatively moisture free winds that blow seaward.
• This gives rise to relatively settled and dry weather over India during the winter months.

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Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone)

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• The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the northeast trade winds in the northern hemi-
sphere meet each other near the equator.
• The meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

• This is the region of ascending air, maximum clouds and heavy rainfall.
• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the change of season.
• In the summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ shifts northwards.
• The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start blowing in the
southwest to a northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force.
• These displaced trade winds are called south-west monsoons when they blow over the Indian sub-
continent.

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• The front where the south-west monsoons meet the north-east trade winds is known as the Monsoon
Front (ITCZ). Rainfall occurs along this front.
• In July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°- 25° N latitude and is located in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west
monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
• The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon Trough (maximum rainfall).
• The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (NITCZ)
in summer (July – rainy season) and Southern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in winter (Jan – dry
season).
• NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy rainfall that affect India.

Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream Theory

Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air Mass Theory

• According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a modification of the planetary winds of the tropics.
• The theory is based on the migration of ITCZ based on seasons.

Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Modern Theory: Jet Stream Theory.

• Jet stream Theory is the latest theory regarding the origin of the monsoons.
• To understand how Jet streams, affect Indian monsoons, we need to know the basic mechanism of Jet
Stream induced weather conditions.

Trough and Ridge of a Jet Stream

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How Jet Streams Affect Weather?

• Jet streams have distinct peaks (ridges) and troughs.

• Ridges occur where the warm air mass pushes against the cold air mass. Troughs occur where cold air mass
drops into warm air.
• The region on earth below the trough is at low pressure and the region below ridge is at high pres-
sure.
• This condition occurs due to the weakening of jet stream due to lesser temperature contrast between sub-
tropics and temperate region (our concern is STJ only).
• Usually, the trough region (the region exactly below the jet stream trough) creates a cyclonic condi-
tion (low pressure) at the surface of earth whereas the ridge regions creates an anticyclonic condition.

Jet Streak

• These ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks which are also responsible for cyclonic and anticyclonic
weather conditions at the surface.
• The winds leaving the jet streak are rapidly diverging, creating a lower pressure at the upper level (Tropo-
pause) in the atmosphere.
• The air below rapidly replaces the upper outflowing winds. This, in turn, creates the low pressure at the
surface.
• This surface low pressure creates conditions where the surrounding surface winds rush inwards.
• The Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic vortex) that is associated with depressions (low-
pressure cells).

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• The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly converging because of the high pressure at the upper level
(Tropopause) in the atmosphere.
• This convergence at upper troposphere leads to divergence (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
condition).
• The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic rotation that is associated with clear weather.

But how does this mechanism of jet streams influence Indian Monsoons?

Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ)

• Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a significant role in both hindering the monsoon winds as well as in
quick onset of monsoons.

STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet Stream

• The sub-tropical Jet stream is a narrow band of fast moving air flowing from west to east (Westerlies).
• STJ in northern hemisphere flows between 25° to 35° N in the upper troposphere at the height of about 12-
14 km (the height of each portion of the jet stream varies when there is meandering. Their path is
sometimes influenced by the Greater Himalayas).
• The wind speeds in a westerly jet stream are commonly 150 to 300 kmph with extreme values reaching 400
kmph.

The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation which is dominated by STJ.

Seasonal Migration of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ

• In winter STJ flows along the southern slopes of the Himalayas, but in summer it shifts northwards, rather
dramatically, and flows along the northern edge of Himalayas in early June and late summer (July-August)
along the northern Tibetan Plateau.
• The periodic movement of the Jet stream is often the indicator of the onset (STJ shits to the north of Hima-
layas in a matter of days) and subsequent withdrawal (STJ returns to its position – south of Himalayas) of
the monsoon.
• Northward movement of the subtropical jet is the first indication of the onset of the monsoon over India.

Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in Winter

• Westerly jet stream blows at a very high speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone.

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• This jet stream is bifurcated by the Himalayan ranges (physical barrier) and Tibetan Plateau (thermal barri-
er).
• The two branches reunite off the east coast of China.
• The northern branch of this jet stream blows along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
• The southern branch blows to the south of the Himalayan ranges along 25° north latitude.
• A strong latitudinal thermal gradient (differences in temperature), along with other factors, is respon-
sible for the development of southerly jet.
• The southern branch is stronger, with an average speed of about 240 kmph compared with 70 to 90 kmph
of the northern branch.
• Air subsiding beneath this upper westerly current gives dry out blowing northerly winds from the
subtropical anticyclone over north-western India and Pakistan.

Western Disturbances

• Meteorologists believe that the southern branch of jet stream exercises a significant influence on the win-
ter weather conditions in India.
• The southern branch of the jet stream is responsible for steering of the western depressions (Western
Disturbances) from the Mediterranean Sea.
• These depressions are residual frontal cyclones which move at the height of 2000 meters from the mean
sea level. On the way, they pick up moisture from the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
• On an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves reach north-western India between October and April each year.
• Some of the depressions continue eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of jet stream confluence about 30°
N, 105° E (near the east coast of China).

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Path of Western Disturbances

Weather associated with Western Disturbances

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• The arrival of these temperate storms (remnants of temperate cyclones) (western disturbances) causes pre-
cipitation leading to an abrupt decrease in air temperature over North-West India.
• Winter rain and heat storms in north-western plains, occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions and
cold waves in the whole of northern plains are caused by these disturbances.

Importance of Western Disturbances

• The western disturbances affect weather conditions during the winter season up to Patna (Bihar) and give
occasional rainfall which is highly beneficial for the standing rabi crops (wheat, barley, mustard, gram,
lentil, etc.).

Why there are no south-west monsoons during winter?

• Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the winds that blow over India are mostly offshore –– land to land or land to
the ocean –– so they carry no moisture).
• Reason 2: During winter, the southern branch of STJ is strong and is to the south of Himalayas. The ridge
of the jet lies over north-western India and is associated with strong divergence of winds and creates a
high-pressure region (sub-tropical high-pressure belt) over entire north India. (This is how the mechanism
of jet streams influence Indian Monsoons in winter season)
• Reason 3: There is already a strong high pressure over Tibet. (High Pressure due to STJ + High Pressure
over Tibet = strong divergence = no rainfall)

Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in Summer

• With the beginning of summer in March, the STJ (upper westerlies) start their northward march.
• The southerly branch of STJ remains positioned south of Tibet, although weakening in intensity.
• The weather over northern India becomes hot, dry and squally due to larger incoming solar radiation and
hot winds like the loo.
• Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ) pushes northwards with the weakening of the STJ (upper wester-
lies) south of Tibet, but the burst of the monsoon does not take place until the upper-air circulation
has switched to its summer pattern.
• By the end of May, the southern jet breaks and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet Plateau, and
there is a sudden burst of monsoons (the ridge moves northwards into Central Asia = high pressure
over north-west India moves northwards into Central Asia = makes way for south-west monsoon
winds).

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• An Easterly jet emerges over peninsular India with the northward migration of STJ.
• The upper air circulations are reversed with the emergence of Easterly jet (convergence in upper layers is
replaced by divergence == divergence in lower layers is replaced with convergence == high pressure at
lower layers is replaced by low-pressure system).
• The easterly winds become very active in the upper troposphere, and they are associated with westerly
winds in the lower troposphere (south-west monsoon winds).
• Western and eastern jets flow to the north and south of the Himalayas respectively. The eastern jet be-
comes powerful and is stationed at 15° N latitude.
• This results in more active south-west monsoon and heavy rainfall is caused.

Why no south-west monsoons in March-May (summer)?

• There is good sun’s insolation from March-May but still, there are no s-w monsoons.

Reason: The ridge region of the Southern branch of STJ creates strong divergence (high pressure) in
north-west India. The diverging air blocks incoming winds and prevents strong convergence of winds
along ITCZ.

• During the summer season in the Northern Hemisphere, low-pressure areas develop at the ground surface
near Peshawar (Pakistan) and north-west India due to intense heating of ground surface during April, May,
and June.
• As long as the position of the upper air jet stream is maintained above the surface low pressure (to the
south of Himalayas), the dynamic anti-cyclonic conditions persist over north-west India.
• The winds descending from the upper air high pressure (because of the ridge of STJ) obstructs the
ascent of winds from the surface low-pressure areas, with the result that the weather remains warm
and dry.
• This is why the months of April and May are generally dry and rainless in spite of high temperatures (low
pressure on land) and high evaporation.

Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand

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Cloudburst

• A cloudburst is an intense torrential rainfall brought by a thunderstorm that lasts for a relatively short du-
ration (few minutes to few hours).
• Cloudburst leads to flash floods and causes a lot of damage to life and property.
• Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst. Cloudburst specifically occurs when an air mass with high humid-
ity is struck at a place due to various reasons.
• In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia (Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) saw higher than normal tempera-
tures (highest in the last 100 years), and there were numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and Kashmir.
• A strong upper-atmospheric high was located over European Russia towards the beginning of summer.
• It diverted the jet stream (meandering of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its rain-giving train (trough) of
summer storms farther north than usual, giving much of Southern European Russia drought conditions.
• In addition, southern desert heat from central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa began to flow
northward, which strengthened this ridge of STJ and tightened its hold over the region.

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Trough and Ridge Region in Meandering Sub-Tropical Jet Stream

• The stalled system prevented weather systems being drawn across Russia and the obstacle acted as a barri-
er trapping hot air to the south and cold air to the north.
• The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heat wave that devastated Russia.
• With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit across the Himalayas as it would
do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to the south, fed by warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had nowhere to go
and as a consequence it deposited vast amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir and this led to extensive flooding.

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Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) (African Easterly Jet)

• The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ are not fully understood, but it is believed that the jet may
be caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
• The TEJ plays an important role in kick-starting southwest monsoon.
• This jet descends over the Indian Ocean (near Madagascar) and intensifies its high-pressure cell so as to
move as south-west monsoon.

Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)

• There are major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere called low-level jets (LLJs).
• In the tropics, the most prominent of these are the Somali Jet and the African Easterly Jet (Tropical East-
erly Jet).
• The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over southern Asia and
northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
• It is fairly persistent in its direction, and intensity from June through the beginning of October.
• TEJ comes into existence quickly after the STJ has shifted to the north of the Himalayas (Early June).
• TEJ flows from east to west over peninsular India at 6 – 9 km and over the Northern African region.
• The formation of TEJ results in the reversal of upper air circulation patterns (High-pressure switches to
low pressure) and leads to the quick onset of monsoons.
• Recent observations have revealed that the intensity and duration of heating of Tibetan Plateau has a direct
bearing on the amount of rainfall in India by the monsoons.
• When the summer temperature of air over Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long time, it helps in
strengthening the easterly jet and results in heavy rainfall in India.
• The easterly jet does not come into existence if the snow over the Tibet Plateau does not melt. This
hampers the occurrence of rainfall in India.
• Therefore, any year of thick and widespread snow over Tibet will be followed by a year of weak
monsoon and less rainfall.

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Permanent and Temporary Jet Streams

Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet

• The Tibetan Plateau is an enormous block of highland acting as a formidable barrier.

• Tibet gets heated in summer and is 2 to 3 °C warmer than the air over the adjoining regions.
• Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of heat for the atmosphere, it generates an area of rising air (conver-
gence) (intense low-pressure cell).
• During its ascent, the air spreads outwards in the upper troposphere (divergence) and gradually sinks (sub-
sidence) over the equatorial part of the Indian Ocean (monsoon cell).
• It finally approaches the west coast of India as a return current from a south-westerly direction and is
termed as equatorial westerlies.
• It picks up moisture from the Indian Ocean and causes rainfall in India and adjoining countries.
• The plateau also affects the atmosphere in two ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier and (b) as a high-level
heat source.
• At the beginning of June, the subtropical jet stream is completely withdrawn from India and occupies a po-
sition along 40° N (to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
• The plateau accentuates the northward displacement of the jet stream. Hence the burst of monsoon in
June is prompted by the Himalayas and not by the thermally induced low-pressure cell over Tibet.

(Tibetan plateau is responsible for south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ that facilitates sudden out-
burst of monsoons with its sudden northward migration)

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• In the middle of October, the plateau proves to be the most important factor in causing the advance of the
jet south of the Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
• In winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly and produces a high-pressure cell. (Cyclonic condition over Tibet
ceases, and an anticyclonic condition is established).
• The high-pressure cell over Tibet strengthens N-E monsoons.

Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet and STJ

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Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet

• The progress of the southwest monsoon towards India is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet that
transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel.
• It was observed to flow from Mauritius and the northern part of the island of Madagascar before reaching
the coast of Kenya at about 3º S.
• It strengthens permanent high near Madagascar and also helps to drive S-W monsoons towards In-
dia at a greater pace and intensity (it intensifies the monsoon cell).
• The current in the Arabian Sea associated with the Somali Jet is called as Findlater Current. Its
direction is influenced by the monsoon winds. It reverses its direction with the monsoon winds.
• Findlater Current in s-w monsoon season creates a zone of coastal upwelling near the horn of Africa
(good for fishing).
• It doesn’t have a significant impact on Indian Monsoons because the zone of upwelling is very small
unlike in the case of Indian Ocean Dipole.

Somali Current (Wikipedia)

Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole

• Indian Ocean Dipole is a recently discovered phenomena that have a significant influence on Indian mon-
soons.
• Indian Ocean Dipole is an SST anomaly (Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly – different from normal) that
occurs occasionally in Northern or Equatorial Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

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• The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between two areas
(or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern
pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
• IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in October.
• With positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of Bengal towards the
Arabian Sea).
• This results in the Arabian Sea (the western Indian Ocean near the African Coast) being much warmer and
eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
• In the negative dipole year, the reverse happens to make Indonesia much warmer and rainier.
• Positive IOD is good for Indian Monsoons as more evaporation occurs in warm water.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD is named as Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation
(EQUINOO) (Oscillation of pressure cells between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea).
• During the positive phase of the ‘Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO),’ there is enhanced cloud
formation and rainfall in western part of the equatorial ocean near the African coast while such activity is
suppressed near Sumatra.

Indian Ocean Dipole

Projects to understand monsoons

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ISMEX

• Two more experiments were conducted, jointly, by India and the former USSR in 1973 and 1977, with lim-
ited participation from other countries.
• These experiments are known as the Indo-Soviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX) and Monsoon-77 respec-
tively.

MONEX

• Data collection effort was made under the aegis of MONEX-1979.

• It was organised jointly by many researching organizations and the World Meteorological Organisation
(WMO) under their World Weather Watch (WWW) programme.
• It is so far the largest scientific effort made to understand monsoons.
Details are not necessary. Remember the names. They can be asked in prelims. MONEX was asked in previous
papers.

2. Indian Climate

• India’s climate closely resembles the climate that of a tropical country although its northern part (north of
tropic of cancer) is situated in the temperate belt.
• The Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan ranges which block the
cold air masses moving southwards from Central Asia.
• As a result, during winters, the northern half of India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C than other areas located on
the same latitudes.
• During summer, due to over the head position of the sun, the climate in the southern parts resemble
equatorial dry climate.
• The north Indian plains are under the influence of hot, dry wind called ‘loo’ blowing from the Thar, Baloch
and Iranian Deserts, increasing the temperatures to a level comparable to that of the southern parts of the
country.
• Thus, the whole of India, south of the Himalayas can be climatically treated as a tropical country.
• The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical tropical monsoon cli-
mate.
• Thus, Indian climate, to be precise, is tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet and dry climate) rather than
just a tropical or half temperate climate.

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2.1 Features of Indian Climate

• India has high regional climatic diversity because of its topographical diversity (location, altitude, distance
from sea and relief).

Typical Indian Climate

Rainfall

• The climate in most of the regions is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.
• Some places like Thar desert, Ladakh have no wet season.
• Mean annual rainfall varies substantially from region to region.
• Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in Meghalaya receive around 1,100 cm of annual rainfall while at Jaisalmer
the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 12 cm.
• The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Odisha see intense rainfall in July and August while the Coro-
mandel Coast (Tamil Nadu coast and Southern AP coast) goes dry during these months.
• Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna receive south-west monsoon rains by the first quarter of June while
the rains are awaited till early July at places in Northwest India.

Temperature

• Diurnal and annual temperature ranges are substantial.

• Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur in the Thar desert, and the highest annual temperature
ranges are recorded in the Himalayan regions.

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• Both diurnal and mean annual temperature ranges are least in coastal regions.
• In December, the temperature may dip to – 40°C at some places in J&K while in many coastal regions aver-
age temperature is 20-25°C.
• Winters are moderately cold in most of the regions while the summers are extremely hot.
• Himalayan regions experience brutal winters while the summers are moderate.

2.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate

• Latitudinal location
• Distance from the Sea
• The Himalayas
• Physiography
• Monsoon Winds
• Upper Air Circulation
• El Nino and La Nina
• Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances

Latitudinal location

• The mainland of India extends between 8°N to 37°N.

• Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in tropics and hence receive high solar insolation.
• The summer temperatures are extreme, and winters temperatures are moderate in most of the regions.
• The northern parts, on the other hand, lie in the warm temperate zone. They receive comparatively less so-
lar insolation.
• But summer is equally hot in north India because of hot local wind called loo.
• Winter is very cold due to cold waves brought by the western disturbances.
• Some places in Himalayas record low temperatures particularly in winter.
• Coastal regions see moderate climatic conditions irrespective of latitudinal position.

Distance from the Sea

• Coastal regions have a moderate or equable or maritime climate whereas interior locations are deprived of
the moderating influence of the sea and experience extreme or continental climate.
• The monsoon winds first reach the coastal regions and hence bring a good amount of rainfall.

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Himalayas

• The Himalayas act as a climatic divide between India and Central Asia.
• During winter, Himalayas protect India from cold and dry air masses of Central Asia.
• During monsoon months these mountain ranges act as an effective physical barrier for rain-bearing
south-west monsoon winds (Orographic Rainfall).
• The Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon winds into two branches – one branch
flowing along the plain regions towards north-west India and the other towards South-East Asia.
• If the Himalayas were not present, the monsoon winds would simply move into China, and most of north
India would have been a desert.

Why rainfall decreases from east to west in plains region (Indus-Ganga Plains)?

• As the monsoon winds move from east to west, the moisture levels decrease due to successive rainfall at
each low-pressure regions.
• By the time winds reach western parts of the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the moisture in the monsoon
winds in exhausted.

Then how come Haryana and Punjab not deserts like Rajasthan?

• They receive rainfall due to Western Disturbances in winter. (In summer the rainfall is very low.)

Physiography

• Physiography is the most important factor that determines the mean annual rainfall received by a region.

Why are some parts in peninsular India semi-arid?

• Places on the windward side of an orographic barrier receive a great amount of rainfall whereas those
on the leeward side remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-shadow effect.
• Example: The south-west monsoon winds from the Arabian sea strike almost perpendicular at the Western
Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the Western Coastal plain and the western slopes of the Western Ghats.
• On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in
rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.

Why no significant rainfall in Gujarat and Rajasthan? Explain the formation of Thar Desert?

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• Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and Gujarat are not obstructed by any orographic barrier, and
hence these regions receive no rainfall.
• Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to Aravallis, and also, they are not of imposing height to cause oro-
graphic effect except for some places like Mount Abu; hence there is no orographic rainfall.
• No convection cell or vertical wind movements arise in Rajasthan and Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow to-
wards low-pressure cells in Tibet, and hence only horizontal wind movements exist in Gujarat and Raja-
sthan.
• Sub-tropical high-pressure belt: In winter the region experiences strong divergence because of the STJ –
Sub-Tropical Jet.

How come Cherrapunji and Mawsynram receive abnormally high rainfall?

• Mawsynram and Cherrapunji (both the places in Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) are the wettest places on
earth with mean annual rainfall over 1100 cm.
• Copious rainfall in these places is due to the funnelling effect followed by orographic upliftment
(Khasi Hills).
• Funnelling effect: clouds are channelled into a narrow region between mountains and hence the cloud den-
sity is extraordinary.

Funnelling Effect

Monsoon Winds

• The most dominating factor of the Indian climate is the 'monsoon winds'.

Important features of Indian Monsoons are

1. Sudden onset (sudden burst)

2. Gradual progress
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3. Gradual retreat
4. Seasonal reversal of winds
• The complete reversal of the monsoon winds brings about a sudden change in the seasons.
• The harsh summer season is suddenly gives way to monsoon or rainy season.
• The south-west monsoons from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the country.
• The north-eastern winter monsoon does not cause much rainfall except along the Coromandel coast (TN
coast) after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.

Upper Air Circulation

The changes in the upper air circulation over Indian landmass is brought about by Jet streams.

Westerly Jet Stream

• Westerly jet stream blows at a very high speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone.
• The southern branch of the jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter weather conditions in
India.
• This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances from the Mediterranean region into the
Indian sub-continent.
• Winter rain and heat storms in north-western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are
caused by these disturbances.
• These are generally followed by cold waves in the whole of northern plains.

Easterly Jet Stream

• The reversal in upper air circulation takes place in summer due to the apparent shift of the sun's vertical
rays in the northern hemisphere.
• The westerly jet stream is replaced by the easterly jet stream which owes its origin to the heating of the
Tibet plateau.
• This helps in the sudden onset of the south-west monsoons.

Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances

• Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea and the influence large parts of
peninsular India.

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• Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the weather conditions during the
south-west monsoon season (low-intensity cyclones).
• Some cyclones are born during the retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October and November (high-
intensity cyclones) and influence the weather conditions along the eastern coast of India.
• The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean Sea and travel eastward under the influence of
westerly jet stream.
• They influence the winter weather conditions over most of Northern-plains and Western Himalayan region.

El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO

El Nino

• Adversely affects monsoon rainfall and cyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal.

• Good for cyclogenesis in the Arabian Sea.
• Droughts are common during El Nino events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic rainfall.

La Nina

• Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal.

• Suppressed cyclogenesis in the Arabian Sea.
• Floods are common.

ENSO

• Southern Oscillation is simply the oscillation or alternating positions of low pressure and high-pressure cells
over eastern and western Pacific.
• Southern Oscillation coinciding with El Nino is called ENSO or El Nino Southern Oscillation. (SO usually co-
incides with EL Nino. This is why El Nino is usually referred to as ENSO)
• ENSO = (warm water in eastern Pacific + low pressure over eastern Pacific) + (cool water in western Pacific
+ high pressure in western Pacific)
• Climatic conditions are same as El Nino.

2.3 Indian Climate – Seasons

• The cold weather season or winter season,

• The hot weather season or summer season,

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• The south-west monsoon season or Rainy season, and

• The season of the retreating monsoon or cool season.

Winter Season in India

Mean Temperature in January

• November to March. January is the coldest month.

• Sun’s apparent path is to the south of the equator.
• Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of temperature, cool and
slow north-east trade winds.
• The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the country, is very high.

The temperature in Winter Season

• The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel to the Tropic of Cancer.

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• To the south of this isotherm, the temperatures are above 20 °C.

• Here there is no distinctly defined winter weather.
• Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically experience temperatures near 30 °C.
• To the north mean temperatures are below 21 °C and the winter weather is distinct.
• The mean minimum temperature is about 5 °C over north-west India and 10 °C over the Gangetic plains.
• Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest place in India.
• The minimum temperature recorded at Dras was – 45 °C in 1908.

The pressure in Winter Season

• High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west India due to low temperatures coupled with
divergence induced by the ridge of the STJ.
• Pressure is comparatively lower in south India.
• The winds start blowing from high-pressure area of the north-west to low-pressure area of the south-east.
• The wind velocity is low due to a low pressure gradient.

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Prevailing winds and Cyclones paths in January

Western Disturbances in Winter Season

• The spell of fine weather over north-western and northern India is often broken due to the inflow of west-
ern disturbances.
• They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana.
• They move eastwards across the sub-Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh.
• They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
• After the passage of the disturbance, widespread fog and cold waves lowering the minimum temperature
by 5° to 10°C below normal are experienced.

Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season

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• This is the season of least tropical cyclone activity.

• The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases with the advancement of the season.
• This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest south.
• The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy rainfall.
• Some of them cross the southern peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
• Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea and move towards either north or west.

Precipitation in Winter Season

• The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and cause
winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-east Karnataka and south-east Kerala
(Usually in the first weeks of November).
• Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• The western disturbances also cause a little rainfall in north-west India.
• The amount of rainfall gradually decreases from the north and north-west to the east (it is opposite in rainy
season).
• The north-eastern part of India also gets rainfall during the winter months.

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Precipitation in Winter Season

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Precipitation in NE Monsoon Season

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Summer Season in India

• March to June.
• High temperature and low humidity are the chief characteristics.
• It is sometimes referred to as the pre-monsoon period.

The temperature in Summer Season

• High sun’s insolation due to the apparent movement of sun between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer.
• The southern parts of the country are distinctly warmer in March and April whereas, in June, north
India has higher temperatures.
• In March, the highest temperatures occur in the southern parts (40-45 °C).
• In April the highest temperature of about 45 °C is recorded in the northern parts of Madhya Pradesh.
• In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as high as 48 °C may be recorded.
• In June the maximum temperature is in Punjab and Haryana.
• The highest temperatures recorded are 50.5 °C at Alwar on 10th May 1956 and 50.6 °C at Ganganagar on
14th June 1935.
• The highest temperatures are recorded just before the onset of the southwest monsoons (late May).
• The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be as high as 18°C in some parts.
• The temperatures along the west coast are comparatively lower than those prevailing on the east coast due
to the prevailing westerly winds.
• Northern and central parts of India experience heat waves in this season.

(A heat wave is an abnormally high temperature experienced by a region. A temperature increase of the order of
6° to 7 °C above normal is termed as 'moderate' and 8 °C and more as 'severe' heat wave)

• The heat waves strike by the end of April, and their maximum occurrence is in May.
• Most of the heat waves develop over Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location far away from the sea). From
here they spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• The strong northwesterly winds (caused due to strong divergence in north-west India) with a long land
journey over hot regions check the onward march of the sea breeze over the eastern coastal belt and create
heatwave conditions over Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• Heat waves are rare over the peninsula south of 13 °N latitude due to maritime conditions prevailing there.

The pressure in Summer Season

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• The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country due to high temperature.
• But strong dynamically induced divergence over north-west India prevents the onset of south-west
monsoons.

Winds in Summer Season

Prevailing winds and Cyclones paths in April

• There is a marked change in the direction and speed of the winds from winter.
• The winds are by and large light and variable.

Loo

• Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch and Thar deserts.

• In May and June, the high temperature in northwest India builds steep pressure gradient.
• Hot, dust-laden and strong wind known as loo blows.

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• Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M., increases gradually and reaches maximum intensity in the after-
noon.
• It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km per hour and persists for days.

Andhis

• The strong dust storms resulting from the convective phenomena are locally known as andhis (blinding
storms). They move like a solid wall of dust and sand.
• The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 kmph, and the visibility is reduced to a few metres.
• Such dust storms are common in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh.
• They are short-lived. The squall and showers which follow these storms bring down the temperature sharply
temporarily.

Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer Season

• The strong convectional movements related to the westerly jet stream lead to thunderstorms in the eastern
and north-eastern part of the country.
• They normally originate over Chota Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards by westerly winds.
• The areas with the highest incidence of thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand.

Norwesters and Thunderstorms in Summer Season

• In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the direction of squalls is mainly
from the northwest, and they are called norwesters.
• They are often very violent with squall speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour.
• The rainfall brought by the norwesters is known as the spring storm showers.
• Hailstones sometimes accompany showers and occasionally attain the size of a golf ball.
• They cause heavy damage to standing crops, livestock and even lead to loss of human lives.
• However, they are, sometimes, useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms are known as
Tea Showers and Barodoli Chheerha.
• The period of maximum occurrence of these storms is the month of Vaisakh (mid-March to mid-April), and
hence, they are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the black storms or a mass of dark clouds of Vaiasakha.

Convectional Thunderstorms in Summer Season

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• In the south, the thunderstorms occur in Kerala and adjoining parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, particu-
larly during evenings and nights.
• In Karnataka, they are called cherry blossoms or blossom showers due to their effect on the coffee plan-
tations.
• Such showers are called mango showers in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because they are very
beneficial to mango crop.

Western Disturbances in Summer Season

• Their frequency and intensity gradually decrease with the advancement of summer.
• Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western disturbances visit north-west India in March, April and May respectively.
• They cause snowfall in higher reaches of the Himalayas.

Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season

• Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
• A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of Bengal in the month of March, but they do not affect the mainland
of India.
• Their frequency rises steeply in April, and the number of cyclones originating in May is more than double
than those originating in April.
• About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal, and the rest originate in the
Arabian Sea.
• Most of the depressions in April originate to the south of 10 °N while those originating in May are born to
the north of this latitude.
• Most of the storms of this season initially move west or north-west, but later they recurve northeast and
strike Bangladesh and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar.
• Very few hit the Indian coast while some dissipate over the sea itself.
• The coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by tropical storms in
May. Many of them are quite severe and cause heavy damage to life and property.
• In the Arabian Sea, major storms are formed in May between 7° and 12° N latitudes.
• Most of them move away from the Indian coast in a north-westerly direction and dissipate in the sea.
• Few originate close to the Indian coast. They move towards the north-east and hit somewhere along the
west coast of India.

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Precipitation in Summer Season

• This season is not totally rainless (only one per cent of the annual rainfall).
• In the north-eastern parts of the country, dust storms bring little rainfall.
• The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the form of snow caused by western disturbances.
• The norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of rainfall is high.
• Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall from thunderstorms.

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Precipitation in Summer (March to May)

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Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season

• South West Monsoon Season – June to mid-September.

• South West Monsoon Season is also known as a hot-wet season.

The temperature during South West Monsoon Season

• Sudden onset of South West Monsoons leads to a significant fall in temperature (3° to 6 °C).
• The temperature remains less uniform throughout the rainy season.
• The temperature rises in September with the cease of south-west monsoons.
• There is a rise in temperature whenever there is a break in the monsoons.
• The diurnal range of temperature is small due to clouds and rains.
• The highest temperatures are experienced at places west of the Aravalli (38° to 40 °C). This is due to the
lack of clouds and hot continental air masses.
• Other parts of Northwest India also have temperatures above 30 °C.
• The temperatures are quite low over the Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
• The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have temperatures above 30 °C as
they receive little rainfall during this season.

Pressure and Winds During South West Monsoon Season

• Low-pressure conditions prevail over northwest India due to high temperature.

• ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga plain.
• There are frequent changes in its location depending upon the weather conditions.
• The atmospheric pressure increases steadily southwards.
• Over the peninsular region, due to the pressure gradient between north and south, winds blow in a south-
west to northeast direction from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal.
• Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from east to west.

Rainfall During South West Monsoon Season

• Three-fourths of the total annual rainfall is received during this season.

• The average rainfall over the plains of India in this season is about 87 per cent.
• Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.

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Precipitation in South West monsoon Season

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• The normal date of onset of the southwest monsoon over Kerala, i.e. the first place of entry in the main-
land of India is 1st June.
• The monsoons advance quickly accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning and heavy downpour. This
sudden onset of rain is termed as monsoon burst.
• Sometimes monsoons are delayed, or they come much earlier than normal.
• Normally the onset occurs between 29th May and 7th June.

South West Monsoon – Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch

• Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala progress in the form of two branches viz. the Arabian Sea branch
and the Bay of Bengal branch.

South West Monsoon – Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch

• The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai by 10th June.

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• The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather rapidly over most of Assam. The normal date of its arrival at Kolka-
ta is 7th June.
• On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas, the Bay branch is deflected westward by the Himalayan bar-
rier, and it advances up the Gangetic plain.
• The two branches merge with each other mostly around Delhi to form a single current.
• Both the branches reach Delhi more or less at the same time.
• By the end of June, the monsoon is usually established over most parts of the country.
• By mid-July, the monsoon extends into Kashmir and the remaining parts of the country.
• By this time, it reaches Kashmir; it has shed most of its moisture.
• Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is much powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch for reasons:
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay of Bengal, and
2. the entire Arabian Sea current advances towards India, whereas only a part of the Bay of Bengal
current, enters India, the remainder proceeding to Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.

The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct streams on arriving in the
mainland of India.

• The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of over 250 cm.
• It strikes perpendicular to the Western Ghats causing plentiful Orographic Rainfall (400 to 500 cm annual
rainfall on the windward side).
• Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-50 cm on the leeward side of the crest.
• There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on the immediate leeward side of the Western Ghats. But once it is
passed, the air starts rising again and the amount of rainfall increases further east.
• The second stream enters Narmada—Tapti troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches central India.
• It does not cause much rain near the coast due to the absence of major orographic obstacle across the rift.
• Some parts of central India receive rainfall from this stream (Ex: Nagpur).
• The third stream moves parallel to the Aravalli Range without causing much rainfall.
• Consequently, the whole of Rajasthan is a desert area.
• However, some orographic effect is occurring on the south-eastern edge of the Aravalli Range.
Mount Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall while the surrounding plains have only 60 to 80 cm rainfall.

The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon is divided into two distinct streams.

• The first stream crosses the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and reaches Meghalaya.

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• Here that the orographic effect results in intense rainfall.

• Cherrapunji receives an annual rainfall of 1,102 cm, a major portion of which occurs from June to August.
• Mawsynram (present champion) located at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to the west of Cherrapun-
ji (X champion) records higher annual rainfall of 1,221 cm.
• Both the stations are located on the southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the northern end of a deep valley
running from south to north.
• The second stream of the Bay of Bengal branch moves along Himalayan foothills as they are deflected to
the west by the Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to Ganga plain.
• The rainfall by this stream is characterized by a steady decline as we move from east to west up the plain.
(Previous Prelims Question)
• The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry during the south-west monsoon period because of
1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea current and
2. Bay of Bengal current which flows parallel to the coast.

Break in the South West Monsoons

• During July and August, there are certain periods when the monsoons become weak.
• Rainfall practically ceases over the country outside the Himalayan belt and southeast peninsula.
• This is known as a break in the monsoon.
• During the break period, heavy rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions and the southern slopes of
the Himalayas.
• On an average one or two breaks do occur during the rainy season.
• 85 out of 100 years there is a break in the monsoons.

What causes monsoon break?

• The breaks are believed to be brought about by the northward shifting of the monsoon trough (minimum
low-pressure cells in ITCZ) to the foothills of Himalayas.
• This leads to a sharp decrease in rainfall over most parts of the country but increases along the Hima-
layas and parts of Northeast India and the Southern Peninsula.
• Breaks are likely to occur during the second week of August and last for a week.
• The breaks can also occur due to tropical cyclones which originate in the Bay of Bengal.

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The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted by a line on a weather map
showing the locations of minimum sea level pressure, and as such, is a convergence zone between the wind pat-
terns of the southern and northern hemispheres.

Depressions in South West Monsoon Season

• A major part of the South West Monsoon rainfall is generated by depressions (intense low pressure) origi-
nating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some depressions develop over land also.
• About 3-4 depressions are formed per month from June to September.
• Almost all of them are sucked inward through the deltas of great rivers (depressions need moisture to be
alive), the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these
areas.
• The location of depressions strongly coincides with the latitudinal position of ITCZ.
• Most of the depression originate to the west of 90⁰ E in the Bay of Bengal and move in the north-west di-
rection.
• In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the depressions move either in the north-west or in the northerly direction
and may affect west Gujarat or Maharashtra.
• Storms during August and September are rare and are formed close to Maharashtra-Gujarat coast.
• Most of the rainfall in central and northern parts of the country is caused by these depressions.
• The absence of depressions or a change in their tracks result in deficit or no rain.

Advance and Withdrawal of South West Monsoons

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Advance and Withdrawal Dates of South West Monsoons

Chief Characteristics of South West Monsoon Rainfall

• A major part of monsoon rains is received between June and September.

• Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief and is orographic in its mode.
• The amount of rainfall decreases with increasing distance from the sea.
• The rainless interval during south-west monsoon season is known as breaks.
• There are large scale spatial variations in the distribution of rainfall.
• Monsoons often fail to keep the date. Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before the scheduled time caus-
ing considerable damage to the crops.

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North East Monsoon Season – Retreating Monsoon Season

• Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal of southwest monsoon (middle of September – November).
• The monsoons withdraw from the extreme north-west end of the country in September, from the peninsula
by October and from the extreme south-eastern tip by December.
• In Punjab, the south-west monsoons reach in the first week of July and withdraw from there in the second
week of September.
• The south-west monsoons reach Coromandel coast in the first week of June and withdraw from there only
in the middle of December.
• Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual and takes about
three months.

The temperature during Retreating Monsoon Season

• With the retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear, and the sky becomes clear.
• The day temperature starts falling steeply.
• The diurnal range of temperature increases due to the lack of cloud cover.

Pressure and Winds during Retreating Monsoon Season

• As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon trough weakens and gradually shifts southward.
• Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
• The direction of winds over large parts of the country is influenced by the local pressure conditions.

Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon Season

• Most severe and devastating tropical cyclones originate in the Indian seas especially in the Bay of Ben-
gal.
• The highest frequency of the cyclones is in the month of October and the first half of November.

More cyclones are born in October and then in November, and more cyclones originate in the Bay of
Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.

• In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of Bengal originate between 8°N and 14°N.
• Initially, they move in west or north-westerly direction, but many of them later recurve and move towards
the north-east.
• Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross or affect the Indian coast.

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• The area’s most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
and West Bengal.
• Many of the cyclones which strike the eastern coast of India, south of 15°N latitude cross the southern Pen-
insula and enter the Arabian Sea.
• During this process, they may weaken, but on re-entry over the Arabian sea they intensify into cyclonic
storms.
• The storms of Arabian sea originate between 12°N and 17°N latitudes in October and between 8° N and
13° N latitudes in November.
• Generally, they move away from the coast in a north-westerly direction. But about 25% of them later re-
curve northeast and strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast.
• In north-west India, the western disturbances produce clouding and light rainfall in the otherwise fine
weather.
• The precipitation is in the form of snow in higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and in
Kumaon Hills.

Precipitation during Retreating Monsoon Season

• The humidity and cloud cover are much reduced with the retreat of the south-west monsoons, and most
parts of the country remain without much rainfall.
• October-November is the main rainy season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh to
the south of the Krishna delta as well as a secondary rainy period for Kerala.
• The retreating monsoons absorb moisture while passing over the Bay of Bengal and cause this rainfall.

Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons)

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Average Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons)

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Isohyet (the line joining places of equal rainfall) [Compare this with isotherm (temperature), isobar
(pressure)]

Areas of very high rainfall

• Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200 cm and above.

• These include the western side of Western Ghats (Thiruvananthapuram in the south to Mumbai in the
north).
• The average annual rainfall in this belt is 200-400 cm.
• Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of Manipur, Tripura and north-
eastern tip of West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more, with isolated pockets receiving over 400 cm.

Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the wettest part of the country with Mawsynram and Cherrapunji
getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall respectively.

Areas of high rainfall

• 100-200 cm annual rainfall.

• Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, the major part of the northern plain, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Areas of low rainfall

• 50-100 cm annual rainfall.

• Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, eastern Raja-
sthan, Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar Pradesh.

Areas of very low rainfall

• These are desert and semi-desert areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall.
• They include large areas of western Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.

2.4 Climatic Regions of India

• While classifying Indian climatic regions, most geographers have given more importance to rainfall than to
temperature as variations in rainfall are much more marked than those of temperature.

Here we will see two classifications – Stamp's and Koppen’s. For GS this is more than enough.

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Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India

• Stamp used 18 °C isotherm of mean monthly temperature for January to divide the country into two broad
climatic regions, viz., temperate or continental zone in the north and tropical zone in the south.
• This line runs roughly across the root of the peninsula, more or less along or parallel to the Tropic of Can-
cer.
• The two major climatic regions are further divided into eleven regions depending upon the amount of rain-
fall and temperature.

Temperate or Continental India

1. The Himalayan region (heavy rainfall)

2. The north-western region (moderate rainfall)
3. The arid low land
4. The region of moderate rainfall
5. The transitional zone

Tropical India

1. Region of very heavy rainfall

2. Region of heavy rainfall
3. Region of moderate rainfall
4. The Konkan Coast
5. The Malabar Coast
6. Tamil Nadu

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Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India

Temperate or Continental India

Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall

Himalayan Region Sumer = 4-7 °C East = Over 200 cm

Winter = 13-18 °C West = much less

North-western Region Summer = 16 °C Below 200 cm

Northern parts of Punjab and southern parts of Jam- Winter = 24 °C
mu and Kashmir

Arid Lowland Winter = 16-24 °C Below 40 cm

Thar desert of Rajasthan, south western part of Har- Summer = 48 °C
yana and Kachchh of Gujarat

Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 15-18 °C 40-80 cm

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Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Union Terri- Summer = 33-35 °C

tory of Delhi, north-west Plateau area of Madhya
Pradesh and eastern Rajasthan

Transitional Zone Winter = 15-19 °C 100-150 cm

Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Summer = 30-35 °C

Tropical India

Region of very heavy rainfall Winter = 18 °C Over 200

Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram and Nagaland Summer = 32-35 °C

Region of heavy rainfall Winter = 18-24 °C 100-200 cm

Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gangetic West Bengal, Od- Summer = 29-35 °C
isha and coastal Andhra Pradesh

Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 18-24 °C 50-100 cm

between Western and Eastern Ghats Summer = 32 °C

Konkan Coast Annual = 24-27 °C. Over 200 cm

Mumbai in the north to Goa in the south

Malabar Coast Annual = 27 °C Over 250 cm

Goa to Kanyakumari

Tamil Nadu Annual = 24 °C 100 to 150 cm

Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh (Retreating monsoon)

Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India

• Koppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
• He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of vegeta-
tion and used these values for classifying the climates.
• Koppen divided India into nine climatic regions making use of the above scheme.

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Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India

Koppen’s Scheme – Climatic Regions of India

Climate type Region Annual rainfall

Amw: Monsoon type with Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
short dry winter season

As: Monsoon type with dry Coromandel coast: Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining ar- 75-100 cm
season in high sun period eas of Andhra Pradesh Wet winters
Dry summers

Aw: Tropical Savanah type Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel 75 cm
and Malabar coastal strips

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BShw: Semi-arid Steppe type Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of 12-25 cm
Rajasthan and contiguous areas of Haryana and Gujarat

BWhw: Hot desert type Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm

Cwg: Monsoon type with dry Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam 100-200 cm
winters and in Malwa Plateau

Dfc: Cold, Humid winters Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam ~200 cm
type with shorter summer

Et: Tundra Type Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies

The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C from year to year.

E: Polar Type Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh Precipitation oc-
in which the temperature of the warmest month varies curs in the form
from 0° to 10°C of snow

For more information on Koppen’s Scheme of Classification refer to Climatology > Climatic Regions.

3. Natural Vegetation of India

• Climate, soil and topography are the major factors that influence Natural Vegetation of a place.
• The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature.
• The amount of annual rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation

200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests

100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests

50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna

25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)

Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)

• Temperature is the major factor in the Himalayas and other hilly regions with an elevation of more than 900
metres.
• As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover changes with altitude from
tropical to sub-tropical, temperate and finally alpine.

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• The soil is an equally determining factor in a few regions. Mangrove forests, swamp forests are some of
the examples where the soil is the major factor.
• Topography is responsible for certain minor types, e.g. alpine flora, tidal forests, etc.

3.1 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India

• Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily based on spatial and annual variations in rainfall.
• Temperature, soil and topography are also considered.
• India's vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.

A. Moist Tropical Forests

1. Tropical Wet Evergreen

2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
4. Littoral and Swamp

B. Dry Tropical Forest

1. Tropical Dry Evergreen

2. Tropical Dry Deciduous
3. Tropical Thorn

C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill

2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen

D. Montane Temperate Forests

1. Montane Wet Temperate

2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate

E. Alpine Forests

1. Sub-Alpine
2. Moist Alpine scrub

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3. Dry Alpine scrub

Forest Type in India % of Total Area

Tropical Moist Deciduous 37

Tropical Dry Deciduous 28

Tropical Wet Evergreen 8

Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6

Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4

Rest below 4 %

A. Moist Tropical Forests

Classification of Natural Vegetation of India

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests

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Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm.

• The annual temperature is about 25-27 °C
• The dry season is distinctly short.

Characteristics

• Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed their leaves to-
gether.
• Vegetation is mesophytic: Plants adapted to neither too dry nor too wet type climate or soil.

Hydrophytic plants: plants like water lily or pondweed that grow in saturated soil
Xerophytic plants: plants like cactus that grow in extremely dry soil.
Mesophytic plants: ordinary plants that exist between the two extremes.

• Lofty: The trees often reach 45-60 metres in height.

• Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage.
• All plants struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement.
• Less undergrowth: The sunlight cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The undergrowth is formed
mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.

Distribution

• The western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
• Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
• In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Timber

• Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable but is hard to exploit.
• The important species of these forests are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo etc.

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests

• They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical deciduous forests.
• They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.

Climatic Conditions
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• Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm.

• Mean annual temperature varies from 24 to 27 °C.
• The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.

Distribution

• Western coast, Assam, Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and Andamans.

Characteristics

• The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.

• They are more gregarious (living in flocks or colonies – more pure stands) than the wet evergreen for-
ests.
• These forests are characterized by many species.
• Trees usually have buttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes.

Tress with buttressed trunks and epiphytes

• The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – Western Ghats; white cedar, Indi-
an chestnut, champa, mango, etc. – Himalayan region.

Timber

• Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are less dense with more
pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen forests).

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

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• Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.

• Mean annual temperature of about 27 °C.
• Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.

Characteristics

• The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture is not availa-
ble.
• The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May).
• Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey (25 to 60 m).
• Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth.
• These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests, but large tracts under these forests
have been cleared for cultivation.

Distribution

• The belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
• A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
• Manipur and Mizoram.
• Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Chota Nagpur Plateau.
• Most of Odisha.
• Parts of West Bengal and
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Timber

• These provide valuable timer like Teak.

• The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, etc.
• It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests due to their high degree of gregariousness (more
pure stands).

Littoral and Swamp Forests

• They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water (The mixture of seawater and fresh water
in estuaries is called brackish water, and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).

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• Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal forests).
• Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places along the coast.
• Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari (Coringa Wildlife
Sanctuary), the Krishna and the Cauvery.
• Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes
and mudflats. It provides useful fuelwood.
• The most pronounced and the densest is the Sundarbans in the Ganga delta where the predominant spe-
cies is Sundri (Heriteera).

Timber

• It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes and making boats.
• The important species found in these forests are sundri, agar, rhizophora, etc.

B. Dry Tropical Forests

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.

Climatic Conditions

• The annual rainfall of 100 cm (mostly from the north-east monsoons).

• Mean annual temperature is about 28 °C.
• The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.

Characteristics

• Short-statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy.

• Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
• The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc.
• Most of the land under these forests have been cleared for agriculture or casuarina plantations.

Casuarina plantation

• It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.

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• They are rapid-growing, carefree species that can grow in various climates.
• They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Distribution

• Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.

Benefits

• Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.

• Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.

Casuarina plantation
• It is a suitable species for wasteland development because of its adaptability to a wide range of habitats,
fast growth, salt tolerant, drought resistant, ability to reclaim land and stabilise sand dunes.

Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.

Characteristics

• These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
• The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
• They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier side.
• They have closed but uneven canopy.

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• The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising up to a height of 20 me-
tres.
• Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and climbers.

Distribution

• They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari except in Raja-
sthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
• The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders, laurel, etc.
• Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
• These forests have suffered from overgrazing, fire, etc.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

• Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
• The mean temperature is 25-30 °C.

Characteristics

• The trees are low and widely scattered.

• Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent.
• The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.

Distribution

• Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kutch and neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
• Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert.
• Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of Maharashtra (Vidarbha),
Karnataka (Hyderabad-Karnataka), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
• The important species are neem, babul, cacti, etc.

C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests

Climatic conditions
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• Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.

• Average annual temperature is 18-21 °C.

Distribution

• Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.

Characteristics

• Forests of evergreen species.

• Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
• Climbers and epiphytes (a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other plant) are common.
• These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur only in the Nilgiri and
Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
• It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not so luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
• The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura and the Maikal
Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravalli Range carry sub-types of these forests.

Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests

Distribution

• Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000 metres above
sea level.
• Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.

Timber

• Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms pure stands.
• It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings.
• It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.

Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution

• Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres above sea level.

Climatic Conditions

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• Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March).

• The summers are sufficiently hot, and winters are very cold.

Characteristics

• Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
• Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.

D. Montane Temperate Forests

Montane Wet Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level.

• Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm.
• Mean annual temperature is about 11 to 14 °C.

Distribution

• Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.

Characteristics

• These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have a large girth.

• Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
• The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres.
• Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.

Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm

Distribution

• Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
• Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and
Sikkim.

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Characteristics

• Mainly composed of coniferous species.

• Species occur in mostly pure strands.
• Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
• Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees.
• They are fairly open forests with shrubby undergrowth including oaks, rhododendrons and some bamboos.

Timber

• It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.

Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions

• Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.

Characteristics

• Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main trees.

Distribution

• Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west monsoon is very feeble.
• Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

E. Alpine Forests

• Altitudes ranging from 2,900 to 3,500.

• These forests can be divided into (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry alpine scrub.
• The sub-alpine forests occur as lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees attain a height of about
30 m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10 m.
• Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
• The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which occurs from
3,000 metres and extends up to snowline.
• The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500 metres above sea
level and found in the dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are important species.
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4. Biogeography – Soils

• Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust comprising rock particles mixed with organic matter.
• Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment.
• Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as weather-
ing, leaching, calcification etc.
• The Soil formation is mainly related to the parent rock material, surface relief, climate and natural vegeta-
tion.

4.1 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy

• The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various sizes.
1) If the soil contains a greater proportion of big particles, it is called sandy soil.
2) If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
3) If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is called loamy.
• Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles.
• So, sandy soils tend to be light in colour, well aerated and dry.
• Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly together, leaving little space for air.
• Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the tiny gaps between the particles of clay.
• So, clay soils have little air. But they are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy soils.
• The best topsoil for growing plants is loam.
• Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and another type of soil particle known as silt.
• Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The size of the silt particles is between those of sand and clay.
• The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the right water holding capacity for the growth of plants.
• Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such soils are
good at retaining water.
• For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are ideal.
• For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are required.
• For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water easily and can hold plenty of air, are more suita-
ble.

4.2 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)

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• A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the soil profile.
• Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth and chemical composition.
• These layers are referred to as horizons.
• A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics differ from the
layers above and beneath.
• Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture.
• The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and minerals.
• The humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants.
• This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. It is called the topsoil or the A-horizon.
• The next layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals.
• This layer is generally harder and more compact and is called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
• The third layer is the C-horizon, which is made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks.

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Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)

O Horizon

• Layers dominated by organic material.

• Some O layers consist of undecomposed or partially decomposed litter (such as leaves, needles, twigs,
moss, and lichens).
• They may be on top of either mineral or organic soils.

A Horizon or Surface soil

• It is part of the top soil.

• In this layer, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter.

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• It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil life.
• This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminium, organic compounds, and other soluble constit-
uents.
• When depletion is pronounced, a lighter coloured "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the
"A" horizon.

E horizon

• "E" stands for an eluviated layer.

• It is the horizon that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and aluminium oxides, which leaves a con-
centration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.
• These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally, occur between the A and B horizons.

B Horizon or Subsoil

• It is a subsurface layer reflecting a chemical or physical alteration of parent material.

• This layer accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.
• Thus iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon (illuviation (opposite of elu-
viation)).

C Horizon or Parent rock

• Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material in sedimentary deposits.
• It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.
• This layer may accumulate more soluble compounds (inorganic material).

R Horizon or Bedrock

• This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile.
• Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
• Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
• These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other profiles.

4.3 Factors that influence soil formation in Indian Conditions

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Parent Material

• The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.
• In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration, mineral composition and texture
of the soil.
• In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties as the parent rock.
• Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect the physical properties of the soil.
• The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process, the rocks are converted into
fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation.
• In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into:
1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
3. Gondwana rocks
4. Deccan basalts
5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock System}

Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks

• They are the Oldest rocks (pre-Cambrian era) (formed due to solidification of molten magma about 4 bil-
lion years ago).
• They form the ‘Basement Complex’ of peninsular India.
• They are basically granites, gneisses and schists.
• These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on weathering.

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• The red colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron oxide.

Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks

• They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick).

• On weathering they give calcareous (containing calcium carbonate) and argillaceous (consisting of or con-
taining clay) soils.
• The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous minerals.

Gondwana rocks

• These rocks are also sedimentary in nature, and they are much younger.
• On weathering, they give rise to comparatively less mature soils.
• The soil is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.

Deccan basalts

• A volcanic outburst over a vast area of Peninsular India gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
• Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium.
• Consequently, the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils of darker colour.

• The soil is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly known as regur or black cotton
soil.

Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks

• Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils with high porosity.
• These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial soils on weathering.
• Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little relation with the original rocks.
• On the other hand, the soils of the peninsular plateau are generally coarse-grained and are closely re-
lated to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.

Relief

• The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep slopes like the hilly regions,
edges of plateaus etc.

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• Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant, and it hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal ravines, higher
reaches of the Himalayas where there is minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
• The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep soils. Example: Indo-
Gangetic plain.
• The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently deep.

Climate

• Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation.
• They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the quantity of water seeping
through the soil and the type of micro-organisms present therein.
• Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate.
• Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of soils in two different types of cli-
mates.
• The crystalline granites produce laterite (reddish clayey soils) soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
• Hot summer and low rainfall develop black soil as is found in some parts of Tamil Nadu irrespective
of the parent rock.
• In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid climate.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There is little vegetation, and the
soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are invariably of light colour.
• In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, an excess of evaporation makes soils lime ac-
cumulating.
• Hence the soil is pedocal in nature (It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid and arid regions. It is rich in
calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter).
• In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is very slow, and the soils are
acidic in nature.

In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. Why?

• Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the materials into the deeper
horizon.
• During the dry summer season, the evaporation exceeds precipitation, and through capillary action, iron
and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making the soil red.
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• In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep down in the horizon is
brought up, and the blazing sun bakes the topsoil so hard that it resembles a brick.
• Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which means brick.

Natural Vegetation

• Natural vegetation reflects the combined effects of relief and climate.

• The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth of vegetation.
• The decayed leaf material adds much-needed humus to soil thereby increasing its fertility.
• The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India.
• There is a close relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.

4.4 Major Soil Groups of India

• Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular India and soils of extra-peninsular
India.
• The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly from the
underlying rocks.
• Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re-deposited to a limited extent and are known as sedentary
soils.
• The soils of the Extra-Peninsula (Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains) are formed due to the deposi-
tional work of rivers and wind. They are very deep. They are often referred to as transported or azonal
soils.
• Major soil groups:
(1) Alluvial soils
(2) Black soils
(3) Red soils
(4) Laterite and Lateritic soils
(5) Forest and Mountain soils
(6) Arid and Desert soils
(7) Saline and Alkaline soils
(8) Peaty and Marshy soils

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Major Soil Groups of India

Alluvial Soils

• Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers (transport-
ed or azonal soils).
• In coastal regions, some alluvial deposits are formed due to wave action.
• Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material.
• They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per cent of the total area.
• They support more than 40% of India’s population by providing the most productive agricultural lands.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils

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• They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
• Most of the soil is loamy. Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
• Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare.
• Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in some regions along the river terraces.
• The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature.
• Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favourable for agriculture.
• These soils are constantly replenished by the recurrent floods.

Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils

• The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.

• The proportion of potash, phosphoric acid (phosphate) and alkalis (lime) are adequate.
• The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.

Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India

• They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places where the top layer is
covered by desert sand.
• They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they are called
deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium).
• Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapti valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.

Crops in Alluvial Soils

• They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
• They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to the canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
• They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, etc.

Geological Divisions of alluvial soils

• Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger khadar and older
bhangar soils.

Black Soils

• The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were formed in the Deccan Plateau
(Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).

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• In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are sufficiently deep while the lat-
er are generally shallow.
• These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group typical to the dry
and hot regions of the Peninsula.

Characteristics of Black Soils

• A typical black soil is highly argillaceous (containing clay) with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more.
• In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the valleys are very fertile.
• The black soil is highly retentive of moisture.
• It swells greatly on accumulating moisture.
• In the rainy season, the soil gets very sticky and hence ploughing, and other agricultural activities demand
more effort.
• In summer, the moisture evaporates the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks.
• The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permit oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths.

Colour of Black Soils

• The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and black
constituents of the parent rock.
• In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from crystalline schists and basic
gneisses.
• Various tints of the black colour may be found in this group of soils.

Chemical Composition of Black Soils

• 10 per cent of alumina,

• 9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
• 6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium carbonates,
• potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and
• phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.

Distribution of Black Soils

• Spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 per cent of the total area) across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts
of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

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Crops in Black Soils

• These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as regur and black cotton soils.
• Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower
and millets.
• Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are available.
• Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black soils.
• This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without adding fertilisers and manures,
with little or no evidence of exhaustion.

Red Soils

• Red soils along with its minor groups form one of the largest soil group of India.
• The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid granites, gneisses and quartzites.

Characteristics of Red Soils

• The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams.
• On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas, they are rich, deep dark
and fertile.

Chemical Composition of Red Soils

• They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks. The alkali content is fair.
• They are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus.
• They are fairly rich in potash and potassium.

Colour of Red Soils

• The red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide.

• The colour is more due to the wide diffusion rather than the high percentage of iron oxide content.

Distribution of Red Soils

• These soils mostly occur in the regions of low rainfall.

• They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 per cent) of the total area of the country.
• These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil Nadu.

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• Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pra-
desh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Ut-
tar Pradesh; Aravallis and the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern
states.

Crops in Red Soils

• The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot retain water like the black soils.
• The red soils, with the proper use of fertilisers and irrigation techniques, give a good yield of cotton, wheat,
rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes and fruits.

Laterite – Lateritic Soils

• Laterite soils are mostly the end products of weathering.

• They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry
periods.
• Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica
are leached away, and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden greatly on losing moisture.
• Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.

The chemical composition of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

• Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric oxides.

• They are very poor in lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen.
• Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate.
• In wetter places, there may be higher content of humus.

Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

• Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km.

• The continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above
mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
• They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in other re-
gions.

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Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils

• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive leaching.

• When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rub-
ber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
• In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.

The economic value of Laterite – Lateritic Soils

• Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable building material.

• These soils can be easily cut into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed to air.
• As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot be weathered much further and is durable.

Forest – Mountain Soils

• These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67% of the total land area of India.
• They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by forests.
• The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived
from forests and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
• Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one another.

Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils

• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north facing slopes. The
south-facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and hence do not support soil formation.
• Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.

Chemical properties of Forest – Mountain Soils

• The forest soils are very rich in humus.

• They are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
• They require a good deal of fertilisers for high yields.

Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils

• They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in the peninsular forest region.
• Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest region.

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Arid – Desert Soils

• The desert soils consist of aeolian sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
• They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km (4.32%).
• The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
• Desertification of neighbouring soils is common due to the intrusion of aeolian sand (wind action).

Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils

• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.

• The sand here is blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon winds.
• Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Chemical properties of Arid – Desert Soils

• They are usually poor in organic matter.

• Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree of soluble salts like calcium carbonate.
• Calcium content increases downwards, and the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
• The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
• Nitrogen is originally low, but some of it is available in the form of nitrates.

Crops of Arid – Desert Soils

• Phosphates and nitrates make these soils fertile wherever moisture is available.
• There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are available.
• In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets, maize and
pulses are grown.

Saline – Alkaline Soils

• In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the topsoil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) with saline and
alkaline efflorescences (become covered with salt particles).
• Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
• Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers.

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• In regions with the low water table, the salts percolate into subsoil and in regions with good drainage,
the salts are wasted away by flowing water.
• But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt concentration becomes stagnant
and deposits all the salts in the topsoil once the water evaporates.
• In regions with the high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by the capillary
action as a result of evaporation in the dry season.

Capillary action

• Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in op-
position to, external forces like gravity.
• The force behind capillary action is surface tension.

Surface tension

• Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids (a membrane-like surface) that makes them acquire the
least surface area possible.
• Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to float and stride on the wa-
ter surface.

• Surface tension offers the necessary buoyant force (buoyancy) required for an object to float in water (Ships
float because of difference in density as well as surface tension).

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What gives water droplet its shape?

• When a water droplet is freely falling, it acquires a spherical shape.

• When a water drop is on a surface, it acquires the shape of a hemisphere (half a sphere).
• All this is due to surface tension.

This kind of trivial GK can help with many exams.

Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils

• Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 sq km of area.

• These soils are found in canal irrigated areas and areas of a high sub-soil water table.
• Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (side effects of im-
proper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
• The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
• In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of Khambhat are affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden depos-
its. Vast areas comprising the estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have thus be-
come infertile.
• Along the coastline, saline sea waters infiltrate into coastal regions during storm surges (when cyclones
make landfall) and make the soil unfit for cultivation.
• The low lying regions of coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of soil degradation.

Peaty – Marshy Soils

• These are soils with a large amount of organic matter and a considerable amount of soluble salts.
• The most humid regions have this type of soil.
• They are black, heavy and highly acidic.

Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils

• Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala.

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• Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sundarbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora
district of Uttarakhand.

Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy Soils

• They are deficient in potash and phosphate.

Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils

• Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease; they are put
under paddy cultivation.

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