1.

HARDWARE, SOFTWARE,
HUMANWARE, FIRM WARE
WITH EXAMPLE
Hardware:
- Computer hardware is any physical device used in or with your
machine, whereas software is a collection of codes installed onto your
computer’s hard drive.
- For instance, the computer monitor you are currently using to read this
text and the mouse you’re using to navigate this web page is computer
hardware.
Software:
- A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is
called a program.
- Software instructions are programmed in a computer language,
translated into machine language, and executed by computer.
- Software can be categorized into two types −
 System software
 Application software
Human ware:
- Human ware is the method of adding a human facets into the
development of computer programs.
- The main goal of developing human ware is to make hardware and
software as functional as possible.
- For example, in a traditional desktop system, human ware might
involve changing the visual interface to make it more accessible to
those with low computer literacy.
- Another excellent and very common example is the designing of
hardware systems for persons with disabilities.
Firm Ware:
- In computing, firmware is a specific class of computer software that
provides the low-level control for a device specific hardware.
- Firm ware such as the program of an embedded system may be the
only program that will run on the system and provide all of
its functions.
- Software files are usually large and take up a substantial amount of
hardware memory when compared to firmware.
 - Firmware is a term for a piece of software that is stored on a hardware
device in order to make it run properly.

2. RAM VS ROM
ROM:
o Non-volatile
o Fast to read
o Usually used in small quantities
o Cannot be written to quickly
o Used to store boot instructions or firmware
o Relatively expensive per megabyte stored compared to RAM
RAM:
o Volatile
o Fast to read and write
o Used as system memory to store data (including program
code) that the CPU
o needs to process imminently
o Relatively cheap per megabyte stored compared to ROM, but
relatively
o expensive compared to secondary memory

3. SRAM VS DRAM
4. WHAT IS COMPUTER? WHY IS
IT KNOWN AS DATA
PROCESSOR?
CHARACTERISTICS
intro
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data.
It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You may already
know that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play
games, and browse the Web.
Data processor
Computer is known as data processor because it processes the data.
First the data is inserted in the computer through input devices. After that,
computer translate the data in its own language and then the computer
takes action according to the instructions given to the computer. After
processing, the data sent back to the user through output devices of
computer such as monitor.

Characteristics – later on
1) Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared
to humans while performing mathematical calculations. Computers
can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The
time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and
nanoseconds.
2) Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may
occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy.
3) Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the
same consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack
of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of
human beings.
4) Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different
kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency.
 5) Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of
data i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we will
get the same result.
6) Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e.; it performs
tasks without manual intervention.
7) Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it
stores data. Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs,
pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.

5. WHAT IS MEANT BY
GENERATION IN COMPUTER
TERMINOLOGY? LIST OUT
VARIOUS COMPUTER
GENERATIONS ALONG WITH
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
COMPUTER OF EACH
GENERATION
 ‘Generation’ in computer terminology is a ‘step’ ahead in
technology.
 As you go through the history of evolution of computers, you will
find that the earliest computers were big in size, consumed a lot of
power and heated up quickly, due to which it had to be shut down,
frequently to be cooled.
 They were very expensive in terms of development and
maintenance.
 As technology improved, computers became compact, faster and
more powerful.
 From a user’s perspective, they become user friendly and more
affordable.
  This has largely contributed towards the popularity that computers
have gained these days.
 The term ‘generation’ was earlier used only to distinguish between
varying hardware technologies but was later extended to include
both hardware and software.
 A comparison of generations is made below.

I. FIRST GENERATION 1940-56

o The first generation of computers was characterized by
vacuum tubes in the circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory.
o These computers were enormous in size, used great deal of
electricity and were expensive to operate. They also had
limited storage capacity.
o First generation computers relied on machine language
(binary-coded program) to perform operations and could
solve only one problem at a time.
o Punched cards and paper tapes were used to input data and
instructions, and output was displayed on printouts.
o Early computers like ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC can all
be classified as first-generation computers.
Advantages
1. These computers were based on vacuum tube technology (this
makes possible for advent of electronic digital computers.
2. Fastest computing devices of their times (Computation time was
in milliseconds).
Disadvantages
1. Too bulky in size
2. Generate large amount of heat because of use of thousands
of vacuum tubes. Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
3. Non-portable and very slow equipment.
4. Lacked in versatility and speed.
5. Expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
6. Unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failure. So,
constant maintenance was required.
7. Difficult to program and use since machine language was
used.
 8. Limited commercial use because each individual component
had to be assembled manually.

II. SECOND GENERATION 1956-63

 In the early 1950s, the discoveries of Transistor and
Magnetic core memory changed the image of computers –
from unreliable to highly reliable machines with increased
capability, and higher storage capacity.
 The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller in size, cheaper, reliable and
more energy efficient.
 Though transistor still generated a great deal of heat, it was a
substantial improvement over the vacuum tube.
 Second generation of computers was also characterized by
allowing programmers to specify instructions in symbolic
(or assembly) language rather than cryptic binary machine
language.
 High level programming languages like Common Business
Oriented Language (COBOL) and Formula Translation
(FORTRAN) were also being developed at this time.
 Due to the increase in the cost of expanding programming,
these machines were expensive to purchase and operate.
 Such computers were, therefore, mostly found in large
computer centres or government/private laboratories with
many programmers and support professionals.
For example: -PDP-8,IBM 1401 and IBM 7090
Advantages
1. Smaller in size compared to first generation computer because
of Transistor.
2. Reliable and less prone to hardware failure. So, less
maintenance is required.
3. Reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds.
4. Better portability.
5. Less heat generated.
6. Wide commercial use
7. Programming became more time-efficient since Assembly or
Symbolic language was used.
Disadvantages
 1. Air conditioning required.
2. Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning
unit was required.
3. Commercial production was difficult and costly.

III. THIRD GEN 1964-74

 The development of Integrated Circuit by Jack Kilby, in
1958, was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
 Punched cards and printouts gave way to devices like
keyboards and monitors making it easier for the user to
interact with the computer.
 Computer manufacturers could provide a range of
accessories like the cathode ray tube display devices, page
printers, consoles etc.
 Existence of an operating system allowed the device to run
various applications at one time with the central program
monitoring the memory.
 For the first time, computers were being widely used in
business for areas like:
i. Accounting
ii. Payroll
iii. Billing
iv. Tracking Inventory, etc.
 Third generation computers were substantially smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.
 Example: - NCR 395, B6500

Advantages
1. Based on Integrated Circuit (IC).
2. Reduce computational time from microsecond to nanoseconds.
3. Better portable and reliable than 2nd generation computers.
4. Consume less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air
conditioning was still required.
5. Maintenance cost was quite low since hardware rarely failed.

Disadvantages
1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of
IC chips.
IV. FOUTH GEN 1971-95
 The trend in 1970s was to move from single-purpose but
powerful computers towards cheaper computer systems that
could support a large range of applications.
 A new revolution in computer hardware came about which
could shrink the computer logic circuitry and its components
using the Large-Scale Integration (LSI) technology.
 Hundreds of components could now fit onto a single chip!
 In the 1980s, Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed
hundreds of thousands of components onto a single chip.
 This shrinking trend continued and led to the introduction of
personal computers (PCs) –
 Companies like Apple Computers and IBM introduced very
successful PCs.
 The IC technology was not only used to construct the
processor, but also for the construction of memory. The first
memory chip was constructed in 1970 and could hold 256
bits.
Advantages
1. Smallest in size because of high component density.
2. Very reliable.
3. Heat generated is negligible.
4. No air conditioning required in most cases.
5. Much faster in computation than previous generation.
6. Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance
is required.
7. Easily portable because of their small size.
8. Totally general purpose.
9. Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage.
10.Cheapest among all generations.
11.Microprocessor based system.
Disadvantage
1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of
LSI chips.

V. FIFTH GEN 1995-onwards

  The fifth generation of computers characterized by Artificial
Intelligence, Parallel Processing and Mega chips (SLSI) is in
the process of development.
 The goal here is to develop devices that are capable of
learning and responding to natural language input.
 This generation of computers is using new technologies in
very large-scale integration, along with new programming
languages and will be capable of amazing feats, in the area
of artificial intelligence, such as voice recognition.
 It was based on the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
i.e., try to simulate the human way of thinking & reasoning.
 AI includes areas like Expert System(ES),Natural Language
Processing(NLP),Speech recognition etc.

6. BLOCK DIAGRAM TO
ILLUSTRATE BASIC
ORGANISATION OF A
COMPUTER SYSTEM AND
EXPLAIN FUNCTIONS OF
VARIOUS UNITS.
Below is the list of different units of a block diagram of computer that
connects to form a full functioning computer system.
 Input unit
 Processing unit
 Storage unit
 Output unit
I. Input unit: 
 The input unit consists of different input devices.
 The role of an input unit is to give data to the computer.
A Computer takes input from input devices in the form of clicks,
drags and drops, pointing, alphanumeric characters etc depending
upon the device used.
 Input can be either a data or an instruction.
 The Keyboard is a type of input device that gives data as input to
the computer whereas mouse usually gives instructions through
clicks.
 Converts data into machine readable form for further processing.
II. Processing Unit:
 Processing unit consists of various parts like CU, ALU, Registers
and is often referred to as an electronic brain of a computer system.
 This unit is responsible for performing overall operations of a
computer system.
 After the input device provides raw data to the computer system,
CPU performs specific operations and produces a result which we
 call an output. CPU can also access data from secondary storage of
computer via primary memory.
 To carry out any operations the CPU assigns tasks to its component
Components of a processing unit.
a) Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):
 ALU is a logical unit of CPU.
 This unit is responsible for the processing of the data and
instructions.
 When the CU encounters instructions which are related to
performing logical or arithmetic operation on data, it passes that
instruction to ALU.
 It carries out arithmetic operations like additions, multiplication,
divisions etc.
 The comparison operations that arithmetic logical unit performs are
comparison like less than, greater than, less than or equal to,
greater than or equal to, not equal to etc.
 Logical operations includes OR, AND, NOT etc.
 The data on which ALU performs operations are fetched from
memory unit.
 After the processing completes, the information or result is sent
back to the storage or an output device.
b) Control Unit (CU):
 Control unit is another part of CPU.
 It supervises the overall operations of other units of the computer.
 The CU acts as the central nervous system and controls the
processing of data according to the instruction given to the
computer.
 It fetches instructions and data from the memory unit and executes
the instructions one at a time using time signal.
 Control unit also determines the sequences of program and
instruction’s execution

III. Output Unit:

 The output unit of a computer system are the collections of
hardware components that show output to the user either in
hardcopy or a softcopy format.
 After CPU completes the processing on the data, the outcome of
processing also known as output or a result is passed to this unit.
  The output unit is responsible for translating the result in human
understandable format and displaying it.
IV. Memory unit:
 The Memory unit of a computer system is what provides the data
that CPU needs for processing.
 There is a primary and secondary memory in the computer system.
 Primary memory holds the data so that CPU can process it.
 The data that CPU process should be pulled to primary memory
(RAM) from secondary storage device.
V. Storage Unit:
 The Storage unit is also a part of a block diagram of computer.
 Storage unit or secondary storage unit is a non-volatile device that
holds programs, files, documents.  
 It provides facilities to store a large volume of data.
 CPU executes the data stored on storage devices indirectly.
 The data are transferred to RAM first and after an execution, the
data can be again written to Storage unit.

7. HOW MANY TYPES OF

STORAGE? GIVE EXAMPLE
AND JUSTIFY NEED
1. PRIMARY STORAGE
- Directly accessible by processor or CPU
- Holds or saves data and info temporarily
- When power failure, power lost
- Only hold present data – used and utilised by a computer system –
instructions n which the computer is currently working
- Limited capacity, costly and stores only a couple of bytes
- Faster, smaller and consume less space
- Volatile
- Working memory of computer
- A compute cannot run without PM – essential to memories of a
computer as if can be removes from a computer if it fails to start or
boot normally
a. RAM
- Data accessed in random order
 -Very fast, can be written as well as read
-Volatile – stored data is lost when power lost
-High cost compared
-Internal memory of computer for storing data, program program
result
- Data for imminent processing moved to RAM – accessed and
modified very quickly so CPU not kept waiting
- Small [ physical size and amount of data it holds]
- Of 2 types:
i. SRAM
Long life, no need to refresh, faster, used as
cache memory, large size, expensive, high-
power consumption
ii. DRAM
Short data lifetime, need to refresh
continuously, smaller in size, less expensive
and less power consumption
b. ROM
- We can only read but cannot write in it
- Non volatile
- Info stored permanently
- Store instruction req. to start a computer – bootstrap
- Also used in washing machine, microwave oven
- Types
i. MROM [masked] – hardwired devices containing pre
programmed set of info or instructions
ii. Programmable ROM – modified only once by user, not
erasable
iii. Erasable PROM – erased by exposing it to UL light for 40
mins
iv. Electrically EPROM – programmed and electronically.
Process of reprogramming flexible but slow

2. SECONDARY STORAGE
- Known as external, storage, auxiliary, backup memory or non-
volatile memory
- Slower than PM
- Stores data and info permanently
- CPU directly does not access these memories, accessed via input-
output machines
- Carries data from one computer to another
- Magnetic and optical memories
- Non-volatile
- Data permanently stored even if power lost
- Computer may run without secondary memory
- TYPES
a. MAGNETIC MEMORY – uses properties of magnet to store
data. In use since generations of computer. contains data
storing coated by magnetic oxide
i. Magnetic drum – contains metallic drum coated by
magnetic oxide outside in which data is stored
ii. Magnetic tape – contains thin, plastic ribbon used to
store data, covered by magnetic oxide. The read/wrote
data speed slow. Used for storing audio, video, backup.
Highly reliable
iii. Magnetic disk – contains circular disk of metal or
plastic. Both sides used to store date. Disk coated by
magnetic oxide. Divided in multiple concentric circles-
track further divided into sectors in which data is stored.
Hard disk, floppy disk
iv. Hard disk – used as main device of computer. Made of
aluminium. Both sides used to store data except upper
side or uppermost disk and lower side of lowermost disk.
Also known as hard drive – both data storing disk and
data read/write components combined together. Storage
capacity of mega/tera byte
v. Floppy disks – small removable disk, plastic coated with
magnetic receding material. This device is a rewritable
media and can be reused number of times. Commonly
used to move files b/w diff computers. Data storing
surface exposed

b. OPTICAL MEMORY – uses light beam for operations.

Developed in 4th gen of computers. Mainly used to store
audio/video, backup and for carrying data. Required optical
drive for operations
i. CD
 Stands for compact disk
Storage capacity – 700 MB.
Approx. 90 mins of standard audio
Hard circular plastic disk, single side coated by
aluminium alloy – stores data.
 Requires CD drive for operation
 Types
a. CD-R: blank CD, store data only once.
After storing converted into CDROM
b. CD-ROM: cannot be erased or updated
c. CD-RW: can be erased or used multiple
times
ii. DVD –
 stands for Digital versatile disk.
 Storage capacity 4.7 to 17 GB.
 Shape and size similar to CD but storage capacity
different – diff storage component and data is
compressed before storing
 Required DVD drive for operations
 Types: DVD-R, DVD-ROM, DVD-RW
iii. BD
 Stands for Blu ray disk
 Storage capacity of 25-50 GB
 REQUIRED bd DRIVE FOR OPERATION
 Shape and size similar to CD &DVD
 Types: BD-R, BD-ROM, BD-RW

8. CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTERS ON THE BASIS
OF SPEED, STORAGE, AND
APPLICATIONS
I. SIZE
1. PERSONAL COMPUTER/MICRO COMPUTERS
  A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user.
 PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.
 Businesses use personal computers for word processing,
accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications.
 At home, the most popular use for personal computers is
playing games and surfing the Internet.
 Although personal computers are designed as single-user
systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a
network.
 In terms of power, nowadays high-end models of the Macintosh
and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability
as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and Dell.
2. WORKSTATION
 The workstation is a computer used for engineering applications
(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and
other such types of applications which require a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high-quality
graphics capabilities.
 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution
graphics screen, a large amount of RAM, inbuilt network
support, and a graphical user interface.
 Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless
workstations, comes without a disk drive.
 Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and
Windows NT.
 Like PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC
but are typically linked together to form a local area network,
although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
3. MINI COMPUTER
 It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.
4. MAINFRAME
  The mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive
computer capable of supporting hundreds/ thousands of users
simultaneously
 Executes many programs concurrently and supports much
execution of programs
5. SUPER COMPUTER
 Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently
available.
 Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require an immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number-crunching).
 For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations,
(animated)graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.,
in petrochemical prospecting).
II. PURPOSE
1. GENERAL PURPOSE
 General computers can do various everyday tasks such as writing a
word processing letter, Document preparation, recording, financial
analysis, printing documents, creating databases, and calculations
with accuracy and consistency.
 The size, storage capacity, and cost of such computers are mainly
less.
 The ability of these computers is limited in performing specialized
tasks.
 Still, it has versatility and useful for serving people’s basic needs at
home or in the workplace in the environment.
 Desktops, laptops, smartphones, and tablets are used on daily basis
for general purposes.
2. SPECIAL PURPOSE
 These computers are designed to perform a particular or
specialized task. The size, storage capacity, and cost of such
computers mainly depend on the nature and size of the work. The
function of these computers is consistent with any particular task.
 The special computer needs specific input and devices as well as a
compatible motherboard with the processor to conduct work
efficiently.
 These computers are used for special purposes in weather
forecasting, space research, agriculture, engineering, meteorology,
 satellite operation, traffic control, and research in chemical
sciences.
 Example – ATM, washing machines, Surveillance equipment,
Weather-forecasting simulators, Traffic-control computers,
Defence-oriented applications, Oil-exploration systems, Military
planes controlling computers.
III. DATA HANDLING/TECHNOLOGY
1. Analog Computers
 Analog computers are used to process continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values such as
speed, temperature, pressure and current.
 Analog computers represent variables by physical quantities.
Thus, an analog computer can perform arithmetical operations
by using some variable physical quantity.
 It can be used to solve various types of problems. It is used in
solving problems in relationship of changing variable quantities.
The analog system is set up according to initial conditions and
then allowed to change freely. These have been used in various
ways simulating the operation of aircraft and the like.
 Analog computers are very much speedy and produce their
results very fast, but their results are approximately correct.
 Example – Speedometer, Mercury Thermometer, Voltmeter,
Seismometer
2. Digital Computers
 Digital computer is known as digital because of the quality of
performing calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system.
 These numbers are used to perform arithmetic calculations and
also make logical decisions to reach a conclusion, depending upon
the data they receive from the user.
 Digital Computers accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and
processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce output.
 The data is represented internally in binary notation in a digital
computer thus enhancing its speed and storage capacity.
 Example- Personal Computers (desktops, laptops, Chromebooks),
calculators, Digital Clock, ATM.
3. Hybrid Computers
  Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and
analog characteristics, combining the advantages of analog and
digital computers when working as a system.
 It is fast like analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like
digital computers.
 Hybrid computers can be used in the large-scale organizations to
solve logical and technical calculations as well as offer great
processing of differential equations.
 The purpose of designing hybrid computers is to provide functions
and features that can be found on both analog and digital devices.
Example- Electrocardiogram Machine (ECG), Ultrasound
Machine. Hybrid computers are also used in the field of forensics
and defence

9. DISCUSS 5 INPUT AND

OUTPUT DEVICES WITH
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
1. INPUT DEVICES – It accepts data & instruction from the user & other
applications. Data input to a computer can be in the form of text, audio
etc.
a. Keyboard
- It is the most commonly used input device. It is used to enter data
and instructions directly into the computer.
- There are 104 buttons on the keyboard which are called keys.
- Different types of keys that perform different functions like the
function keys [F1 to F12] which differ from program to program
- Numeric keys: keyboard has a separate set of keys from 0-9,
decimal point, special characters and navigation symbols.
NUMLOCK allows to switch b/w numeric and nav keys
- Windows key: key between ctrl and alt. has Microsoft logo or
windows flag. To open start menu or to perform windows tasks
 - Advantages
 Simple and easy to use
 Potentially fast way to enter data
- Disadvantages
 Slow to enter if lots of data
 Mistakes made if not careful
b. Mouse
- Mouse is another input device which is commonly found connected
with the computers.
- It is basically a pointing device which works on the principle of
Point and Click.
- The mouse is used in windows-based programs, where the user can
run the commands by pointing the objects
- with the help of pointer and clicking the buttons on the mouse.
- We also use mouse for drawing in paint.
- Advantages
 Helpful in data entry
 Connected to any computer system
- Disadvantages
 Need flat surface to work
 Some lose their accuracy and speed
 Wireless works on battery
c. Joystick
- The joystick has a vertical stick with a track ball at its bottom.
- While playing the games on the computer, the user needs to move
the objects quickly on the screen.
- With the movement of this vertical stick the objects can be moved
in all the directions easily.
- Advantage
 Useful for playing games on computers
 Fast interface
 Easier to navigate
 Control in 3D
- Disadvantage
 Difficult to control ON screen pointer
 More difficult to use than mouse for some
 Can break of applied force
d. Scanner
 - We can store pictures, photographs, diagrams into the computer
with the help of scanner.
- The scanner reads the image and saves it in the computer as a file.
- Advantages
 Image digitised and stored electronically
 Digitised image can be enhanced graphically
 Flatbed scanners accurate and can reduce reasonably high-
quality image
- Disadvantages
 Images produce take up a lot of space
 Lose quality in process
 Quality dependent on original image
e. BAR CODE READER
- Data in form of small lines – bar codes- represents alpha numeric
data – for identification of all types of goods, books etc
- Bar code reader device used for reading bar coded data
- Advantages
 Identification of all types of goods, books, postal package,
tags etc.
2. OUTPUT DEVICES - Output devices are an electromechanical device
that accepts data from a computer and then processed the data & display
it in a form suitable for use by the outside world (the user).
a. Monitor
- Electronic device that transmits info from computer onto a screen
- Displays applications and programs running on computer system
- Of diff types: Cathode ray tube monitors, LCD monitor and LED
monitors
- Advantages
a. LED monitors produce images of higher contrast
b. LCD are lightweight and compact
c. Do not need batteries
- Disadvantages
 Monitors can be expensive
 Heavy and get heated up quickly
b. Printer
- Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy)
output.
 - Based on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or
Non-impact printers.
- When we talk about printers, we refer to two basic qualities
associated with printers: resolution, and speed.
- Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch
(dpi).
- Print speed is measured in terms of number of characters printed in
a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-second (cps),
lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
- Advantages
 Used to print carbon copies
 Easy to maintain
- Disadvantages
 Can be very noisy
 Ink needs to be changed
c. Speakers
- Speaker external to a computer
d. Plotter
- Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper.
- Plotters are ideal output devices for architects, engineers, city
planners and others who need to routinely generate high precision,
hard-copy graphic output of widely varying sizes.
- ADVANTAGES
 Allows to work on large sheets of paper
 Provides exceptional quality resolution
 Can also print on different materials like cardboard, plastic,
aluminium, sheet steel
- DISADVANTAGES
 Takes more space than printers
 More expensive than “

10. CLOUD COMPUTING?

DIFFERENT TYPES OF
 CLOUD COMPUTING
SERVICES.
- Cloud computing is a general term for anything that involves
delivering hosted services over the internet.
- These services are divided into three main categories or types of cloud
computing:
i. infrastructure as a service (IaaS),
ii. platform as a service (PaaS) and
iii. software as a service (SaaS).

- A cloud can be private or public.

- A public cloud sells services to anyone on the internet.
- A private cloud is a proprietary network or a data centre that supplies
hosted services to a limited number of people, with certain access and
permissions settings.
- Private or public, the goal of cloud computing is to provide easy,
scalable access to computing resources and IT services.
- Cloud infrastructure involves the hardware and software components
required for proper implementation of a cloud computing model.
FEATURES
i. Self service provisioning
 End users can spin up compute resources for almost any
type of workload on demand.
 An end user can provision computing capabilities, such
as server time and network storage, eliminating the
traditional need for IT administrators to provision and
manage compute resources.
ii. Elasticity
Companies can freely scale up as computing needs increase and
scale down again as demands decrease. This eliminates the need
for massive investments in local infrastructure, which might or
might not remain active.
iii. Pay per use
Compute resources are measured at a granular level, enabling
users to pay only for the resources and workloads they use.
iv. Workload resilience
CSPs often implement redundant resources to ensure
 resilient storage and to keep users’ important workloads
running.
v. Migration flexibility
Organizations can move certain workloads to or from the cloud
or to different cloud platforms as desired or automatically for
better cost savings or to use new services as they emerge.
vi. Broad network access
A user can access cloud data or upload data to the cloud
from anywhere with an internet connection using any device.
vii. Muti tenancy and resource pooling
Multi-tenancy lets numerous customers share the same physical
infrastructures or the same applications yet still retain privacy
and security over their own data. With resource pooling, cloud
providers service numerous customers from the same physical
resources. The resource pools of the cloud providers should be
large and flexible enough so they can service the
requirements of multiple customers.
TYPES
1. IaaS. 
 IaaS providers, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS),
supply a virtual server instance and storage, as well as
application programming interfaces (APIs) that let users
migrate workloads to a virtual machine (VM).
 Users have an allocated storage capacity and can start,
stop, access and configure the VM and storage as desired.
 IaaS providers offer small, medium, large, extra-large,
and memory- or compute-optimized instances, in addition
to enabling customization of instances, for various
workload needs.
 The IaaS cloud model is closest to a remote data centre
for business users.
2. PaaS. 
 In the PaaS model, cloud providers host development tools
on their infrastructures.
 Users access these tools over the internet using APIs, web
portals or gateway software.
 PaaS is used for general software development, and many
PaaS providers host the software after it’s developed.
  Common PaaS products include Salesforces Lightning
Platform, AWS Elastic Beanstalk and Google App Engine.
3. SaaS. 
 SaaS is a distribution model that delivers software
applications over the internet; these applications are often
called web services.
 Users can access SaaS applications and services from any
location using a computer or mobile device that has internet
access.
 In the SaaS model, users gain access to application software
and databases.
 One common example of a SaaS application is Microsoft
365 for productivity and email services.

ADVANTAGES
i. Cost management
 Using cloud infrastructure can reduce capital costs, as
organizations don’t have to spend massive amounts of
money buying and maintaining equipment.
 This reduces their capital expenditure costs -- as they
don’t have to invest in hardware, facilities, utilities or
building large data centres to accommodate their growing
businesses.
 Additionally, companies don’t need large IT teams to
handle cloud data centre operations because they can rely
on the expertise of their cloud providers’; teams.
 Cloud computing also cuts costs related to downtime.
 Since downtime rarely happens in cloud computing,
companies don’t have to spend time and money to fix any
issues that might be related to downtime.
ii. Data and workload mobility
 Storing information in the cloud means that users can
access it from anywhere with any device with just an
internet connection.
 That means users don’t have to carry around USB drives,
an external hard drive or multiple CDs to access their
data.
  Users can access corporate data via smartphones and
other mobile devices, enabling remote employees to stay
up to date with co- workers and customers.
 End users can easily process, store, retrieve and recover
resources in the cloud.
 In addition, cloud vendors provide all the upgrades and
updates automatically, saving time and effort.
iii. Business continuity and disaster recovery (BCDR).
 All organizations worry about data loss. Storing data in
the cloud guarantees that users can always access their
data even if their devices, e.g., laptops or smartphones,
are inoperable.
 With cloud-based services, organizations can quickly
recover their data in the event of emergencies, such as
natural disasters or power outages.
 This benefits BCDR and helps ensure that workloads
and data are available even if the business suffers
damage or disruption.
DISADVANTAGES:
i. Cloud security
 Security is often considered the greatest challenge facing
cloud computing.
 When relying on the cloud, organizations risk data
breaches, hacking of APIs and interfaces, compromised
credentials and authentication issues.
 Furthermore, there is a lack of transparency regarding
how and where sensitive information entrusted to the
cloud provider is handled.
 Security demands careful attention to cloud
configurations and business policy and practice.
ii. Cost unpredictability
 Pay-as-you-go subscription plans for cloud use, along
with scaling resources to accommodate fluctuating
workload demands, can make it tough to define and
predict final costs.
 Cloud costs are also frequently interdependent, with one
cloud service often utilizing one or more other cloud
services -- all of which appear in the recurring monthly
bill. This can create additional unplanned cloud costs.
iii. Lack of capabilities and expertise
 With cloud-supporting technologies rapidly advancing,
organizations are struggling to keep up with the growing
demand for tools and employees with the proper skill sets
and knowledge needed to architect, deploy, and manage
workloads and data in a cloud.
iv. IT governance
 The emphasis on do-it-yourself capability in cloud
computing can make IT governance difficult, as there is
no control over provisioning, deprovisioning and
management of infrastructure operations.
 This can make it challenging to properly manage risks
and security, IT compliance and data quality.
v. Compliance with industry laws
 When transferring data from on-premises local storage
into cloud storage, it can be difficult to manage
compliance with industry regulations through a third
party.
 It’s important to know where data and workloads are
actually hosted in order to maintain regulatory
compliance and proper business governance.
vi. Management of multiple clouds.
 Every cloud is different, so multi-cloud deployments can
disjoint efforts to address more general cloud computing
challenges.
vii. Cloud performance
 Performance -- such as latency -- is largely beyond the
control of the organization contracting cloud services
with a provider.
 Network and provider outages can interfere with
productivity and disrupt business processes if
organizations are not prepared with contingency plans.
viii. Cloud migration
 The process of moving applications and other data to a
cloud infrastructure often causes complications.
 Migration projects frequently take longer than anticipated
and go over budget.
 The issue of workload and data repatriation -- moving
from the cloud back to a local data centre -- is often
 overlooked until unforeseen cost or performance
problems arise.
ix. Vendor lock in
 Often, switching between cloud providers can cause
significant issues. This includes technical
incompatibilities, legal and regulatory limitations and
substantial costs incurred from sizable data migrations.
x. Building a private cloud
 Architecting, building and managing private clouds --
whether for its own purpose or for a hybrid cloud goal --
can be a daunting task for IT departments and staff.
EXAMPLES:
I. Google Docs, Microsoft 365. Users can access Google Docs
and Microsoft 365 through the internet. Users can be more
productive because they can access work presentations and
spreadsheets stored in the cloud at anytime from anywhere on
any device.
II. Email, Calendar, Skype, WhatsApp. Emails, calendars, Skype
and WhatsApp take advantage of the cloud’s ability to provide
users with access to data remotely so they can access their
personal data on any device, whenever and wherever they want.
III. Zoom. Zoom is a cloud-based software platform for video and
audio conferencing that records meetings and saves them to the
cloud, enabling users to access them anywhere and at any time.
Another common communication and collaboration platform is
Microsoft Teams.
IV. AWS Lambda. Lambda enables developers to run code for
applications or back-end services without having to provision or
manage servers. The pay-as-you-go model constantly scales
with an organization to accommodate real-time changes in data
usage and data storage. Other major cloud providers also
support serverless computing capabilities, such as Google
Cloud Functions and Azure Functions.

11. Define Software and Compare

the features of System Software
with Application Software.
- Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex
codes (Known as programs) that make the computer perform tasks.
- In other words, software tells the computer what to do, some programs
exist primarily for the computer’s use & help the computer perform &
manage its own task.
- Other types of programs exist primarily for the user & enable the
computer to perform task such as creating documents or drawing
pictures.

SOFTWARES

APPLICATION
SYSTEM SOFTWARE SOFTWARE

DEVELOPING
SYSTEM MGT PROBLEM GENERAL PURPOSE SPECIFIC PURPOSE
SOFTWARE

PROGRAMMING reservation system,

OPERATING SYSTEM, WORD PROCESSOR,
LANGUAGE, LANGUAGE attendace system,
LANGUAGE PPT, SPREADSHEET,
PROCESSING, UTILITIES
TRANSLATOR, LINKER,
IMAGE EDITOR billing system, report
LOADER card generator etc

Types of software
A wide variety of computer software is available today. Although the
range of software available is vast and varied, most software can be
divided into two major categories:
1. System software –
 System software is a set of one or more programs designed to
control the operation and extend the processing capability of a
computer system.
 It acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware and
application program, it also provides interface between user
and computer
 2. Application software –
 The software that a user uses for accomplishing a specific task
is the application software.
 Application software may be a single program or a set of
programs.
 A set of programs that are written for a specific purpose and
provide the required functionality is called software package.
 Application software is written for different kinds of
applications—graphics, word processors, media players,
database applications, telecommunication, accounting purposes
etc.
BASIS SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION
SOFTWARE
DEFINITION Type of software which Which runs as per user’s
is the interface between request. Platform provided
application software and by system software
system
DEVELOPMENT SS developed in low High level language used
LANGUAGE level languages – more for development –
compatible with system developed as some
hardware to interact with specific purpose software
USAGE Used to operate Used by user to perform
computer hardware specific task
INSTALLATION Installed when OS AS installed acc to user’s
installed requirements
USER SS are specific to system In AS, user interacts with
INTERFACE hardware so less or no it as user interface is
user interaction available available in this case.
in case of systems
software
DEPENDENCY Can run independently. Can’t run independently,
Provides platform for cannot run w/o SS
running application
software
EXAMPLES Compiler, assembler, Word processor, web
debugger browser, media player
 12. What is an Operating System?
Why is it necessary for a
computer system? List and
explain the various functions
performed by an OS in detail.
- Operating system (OS) is the software that provides an interface between the
computer hardware, and the application programs or users.
- An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input
and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers.
- Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, Macintosh, MS-
DOS, etc.

WHY IS IT NECESSARY?
 To make the computer system convenient and easy to use for the user
 To use the computer hardware in an efficient way, by handling the details
of the operations of the hardware.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Process Management—
The process management activities handled by the OS are—
 control access to shared resources like file, memory, I/O
and CPU,
 control execution of applications,
 create, execute and delete a process (system process or
user process),
 cancel or resume a process
  schedule a process, and
 synchronization, communication and deadlock handling
for processes.
2. Memory Management—
The activities of memory management handled by OS are—
(1) allocate memory,
(2) free memory,
(3) re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed,
and
(4) keep track of memory usage.
3. File Management—
The file management tasks include— (1) create and delete both
files and directories, (2) provide access to files, (3) allocate
space for files, (4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files.
4. Device Management—
The device management tasks handled by OS are— (1) open,
close and write device drivers, and (2) communicate, control
and monitor the device driver.
5. Protection and Security—
OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file
attributes like read, write, encryption, and back-up of data are
used by OS to provide basic protection.
6. User Interface or Command Interpreter—
Operating system provides an interface between the computer
user and the computer hardware. The user interface is a set of
commands or a graphical user interface via which the user
interacts with the applications and the hardware.
 13. Differentiate between
Compiler, Interpreter and
Assembler.
COMPILER INTERPRETER ASSEMBLER

It is a software that converts An interpreter is a computer it is a computer program that

programs written in a high- program that is used to interprets software programs
level language into lower directly execute program written in assembly
/machine language to create instructions written using language into machine
an executable program. one of the many high level language, code and
programming languages. instructions that can be
executed by a computer.

It translates all code at the It takes a single line of code Assembler converts
same time or instructions at a time. assembly language program
to machine level language.
But it cannot do so at once.
requires more memory as Memory usage is efficient Assembly code is often very
linking is needed for the as no intermediate object efficient (and therefore fast)
generated intermediate code is generated i.e.; it because it is a low-level
object code requires less memory language.
Displays errors after As soon as it detects an Since assembly language is
compilation all at the same error, it flags a syntax error easy to understand, one can
time. It gives a list of all in the program which easily find errors and
errors after compilation of makes it easier to rectify it quickly correct it.
whole program in lesser time
Compiler scans the entire It takes a single instruction Assembler converts source
program first before as input code to an object code first
translating into machine then it converts the object
code code to the machine
language.
It generates intermediate It does not produce any
object code intermediate object code

Languages such as C, C Ruby, Perl, Python, PHP It is used by assembly

++ use compilers uses an interpreter languages.
Debugging is easy Interpreter is good for fast Debugging is difficult
debugging

Input for compiler is high Same as compiler i.e., high Input for an assembler is
level language program level program assembly language program

Compiler is faster as Interpreter takes less time Very fast in translating

compared to Interpreter than compiler assembly language to
machine code as 1 to 1
relationship.

14. How many types of Computer

Languages and Explain the main
characteristics of High-Level
Languages? Write names of any 5
high level languages.
- A Programming Language consists of a set of vocabulary and
grammatical rules, to express the computations and tasks that the
computer has to perform.
- Programming languages are used to write a program, which controls
the behaviour of computer, codify the algorithms precisely, or enables
the human-computer interface.
- Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it
understands) and a special syntax for organizing program instructions.
- The programming language should be understood, both by the
programmer (who is writing the program) and the computer.
- A computer understands the language of 0∙s and 1∙s, while the
programmer is more comfortable with English-like language.
- Programming Language usually refers to high-level languages like
COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, C, C++, Java etc.
- Programming languages fall into three categories
 Machine Language is what the computer can understand but
it is difficult for the programmer to understand. Machine
 languages consist of numbers only. Each kind of CPU has its
own unique machine language.
 Assembly Language falls in between machine language and
high-level language. They are similar to machine language,
but easier to program in, because they allow the programmer
to substitute names for numbers.
 High-level Language is easier to understand and use for the
programmer but difficult for the computer.
High-level Language
- A program in a high-level language is written in English-like
language.
- Such languages hide the details of CPU operations and are easily
portable across computers.
- A high-level language isolates the execution semantics of computer
architecture from the specification of the program, making the process
of developing a program simpler and more understandable with
respect to assembly and machine level languages.
- Some of the features of a program written in high-level language are
as follows:
 Programs are easier to write, read or understand in high-level
languages than in machine language or assembly language. For
example, a program written in C++ is easier to understand than a
machine language program.
 Programs written in high-level languages is the source code which
is converted into the object code (machine code) using translator
software like interpreter or compiler.
 A line of code in high-level program may correspond to more than
one line of machine code.
 Programs written in high-level languages are easily portable from
one computer to another.
- Types of high-level languages:
i. Python
ii. Java
iii. C++
iv. C#
v. Visual basic
vi. JavaScript