Flight crew basic theoretical training for

RNP APCH down to LPV minima

European Satellite Services Provider S.A.S.

Service Provision Unit

Issue 1.2 – October 2017

 Introduction

• This training package is focussed in covering the theoretical knowledge syllabus for RNP
APCH to LPV minima for an Instrument Rated pilot in accordance with EASA NPA 2013-25
“Revision of operational approval criteria for performance-based navigation”

• To complement it, it also covers the theoretical knowledge syllabus for Global Navigation
Satellite Systems
– Several slides have been marked with a red stripe to ease the identification of those covering the theoretical
knowledge syllabus related to GNSS, defined in “Commission Regulation (EU) No 245/2014 of 13 March 2014,
amending Commission Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 of 3 November 2011 laying down technical requirements and
administrative procedures related to civil aviation aircrew”

• This training shall be complemented with:

– Operating Procedures training

– Specific Aircraft System theoretical training
– Practical in aircraft or simulator training

2
 Target audience

Text extracted and adapted from ICAO PBN Manual (Doc 9613)

• Commercial operators must have a training programme addressing the operational practices,
procedures and training items related to RNP APCH

- Operators need not establish a separate training programme if they already integrate RNAV training as an element of their
training programme. However, the operator should be able to identify the aspects of RNP APCH operations to LNAV, LNAV/VNAV,
LP and/or LPV minima covered within their training programme.

• Private operators must be familiar with the practices and procedures identified in Section
A/B, 5.3.5 “Pilot knowledge and training” (of the ICAO PBN Manual)

3
 List of acronyms

Airborne Based Augmentation

ABAS FTE Flight Technical Error LP Localiser Performance RDH Reference Datum Height
System
Aircraft Autonomous Integrity GPS Aided Geo Augmented Localiser Performance with Vercial
AAIM GAGAN LPV RNAV Area Navigation
Monitoring Navigation Guidance
Aeronautical Information Ground Based Augmentation
AIRAC GBAS LTP Landing Threshold Point RNP Required Navigation Performance
Regulation And Control System
Satellite Based Augmentation
AMC Acceptable Means of Compliance GCS Galileo Control Segment MEL Minimum Equipment List SBAS
System
System for Differential Corrections
ANSP Air Navigation Service Provider GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System MEO Medium Earth Orbit SDCM
and Monitoring
Satellite Navigation Augmentation
APV Approach with Vertical Guidance GMS Ground Mission Segment MLS Microwave Landing System SNAS
System
Multi-functional Satellite
ATS Air Traffic Services GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System MSAS SPS Standard Positioning Service
Augmentation System
Continuous Descent Final Terrain Awareness Warning
CDFA GPS Global Positioning System NDB Non-Directional Beacon TAWS
Approach System
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check GSA European GNSS Agency NM Nautical Mile TK Theoretical Knowledge

DME Distance Measuring Equipment HAL Horizontal Alert Limit NSE Navigation System Error TTFF Time To First Fix
International Civil Aviation
DOP Dillution Of Precision ICAO OM Operations Manual UHF Ultra High Frequency
Organisation
European Geostationary
EGNOS ILS Instrument Landing System PBN Performance Based Navigation UTC Universal Time Coordinated
Navigation Overlay Service
European Satellite Services
ESSP IRS Inertial Reference System PDE Path Definition Error VAL Vertical Alert Limit
Provider
FAF Final Approach Fix IRU Inertial Reference Unit PinS Point in Space VDB VHF Data Broadcast

FAP Final Approach Point LAAS Local Area Augmentation System PL Protection Level VHF Very High Frequency
Final Approach Segment Data
FAS DB LNAV Lateral Navigation PPS Precise Positioning Service VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
Block
Lateral Navigation / Vertical
FD Fault Detection LNAV/VNAV PRN Pseudo-Range Noise VPA Vertical Path Angle
Navigation
Receiver Autonomous Integrity
FDE Fault Detection and Exclusion LO Learning Objective RAIM WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
Monitoring

4
 Course contents: TK /LO’s

062 06 00 00 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS

062 06 01 00 GPS/GLONASS/GALILEO
062 06 01 01 Principles
062 06 01 02 Operation
062 06 01 03 Errors and factors affecting accuracy
062 06 02 00 Ground, Satellite and Airborne based augmentation systems

5
 Course contents: TK /LO’s

062 07 00 00 PBN 062 07 00 00 PBN

062 07 01 00 PBN concept 062 07 04 00 PBN operations
062 07 01 01 PBN principles 062 07 04 01 PBN principles
062 07 01 02 PBN components 062 07 04 02 On-board performance monitoring and alerting
062 07 01 03 PBN Scope 062 07 04 03 Abnormal situations
062 07 02 00 Navigation Specifications 062 07 04 04 Database management
062 07 02 01 RNAV and RNP 062 07 05 00 Requirements of specific RNAV and RNP
specifications
062 07 02 02 Navigation functional requirements
062 07 05 05 RNP APCH
062 07 02 03 Designation of RNP and RNAV specifications
062 07 05 06 RNP AR APCH
062 07 03 00 Use of PBN
062 07 05 09 PBN Point In Space (PinS) Approach
062 07 03 01 Airspace Planning
062 07 03 02 Approval
062 07 03 03 Specific RNAV and RNP system functions
062 07 03 04 Data processes

6
 062 06 00 00
GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS

7
062 06 01 00 – GPS / GLONASS /GALILEO

8
062 06 01 01 – Principles

• There are two main Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) currently in existence by the
end of 2014

- USA NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System)
- Russian GLONASS (GLObal Navigation Satellite System)

• Two more will become fully operational in the coming years:

- European GALILEO (more info here)

- Chinese BEIDOU

• All these systems:

- Consist of a constellation of satellites which can be used by suitably equipped receivers to determine position
- Are interoperable

Unlike GPS and GLONASS, Galileo is run by civil, not military,

authorities

9
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

• The GPS system is composed of 3 segments:

- Space segment: consists of a constellation of satellites transmitting radio signals to users

- Control segment: consists of a global network of ground facilities that track the GPS satellites, monitor their
transmissions, perform analyses, and send commands and data to the constellation

- User segment: consists on L-band radio receiver/processors and antennas which receive GPS signals, determine
pseudoranges (and other observables), and solve the navigation equations in order to obtain their coordinates and
provide a very accurate time

10
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - constellation

• Nominal constellation of 24 operational satellites

- 7 additional satellites are currently orbiting to guarantee the coverage whenever the baseline satellites are serviced or
decommissioned

• Orbit characteristics:
GPS-III-A satellite (source: United States Government)

- Inclination of 55º to the plane of the equator

- Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) at an altitude of approximately 20200 km (10900 NM) 55º

- 6 orbital planes with at least 4 baseline satellites in each

Equator’s plane

- Satellites complete one orbit each 12 hours  Each satellite circles the Earth twice a day

GPS constellation (source: adapted

rom United States Government)

11
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• Each satellite broadcasts ranging signals on two UHF frequencies

- L1 1575,42 MHz
- L2 1127,60 MHz

• GPS can operate in two different modes:

- SPS (Standard Positioning Service): civilian users
- PPS (Precise Positioning Service): authorised users

• SPS is a positioning and timing service provided on L1 frequency

• PPS uses both L1 and L2 frequencies

• SPS was originally designed to provide civil users with a less accurate positioning capability
than PPS

12
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• GPS ranging signal contains a Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code and a navigational data message

• The navigation message contains the following information…

- Almanac data
- Ephemeris
- Satellite clock correction parameters
- UTC parameters
- Ionospheric model
- Satellite health data

• …and it takes 12.5 minutes for a GPS receiver to receive all data frames in the navigation
message

13
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• Almanac
- Contains the orbital data about all the satellites in the GPS constellation
• Ephemeris
- Contains health and location data of the satellites, plus data used to correct the orbital data of the satellites due to
small disturbances
• Satellite clock correction parameters
- Contains data for the correction of the satellite time
• UTC parameters
- Are factors determining the difference between GPS time and UTC
• Ionospheric model
- Is currently used to calculate the time delay of the signal travelling through the ionosphere
• Satellite health data
- Is used to exclude unhealthy satellites from the position solution. Satellite health is determined by the validity of the
navigation data

14
 062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• Two codes are transmitted on the L1 frequency

Code Used by
C/A SPS (civil) PPS
P (precision) PPS

• The C/A code is a pseudo random noise (PRN) code sequence

GPS status page showing PRN-identified satellites
- Repeats every millisecond (source: http://theflyingengineer.com/)

- Is unique and therefore provides the mechanism to identify each satellite (PRN 01, PRN 02, PRN 03…)

Whenever a GPS satellite is retired, its PRN code is assigned to

future replacements

15
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• Satellites broadcast the PRN codes with reference to the satellite vehicle time which are
subsequently changed by the receiver to UTC

• Satellites are equipped with atomic clocks, which allow the system to keep very accurate time
reference

Atomic clocks on-board satellites are based on Cesium or

Rubidium

16
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - modernisation

• In 2005, the first replacement satellite was launched with a new military M code on the L1
frequency and a second signal for civilian use L2C on the L2 frequency

• In 2009, the Air Force successfully broadcast an experimental L5 signal on the GPS IIR-20(M)
satellite. The first GPS IIF satellite with a full L5 transmitter launched in May 2010.

• GPS modernization program:

Source: United States Government

17
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

CONTROL SEGMENT

• The control segment comprises:

- A master control station (plus an alternative

master control station)
- 12 command and control ground antennas
- 16 monitoring stations

• The master control station is responsible

for all aspects of the constellation
command and control

• The main tasks of the control segment are:

- Managing SPS performance

Source: United States Government
- Navigation data upload
- Monitoring satellites

18
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

USER SEGMENT

• GPS supplies three-dimensional position fixes and speed data, plus a precise time reference

• The GPS receiver used in aviation is a multi-channel type: each channel is assigned to track
individual satellites

• A GPS receiver is able to determine the distance to a satellite by determining the difference
between the time of transmission by satellite and the time of reception

• The initial distance calculated to the satellites is called “pseudo range” as it is biased by the
lack of time synchronisation between GPS satellite and receiver clocks. In addition, the
“pseudo range” is also biased by other effects such as ionosphere, troposphere and signal-
noise

19
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

USER SEGMENT

• Each range defines a sphere with its centre at the satellite

• Three spheres (hence three satellites) are needed to determine a

two-dimensional position

• Four spheres (hence four satellites) are needed to determine a

three dimensional position

• The GPS receiver synchronises to the correct time base when receiving four satellites

• The receiver is able to calculate aircraft groundspeed using the SV Doppler frequency shift
and/or the change in receiver position over time

20
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

NAVSTAR GPS Integrity

More info in these slides

• RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) provides integrity over GPS-only navigation

• RAIM is a technique whereby a receiver processor determines the integrity of the navigation signals

• RAIM is achieved by consistency check among pseudo range measurements  when a sufficient
number of satellites is tracked by the receiver, individual faulty pseudo ranges can be isolated

• Basic RAIM requires 5 satellites

• A 6th satellite is required for isolating a faulty satellite from the navigation solution

• When the GPS receiver is fed with barometric altitude, the number of satellites needed for the
receiver to perform RAIM function may be reduced by one

21
SUMMARY

22
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - constellation

• Nominal constellation of 24 operational satellites

- 4 additional satellites are currently orbiting as spares, testing or flight check

The GLONASS-K satellite (Source: Roscosmos and Information

Satellite Systems Reshetnev Company)

• Orbit characteristics:

- Inclination of 64,8º to the plane of the equator

- Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) at an altitude of approximately 19100 km 64,8º

Equator’s plane

- 3 orbital planes with at least 8 baseline satellites in each,

- Satellites complete one orbit every 11 hours 15 minutes

GLONASS Constellation
(Source: http://www.spacecorp.ru/en/directions/glonass/orbital/)

23
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

• The GLONASS system has 3 components:

- Space segment, which contains the constellation of satellites

- Control segment, which contains the ground based facilities

- User segment, which contains the user equipment

24
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - constellation

• Each satellite transmits navigation signals on two frequencies of L-band

- L1 1602 MHz
- L2 1246 MHz

• GLONASS is designed for two types of users:

- Civilian world-wide users: using L1 frequency achieving standard accuracy

- Authorised users: using L1 and L2 frequencies achieving high accuracy

• The time reference of the system is UTC

• Correction to GLONASS time relative to UTC must remain within 1 microsecond

25
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals and services

• The navigation message has a duration of 2 seconds and contains “immediate data” which
relates to the actual satellite transmitting the given navigation signal and “non-immediate
data” which relates to all other satellites within the constellation

• Immediate data consists of:

- Enumeration of the satellite time marks
- Difference between on board time scale of the satellite and GLONASS time
- Relative differences between carrier frequency of the satellite and its nominal value
- Ephemeris parameters

• Non-immediate data consists of:

- Data on the status of all satellites within the space segment
- Coarse corrections to on board time scales of each satellite relative to GLONASS time
- Orbital parameters of all satellites within the space segment

26
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

CONTROL SEGMENT

• The control segment comprises:

- SCC – System Control Centre

- TT&C – Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding station
- ULS – UpLink Station
- MS – Monitoring Station
- CC – Central Clock
- SLR – Laser Tracking Station

• The control segment provides:

- Monitoring of the constellation status

- Correction of orbital parameters
Source: Federal Space Agency
- Navigation data upload

27
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

USER SEGMENT

• Consists of receivers and processors for the navigation signals for the calculation of the
coordinates, velocity and time

• The control segment provides:

- Monitoring of the constellation status

- Correction of orbital parameters
- Navigation data upload

28
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

GLONASS Integrity Monitoring

• It is implemented in 2 ways:

- Continuous automatic operability monitoring of principal systems in each satellite. If a malfunction occurs an
“unhealthy” flag appears within the “immediate data” of the navigation message

- Special tracking stations within the ground-based control segment are used to monitor the space segment
performance. If a malfunction occurs an “unhealthy” flag appears within the “immediate data” of the navigation
message

29
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

INTEROPERABILITY

• Finally, it is worth mentioning the important agreements made between the appropriate
agencies for the interoperability by any one approved user of GPS and GLONASS systems

In 2011, the Russian Ministry of Transport published a mandate for

installation of GLONASS-capable receivers in Russian registered
aircraft. It has a six-year implementation horizon.

30
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

• The Galileo system is divided into three major segments

- Space segment: is main functions are to generate and transmit code and carrier phase signals and to store and
retransmit the navigation message sent by the Control Segment

- Ground segment: constitutes the major system element controlling the entire constellation, the navigation system
facilities and the dissemination services

- User segment: is composed of Galileo receivers

Source: ESA

31
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - constellation

• Core constellation of 30 operational satellites

- Plus 3 spare satellites, 1 in each of the three orbital planes

• Orbit characteristics: Galileo Full Operational Capability (FOC) satellite

(source: ESA)

- Inclination of 56º to the plane of the equator

- Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) at an altitude of approximately 23222 km

56º
- 3 orbital planes, 9+1 satellites in each Equator’s plane

- Satellites complete one orbit each 14 hours

30-satellite Galileo constellation (source: ESA)

32
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals

• Each satellite broadcasts signals in three frequency bands

- E5a/E5b 1164-1215 MHz
- E6 1260-1300 MHz
- E1 1559-1591 MHz this band shared with GPS on a non-interference basis

• Summary of frequencies allocation:

GPS, GLONASS and Galileo navigational frequency

bands (source: Navipedia)

33
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - signals

• Each satellite has three sections

- Timing
- Signal generation
- Transmit

• In the Timing section, two clocks have been developed

- Rubidium Frequency Standard clock

- Passive Hydrogen Maser clock (more precise)

• The Signal generation contains the navigation signals

• Navigation signals consist of a ranging code identifier and the navigation message

34
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

SPACE SEGMENT - navigation message

• The navigation message contains information concerning the satellite orbit (ephemeris) and
clock references

• Is “up-converted” on four navigation signal carriers and the outputs are combined in a
multiplexer before transmission in the Transmit section

• The navigation antenna has been designed to minimise interference between satellites by
having equal power level propagation paths independent of elevation angle

35
062 06 01 02 – Operation
NAVSTAR
GLONASS GALILEO
GPS

GROUND SEGMENT - navigation message

• The core of the GALILEO ground segment are two control centres (GCC)

• Each control centre manages control functions supported by a dedicated Galileo Control
Segment (GCS) and mission functions, supported by a dedicated Galileo Mission Segment
(GMS)

• The GCS handles spacecraft housekeeping and constellation maintenance while the GMS
handles navigation system control

• The system is monitored in a similar way to both GPS and GLONASS but also by a new method
based on spread-spectrum signals

• The tracking, telemetry and command operations are controlled by sophisticated data
encryption and authentication procedures

36
062 06 01 03 – Errors and Factors affecting accuracy

• The most significant factors affecting accuracy of GNSS positioning are:

GPS GPS + SBAS

- Ionospheric propagation delay (IPD) 2m 0,3 m

- Dilution of position (horizontal) 1,1 m 1,1 m

- Satellite clock errors

1m 0,5 m
- Satellite orbital variations

- Multipath 0,2 m 0,2 m

- Tropospheric propagation delay 0,25 m 0,25 m

- Receiver noise 0,5 m 0,5 m

37
062 06 01 03 – Errors and Factors affecting accuracy

• Ionospheric propagation delay (IPD)

- The IPD constitutes the most significant error, it can achieve several tens of meters

- It can be almost eliminated if using two frequencies  this is the main reason why GPS PPS is today more precise
than SPS

- In GPS SPS receivers, IPD is currently corrected by using a ionospheric model contained in the navigation message.
However the error is only reduced by 50%

38
062 06 01 03 – Errors and Factors affecting accuracy

• Dilution of Precision

- Arises from the geometry and number of satellites in view

- It is called the Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP)

A B

In A the measurement has some error bounds, and the true location will lie anywhere
in the black area. In B the measurement error is the same, but the error on the position
has grown considerably due to the arrangement of the satellites.

Source: adaptation from Wikipedia and Academic

39
062 06 01 03 – Errors and Factors affecting accuracy

• The errors in the satellite and receiver clocks and orbits are due to:

- Clocks are affected by noise and drifts

- Satellites are mainly drifted out of their orbits due to solar winds, radiation pressure and gravitation effects of the sun,
moon and planets

40
062 06 01 03 – Errors and Factors affecting accuracy

• Multipath

- When the signal arrives at the receiver via more than one path

- The signal is reflected from surfaces near the receiver

Source: Navipedia

41
062 06 02 00 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems

GBAS SBAS ABAS

Source: Honeywell Source: SES Source: Cirrus

42
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• Its main principle is to measure on ground the

signal errors transmitted by GNSS satellites and
relay the measured errors to the user for
correction

• The ICAO GBAS standard is based on this

technique through the use of a data link in the
VHF band of ILS-VOR systems (108-118 MHz)

• One ground station can support all the aircraft

Source: FAA
subsystems within its coverage providing the
aircraft with approach data, corrections and
integrity information for GNSS satellites in view The coverage of the GBAS station is of about 30 km
via a VHF data broadcast (VDB)

43
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• The GBAS ground subsystems provide two services:

- The precision approach service: provides deviation guidance for Final Approach Segments

- The GBAS positioning service: provides horizontal position information to support RNAV operations in terminal areas

44
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• The minimum GBAS Service Volume is 15NM from the Landing Threshold Point (LTP), within
35° apart the final approach path and 10° apart between 15 and 20 NM

45
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• GBAS based on GPS is sometimes called LAAS: Local Area Augmentation System

• In GBAS/LAAS:

- Differential corrections are applied to satellite pseudo-ranges by a ground-reference station

- GBAS systems are operated by local/regional ANSPs: therefore they are responsible for the computation of the
integrity of the satellite signals over their region

- Extra accuracy for extended coverage around airports may be improved as required

46
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

SBAS BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS Note the difference in the below image between the GEOs
coverage area (footprints) and the Service Area

• Its main principle is to measure on the ground

the signal errors transmitted by GNSS satellites
and transmit differential corrections and
integrity messages through geostationary
satellites

• The frequency band of the date link is identical

to that of the GPS signals

EGNOS GEO footprints

• The use of geostationary satellites enables messages to be broadcast over very wide areas

• The pseudo-range measurements of these geostationary satellites can also be used by users as if
they were GPS satellites

47
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

SBAS BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• SBAS systems regionally augment GPS and GLONASS by making them suitable for safety
critical applications

• SBAS can provide:

- APproach and landing operations with Vertical guidance (APV)

- Precision approach service

• SBAS include:

- EGNOS in Europe
- WAAS in USA
- MSAS in Japan
- GAGAN in India
- SDCM in Russia
- SNAS is China

48
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

SBAS BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS - Elements

• SBAS consists of 3 elements:

- The ground infrastructure (network of monitoring

and processing stations)
- The SBAS satellites
- The SBAS airborne receivers

EGNOS ground infrastructure (source: ESSP)

49
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

SBAS BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• The SBAS station network measures pseudo-range between the ranging source and an SBAS
receiver at the known locations and provides separate corrections for ranging source:

- Ephemeris errors
- Clock errors
- Ionospheric errors

• The user applies the previous jointly with tropospheric corrections obtained from a model for
the tropospheric delay

50
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

EGNOS

• The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service

• EGNOS uses 3 geostationary satellites and a network of ground stations to receive, analyse
and augment, and then re-transmit GPS, GLONASS and eventually Galileo signals

• The system is designed to improve accuracy to 1-2 m horizontally and 3-5 m vertically

• Integrity and safety are improved by alerting users within 6 seconds if a GPS malfunction
occurs (up to 3 hrs GPS alone)

You can find more information about the status of the EGNOS Space Segment in
http://www.essp-sas.eu/download/service_notices/essp_com_11851_01_00_service_notice_11_prn124_decommisioning.pdf

51
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

EGNOS - benefits

• More landings under severe atmospheric conditions

• More landings at less well-equipped airports

• Increased capacity, benefiting both airport and airline operators

• Curved approaches and more efficient routes  fuel and noise savings

• Possibility to phase-out some expensive ground based navaids infrastructure and to free
valuable radio spectrum that can be exploited for new/other services

52
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

AIRBORNE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• Its main principle is to use redundant elements within the GPS constellation (e.g. multiplicity
of distance measurements to various satellites) or the combination of GNSS measurements
with those of other navigation sensors (such as inertial systems), to develop integrity control

• Unlike GBAS and SBAS, ABAS does not provide corrections to improve positioning accuracy

53
062 06 02 02 – Ground, Satellite and Airborne based
augmentation systems
GBAS SBAS ABAS

AIRBORNE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS

• There are various types of ABAS:

- The type of ABAS using only GNSS information is RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)

More info in these slides

- The type of ABAS using addition information from on-board sensors is named AAIM (Aircraft Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring)

 Typical sensors used are barometric altimeter, clock and inertial navigation system
 Barometric altimetry sources are used sometimes to improve the TTFF (Time to First Fix), which refers to the
time required to acquire satellite signals and navigation data and calculate a position solution

54
 062 07 00 00
PERFORMANCE-BASED NAVIGATION

55
062 07 01 00 – PBN concept

• Performance-based navigation: area navigation (RNAV) based on performance requirements

for aircraft operating along an ATS route, on an instrument approach procedure or in a
designated airspace

RNP concept
(« ICAO RNP manual)

PBN concept

Shift from sensor-based to

performance-based navigation
ICAO Doc 9613

56
062 07 01 00 – PBN concept

Conventional navigation Area Navigation

• Aircrafts navigate based on direct signals from ground- • Aircrafts compute their latitude-longitude position
based radio NAVAIDs
• Navigation relies on aircraft crossing fixes defined by
• Navigation relies on aircraft crossing radio beacons and name, latitude and longitude
tracking to and from them directly
• Routes are no or less dependent on the location of
• Routes are dependent on the location of the navigation NAVAIDs, resulting in much more flexible route designs
beacons, resulting in longer routes
Images from ICAO

57
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

• The PBN concept specifies that aircraft RNAV and RNP system performance requirements be
defined in terms of:

- Accuracy
- Integrity
- Availability
- Continuity

• Performance requirements are identified in navigation specifications, which also identify the
choice of navigation sensors and equipment that may be used to meet the performance
requirements

Difference between RNAV and RNP is

explained later

58
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

• Integrity: a measure of the trust that can be placed in the correctness of the information
supplied. The parameters defining the integrity are specific to navigation specifications:
- Alert Limit: the error tolerance not to be exceeded without issuing an alert
- Means the region (horizontal and vertical) which is required to contain the indicated position with the required
probability for a particular navigation mode
- Required ALs depend on the type of operation

- Time to Alert: the maximum allowable time elapsed from the onset of the navigation system being out of tolerance
until the equipment enunciates the alert

- Integrity Risk: probability that, at any moment, the position error exceeds the Alert Limit

- Protection Level: statistical bound error computed so as to guarantee that the probability of the absolute position
error exceeding said number is smaller than or equal to the target integrity risk
- Means the region (horizontal and vertical) assured to contain the indicated position. It defines the region
where the missed alert requirement can be met
- PLs are computed by the on board receiver

59
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

• Integrity: (cont)
if during an operation the PLs exceed the required ALs, the operation cannot continue
- VPL only used for operations with vertical guidance (e.g. LPV)

xAL: fixed value during operation

VAL
VPL
xPL: value calculated by on-board receiver
(varies depending on aircraft and satellite
VPL
geometry and SBAS corrections)
VAL

The integrity of the system (or service)

establishes to which degree the
navigation source can be trusted during
the flight.

60
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

• Availability: percentage of time that the services of the system are usable by the navigator.
(Alt: proportion of time during which reliable navigation information is presented to the crew,
autopilot, or other system managing the flight of the aircraft)

The availability of a system (or service) establishes

the percentage of time during when the operation
(for example a final approach) can be started.

• Continuity: the capability of the system to perform its function without unscheduled
interruptions during the intended operation. (Alt from ICAO SARPS: It relates to the capability
of the navigation system to provide a navigation output with the specified accuracy and
integrity during the approach, assuming that it was available at the start of the operation)

The continuity of the system guarantees that once an

operation (for example a final approach) is initiated,
it will not be interrupted.

61
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

• The PBN concept represents a shift from sensor-based to PBN

Navigation • Performance requirements (PR)

Specify
specifications
• Navigation sensors meeting them

A certain set of PRs may be met by more than one

sensor.

• Advantages of PBN over sensor-specific methods of developing airspace:

- reduces the need to maintain sensor-specific routes and procedures, and their associated costs;
- avoids the need for developing sensor-specific operations with each new evolution of navigation systems, which
would be cost-prohibitive;
- allows for more efficient use of airspace (route placement, fuel efficiency and noise abatement);
- clarifies how RNAV and RNP systems are used; and
- facilitates the operational approval process for operators by providing a limited set of navigation specifications
intended for global use.

62
062 07 01 01 – PBN principles

Computed vs raw data

Conventional navigation PBN

• The navigation performance data used to determine the • Requires an RNAV or RNP system that integrates raw
separation minima or route spacing depend on the navigation data to provide a positioning and navigation
accuracy of the raw data from specific NAVAIDs such as solution. In determining separation minima and route
VOR, DME or NDB spacing in a PBN context, this integrated navigation
performance “output” (computed data) is used
• Area navigation system will confirm the validity of the
individual sensor data and, in most systems, will also
confirm the consistency of the computed data before
they are used.

63
062 07 01 02 – PBN components

PBN is composed of 3 constituents

Navigation • Navigation Specification: set of aircraft and aircrew requirements needed to support a
Application navigation application within a defined airspace concept

Navigation Navigation • Navigation Infrastructure: ground based NAVAIDS or space based NAVAIDS
Specification Infrastructure

• Navigation Application: application of a navigation specification and the supporting

NAVAID infrastructure, to routes, procedures, and/or defined airspace volume, in
accordance with the intended airspace concept
Adapted from Eurocontrol

64
 062 07 01 02 – PBN components

EXAMPLE – RNAV 1

Navigation
Specification • RNAV 1 refers to an RNAV navigation specification which includes a requirement for 1 NM
navigation accuracy (among other requirements)

Navigation
Infrastructure • In terms of navigation infrastructure, the following systems enable RNAV 1: GNSS,
DME/DME and DME/DME/IRU

Navigation
Application
• RNAV 1 can support en-route and terminal navigation applications, like SIDs or STARs

State A’s AIP could stipulate GNSS as a requirement for its RNAV 1
specification because State A only has GNSS available in its NAVAID
infrastructure.
State B’s AIP could require DME/DME/IRU for its RNAV 1
specification (policy decision to not allow GNSS).

65
062 07 01 03 – PBN scope

• For Oceanic/remote, en-route and terminal operations, PBN is limited to operations with
linear lateral performance requirements and time constraints

• For Approach operations, PBN accommodates both linear and angular laterally guided
operations

Image from ICAO

66
062 07 02 00 – Navigation specifications

67
 062 07 02 01 – RNAV and RNP

RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key A navigation specification that includes a requirement for on-board
difference between them is the requirement for on-board navigation performance monitoring and alerting is referred to as an
performance monitoring and alerting. RNP specification.

68
062 07 02 02 – Navigation functional requirements

• RNAV and RNP specifications include requirements for

certain navigation functionalities. At the basic level, these Example: Garmin GNS 430W
functional requirements may include:

a) continuous indication of aircraft position relative to track to

be displayed to the pilot flying on a navigation display
situated in his primary field of view;
b) display of distance and bearing to the active (To) waypoint;
c) display of ground speed or time to the active (To) waypoint;
d) navigation data storage function; and
e) appropriate failure indication of the RNAV or RNP system,
including the sensors.

Source: Garmin

69
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNAV X
RNP X
The expression “X” means the aircraft can follow a pre-defined track (lateral navigation) with X
Nautical Miles (NM) accuracy 95% of the flight time by the population of aircraft operating
within the airspace, route or procedure
• Navigation systems are specified in terms of NSE, and therefore hypotheses on the FTE and PDE
contributions to the TSE are made to qualify a system for a given navigation specification

Lateral navigation accuracy = TSE

70
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

• Because specific performance requirements are defined for each navigation specification, an
aircraft approved for a particular navigation specification is not automatically approved for
any other navigation specification

• Similarly, an aircraft approved for an RNP or RNAV specification having stringent accuracy
requirements (e.g. RNP 0.3 specification) is not automatically approved for a navigation
specification having a less stringent accuracy requirement (e.g. RNP 4).

RNAV Specifications RNP* Specifications

Oceanic/Remote RNAV 10 Oceanic/Remote RNP 4

Basic RNP 1, RNP

En-route/ RNAV 5, RNAV 2, En-route/
APCH, RNP (AR)
Terminal/Approach RNAV 1 Terminal/Approach
APCH

* Includes on-board navigation performance monitoring and alerting

71
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNAV 10 RNP 4
• Oceanic / remote phases of flight • Oceanic / remote phases of flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting • With on-board performance monitoring and alerting
function, even when operationally approved as “RNP 10” function (usually RAIM)

• Lateral TSE must be within ±10 NM for at least 95 per • Lateral TSE must be within ±4 NM for at least 95 per cent
cent of the total flight time of the total flight time

• 50NM lateral and 50NM longitudinal separation • 30 NM lateral and 30 NM longitudinal separation

• Based on INS, IRS FMS or GNSS • Primarily based on GNSS

72
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNAV 5*
• En-route and arrival** phases of flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting

function

• Lateral TSE must be within ±5 NM for at least 95 per cent

of the total flight time

• Route spacing may vary among regional implementations

• Based on VOR/DME, DME/DME, INR, IRS or GNSS

* Almost equivalent to Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) within ECAC

**may be used for the initial part of a STAR outside 30 NM and above MSA.

73
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNAV 2 RNP 2
• En-route continental, arrival and departure phases of • Oceanic, continental, en-route and airspaces considered
flight to be remote

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting • With on-board performance monitoring and alerting
function function (usually RAIM)

• Lateral TSE must be within ±2 NM for at least 95 per cent • Lateral TSE must be within ±4 NM for at least 95 per cent
of the total flight time of the total flight time

• Based on DME/DME, DME/DME/IRU and GNSS • Based on GNSS

74
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNAV 1* RNP 1
• Arrival and departure phases of flight • Arrival and departure phases of flight

• Without on-board performance monitoring and alerting • With on-board performance monitoring and alerting
function function (usually RAIM)

• Lateral TSE must be within ±1 NM for at least 95 per cent • Lateral TSE must be within ±1 NM for at least 95 per cent
of the total flight time of the total flight time

• Based on DME/DME, DME/DME/IRU and GNSS • For terminal airspace with no or limited ATS surveillance,
with low to medium density traffic

• Based on GNSS

*Almost equivalent to Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) within ECAC

75
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNP APCH RNP AR

• Approach phase of flight • Approach phase of flight

• With on-board performance monitoring and alerting • With on-board performance monitoring and alerting
function (usually RAIM or SBAS) function (usually RAIM)

• Lateral TSE varies with minima and approach segment • Cross-track error must be lower than the lateral
(initial, intermediate, finall, missed) applicable accuracy value for 95 per cent of flight time

• Based on: • For terminal airspace with no or limited ATS surveillance,

with low to medium density traffic
o GNSS for LNAV minimum
o GNSS + barometric VNAV for LNAV/VNAV
minimum* • Based on GNSS + (usually) barometric-based VNAV
o GNSS augmented by SBAS for LP and LPV minima

*GNSS-based vertical guidance may be used

76
062 07 02 03 – Designation of RNP and RNAV
specifications

RNP 0.3
• All phases of flight except oceanic/remote and final
approach

• With on-board performance monitoring and alerting

function (usually RAIM or SBAS)

• Lateral TSE must be within ±0.3 NM for at least 95 per

cent of the total flight time

• Primarily for helicopters

• Based GNSS

77
062 07 03 00 – Use of PBN

• Generic navigation requirements are defined based on operational needs

• Operators then evaluate options in respect of available technology and navigation services

• PBN brings the opportunity to select cost-effective options

78
062 07 03 01 – Airspace Planning

• PBN is one of several enablers of an airspace concept

• Communications, ATS surveillance and Air Traffic Management are also essential elements of
an airspace concept

79
 062 07 03 01 – Airspace Planning

• The determination of separation minima and route spacing* for use by aircraft is a major
element of airspace planning

 Manual on Airspace Planning Methodology for the Determination of separation Minima (Doc 9689)
 Manual on the Use of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) in Airspace Design (Doc 9992)

• Separation minima and route spacing can generally be described as being a function of three
factors:
Navigation performance

Aircraft’s exposure to risk

Mitigation measures which are available to reduce risk

The complexity of determining route spacing and separation

If an ATS surveillance service is available, this means that the risk
minima is affected by the availability of a radar surveillance
can be mitigated by including requirements for ATC intervention.
service and the type of communications used.

* aircraft-to-aircraft separation and ATS route spacing are not the same

80
062 07 03 02 – Approval

• The airworthiness approval process assures that each item of the area navigation equipment
installed is of a type and design appropriate to its intended function and that the installation
functions properly under foreseeable operating conditions

• Accuracy, integrity, continuity, functional requirements, on-board performance monitoring

and alerting, navigation database, path terminators…

• It also details: Any information relevant to the approval of the RNAV and RNP
system installations are documented in the AFM, or AFM
Supplement, as applicable.
 Limitations

 Other relevant information

81
062 07 03 02 – Approval

• Some PBN specifications require (and will require) operational approval, including:

 RNP APCH, as detailed in AMC 20-27 and AMC 20-28. Requirement for operational approval will be
removed once NPA 2013-25 is adopted

 RNP AR APCH, as detailed in AMC 20-26

 Advanced RNP: to be developed

• The RNAV system shall enable the crew to navigate in accordance with operational criteria as
defined in the Navigation Specification

• The State of the Operator is the authority responsible for approving flight operations

82
 062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

• The standard that fixes database formats and contents is the ARINC 424 ‘Navigation System
Data Base Standard’

• Area Navigation (RNAV) involves flying between waypoints not coinciding with ground fixes

• Waypoints coordinates are hence loaded in the on-board aircraft’s database. Types:

 Fly-by: the navigation system anticipates the turn onto the next leg

 Fly-over: the aircraft overflies the waypoint before starting the turn onto the next route leg

Note that the depiction of fly-by and fly-over

waypoints is different

83
062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

• ARINC 424 also defines the Path Terminator: permits defining how to navigate to, from and
between waypoints

• The Path Terminator is a two-letter code, which defines a specific type of flight path along a
segment of a procedure and a specific type of termination of that flight path

• Path terminators are assigned to all RNAV SID, STAR and approach procedure segments in an
airborne navigation database

• This allows translating into computer language (FMS) the procedures designed for clock &
compass manual flight

• Charted procedures are translated into a sequence of ARINC 424 legs in the database

• There are 23 different path terminators defined in ARINC 424. Those which can be expected in
RNAV or RNP charts are depicted in next slide

84
062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

Initial Fix (IF) Track to a fix Course to an

(TF) altitude (CA)
• It defines a point in space • Preferred type for straight • Course that terminates at an
• The coding of RNAV legs altitude with an unspecified
procedures starts at an IF • Geodesic path between position
two waypoints • For departures or Missed App

Direct to a fix Course to a Fix Course from a fix to

(DF) (CF) an altitude (FA)
• Segment from an • Course that terminates at a • Begins at a fix and
unspecified position to a waypoint terminates when aircraft
known waypoint • CF legs are subject to altitude is at, or above, a
magnetic variation issues specified altitude

85
062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

There are two types of FIXED RADIUS PATHS

• Radius to Fix (RF)

 Is also a type of Path Terminator

 Specific curved path radius in a terminal or approach procedure
 Is defined by radius, arc length, and fix

• Fixed radius transition (FRT)

 To be used* with en-route procedures

 It falls upon the RNP system to create it between two route segments
 These turns have two possible radii, 22.5 NM for high altitude routes (above FL 195) and 15 NM for
low altitude routes. Using such path elements in an RNAV ATS route enables improvement in airspace
usage through closely spaced parallel routes
* The “Concept of Use” of FRT is currently being evaluated by ICAO, who is carefully
addressing promulgation, airspace design and avionics capabilities aspects, among
others. No State has published yet any ATS Routes that require the FRT function

86
062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

• Many aircraft have the capability to fly a path parallel to, but offset left or right from, the
original active rout  offset flight path

 The purpose of this function is to enable offsets for tactical operations authorized by ATC

 Capability for the flight crew to specify a lateral offset from a defined route (generally in increments of 1NM to 20 NM)

Source: Garmin

87
062 07 03 03 – Specific RNAV and RNP system
functions FB/FO
Path Fixed radius
Off/Hold
Terminators paths

• Many aircraft have the capability to execute a holding pattern manoeuvre using their RNAV
system, which can provide flexibility to ATC in designing RNAV operations.

 The RNAV system facilitates the holding pattern specification by allowing the definition of the inbound course to the
holding waypoint, turn direction and leg time or distance on the straight segments, as well as the ability to plan the
exit from the hold

88
 062 07 03 04 – Data processes

• All RNAV and RNP applications use aeronautical data to define, inter alia, ground-based
NAVAIDs, runways, gates, waypoints and the route/procedure to be flown

• The safety of the application is contingent upon the accuracy, resolution and integrity of the
data

• Therefore:

 The accuracy of the data depends upon the processes applied during the data origination

 The integrity of the data depends upon the entire aeronautical data chain from the point of origin to the point of use

The European Commission adopted on 26 January 2010 the Regulation 73/2010

laying down requirements on the quality of aeronautical data and aeronautical
information for the single European sky.

More information available at https://www.eurocontrol.int/adq

89
062 07 04 00 – PBN operations

• What pilots need to know about PBN operations is whether the aircraft and flight crew are
qualified to operate in the airspace, on a procedure or along an ATS route

• The flight operations element considers:

 The operator’s infrastructure for conducting PBN operations and flight crew operating procedures,
training and competency demonstrations

 The operator’s MEL, OMs, checklists, navigation database validation procedures, etc

90
062 07 04 01 – PBN operations

• There are 3 main independent lateral errors in the context of on-board performance
monitoring and alerting. Together they account for the Total System Error (TSE).

 Path Definition Error (PDE): occurs when the path defined in the RNAV system (database) does not correspond to the
desired path, i.e. the path expected to be flown over the ground

 Flight Technical Error (FTE): relates to the air crew or autopilot’s ability to follow the defined path or track

 Navigation System Error (NSE): refers to the difference between the aircraft’s estimated position and actual position

With GPS/SBAS, you can expect: NSE << FTE

91
062 07 04 02– On-board performance monitoring and
alerting

• This function allows the air crew to detect whether or not the RNP system satisfies the
navigation performance required in the navigation specification

 Relates to both lateral and longitudinal navigation performance

• On-board means that the performance monitoring and alerting is effected on board the
aircraft and not elsewhere

• Monitoring refers to the monitoring of the aircraft’s performance as regards its ability to
determine positioning error and/or to follow the desired path

• Alerting relates to monitoring: if the aircraft’s navigation system does not perform well
enough, this will be alerted to the air crew

92
062 07 04 02– On-board performance monitoring and
alerting

• RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) - a form of ABAS

 The GPS ground stations monitor GPS satellites and detect faults

 It can take too much time to detect a fault and update the navigation messages sent to the users to
declare a particular satellite SIS erroneous

 To solve this, GPS receivers have an autonomous way of assuring the integrity of GPS pseudo-ranges:
the RAIM algorithm

 GPS receivers require a minimum set of 4 satellites to compute a 3D position

 With additional satellites, the “RAIM algorithm” comes into play

o A 5th satellite provides Fault Detection (FD) capability: the receiver recognises a faulty satellite, but is not able
to identify which one in particular

o A 6th satellite provides Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) capability: the receiver is able to isolate the faulty
satellite

93
062 07 04 02– On-board performance monitoring and
alerting

• RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) - a form of ABAS

 RAIM prediction is required before conducting a flight which will use a GPS approach

o This prediction can be used using the GPS receiver or with an internet-based RAIM prediction tool

 During flight, the receiver’s RAIM (FD or FDE) algorithm monitors the position

o Approach will be discontinued if fault detection detects a position failure when integrity is provided by FDE

 LPV is based on SBAS integrity; if RAIM is unavailable the approach can be performed anyway

94
062 07 04 02– On-board performance monitoring and
alerting

On board performance
monitoring and alerting of NSE is
a requirement of on-board
equipment for RNP

Example: RAIM or FDE algorithm

On board performance
monitoring and alerting of FTE is
managed by on board systems or
crew procedures

Example: RAIM or FDE algorithm +

CDI crew monitoring

On board performance
monitoring and alerting of PDE
are managed by gross
reasonableness of navigation
data

95
062 07 04 02– On-board performance monitoring and
alerting

• On-board performance monitoring shall not be regarded as error monitoring

• Alerts are issued when the system cannot guarantee with sufficient integrity that the position
meets the accuracy requirement

• When an alert is issued, the probable reason is the loss of capability to validate the position
data (insufficient satellites being a potential reason)

In other words, even if the position was able to meet the accuracy requirement, since
the system is unable to prove it, an alert would be issued.

Click here to return to GPS intro slides

96
062 07 04 03– Abnormal situations
Abnormal procedures Contingency procedures

• Abnormal and contingency procedures are to be used in case of the loss of PBN capability

• Abnormal procedures should be available to address cautions and warnings resulting from
the following conditions:

 Failure of the navigation system components including those affecting flight technical error (e.g.
failures of the flight director or auto pilot);

 RAIM alert or loss of integrity function;

 Warning flag or equivalent indicator on the lateral and/or vertical navigation display;

 Degradation of the GNSS approach mode during a LPV approach procedure (e.g. downgrade from
LPV to LNAV);

 Low altitude alert (if applicable)

97
062 07 04 03– Abnormal situations
Abnormal procedures Contingency procedures

• LPV to LNAV reversion (adapted from French DGAC/DSAC)

 For LPV approaches, some systems allow LPV to LNAV reversion if the vertical signal is lost or
degraded

 If LPV to LNAV reversion takes place before the FAF/FAP, the crew can envisage continuing with the
approach to the LNAV minima

 If reversion occurs after the FAF/FAP, go-around is required, unless the pilot has in sight the visual
references required to continue the approach

98
062 07 04 03– Abnormal situations
Abnormal procedures Contingency procedures

• In case of a complete RNAV guidance loss during the approach, the crew must follow the
operator defined contingency procedure/s

• In the event of communications failure:

 Flight crew should continue with the 2D/3D RNAV(GNSS) procedure in accordance with published lost
communication procedures; or

 Follow procedures stated in the chart;

• The flight crew should react to TAWS warnings in accordance with approved procedures

• The flight crew should notify ATC of any problem with the navigation system that results in the
loss of the approach capability

99
062 07 04 04– Database management

• The navigation database must contain all the necessary data/information to fly the published
approach procedure

• Therefore, the on-board navigation data must be valid for the current AIRAC cycle and must
include the appropriate flight procedures

• The operator should implement procedures that ensure timely distribution and insertion of
current and unaltered electronic navigation data to all aircraft that require it

100
062 07 05 00– Requirements for specific RNAV and RNP
specifications

RNP APCH

WITHOUT VERTICAL GUIDANCE WITH VERTICAL GUIDANCE

LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

GPS NPA NPA SBAS supported APV Baro APV SBAS supported
Expected to be Localiser Performance (can also be Localiser Performance
flown with CDFA supported by with Vertical Guidance
SBAS)

101
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

RNP APCH

WITHOUT VERTICAL GUIDANCE WITH VERTICAL GUIDANCE

LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

GPS NPA NPA SBAS supported APV Baro APV SBAS supported
Expected to be Localiser Performance (can also be Localiser Performance
flown with CDFA supported by with Vertical Guidance
SBAS)

2D approach operations 3D approach operations

102
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LNAV minima • LP minima

 Non Precision Approach  Non Precision Approach

 2D operation  2D operation

 Linear lateral guidance based on GNSS  Angular lateral guidance based on GNSS
augmented by SBAS
 Expected to be flown using CDFA
technique  Expected to be flown using CDFA technique

 Integrity provided by RAIM, unless  Integrity provided by SBAS

SBAS is available
 Not published at runways with LPV minima

If SBAS-certified equipment is available on-board, SBAS can provide integrity during

LNAV operations.

103
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LNAV/VNAV minima

 APproach with Vertical guidance (APV)

 3D operation

 Linear lateral guidance based on GNSS

 Linear vertical guidance based on BaroVNAV (can also be supported by SBAS and, in any case, the
used angular vertical guidance must be certified for the purpose)

 Integrity provided by RAIM, unless SBAS is available

If SBAS-certified equipment is available on-board, SBAS can provide integrity during

LNAV/VNAV operations.

104
 062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LNAV/VNAV minima
Considerations about the use of the Barometric sensor

• Affected by temperature variation  LNAV/VNAV based on BaroVNAV can only be flown when aerodrome
temperature is within a promulgated range, unless a/c has an approved temperature compensation system

• Altimeter setting is critical  to safe conduct LNAV/VNAV based on BaroVNAV, remote altimeter setting is prohibited

FAP
Barometer is affected by temperature.
T corr The effect of the -statistically- coldest day
is therefore studied.

Procedure not flyable if

“Temp” < “Min Promulgated Temp“

Cold temperatures
reduce the VPA
3º
RDH

105
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LPV minima

 APproach with Vertical guidance (APV)

 3D operation

 Angular lateral and vertical guidance based on GNSS augmented by SBAS

 Integrity provided by SBAS

 LPV Final Approach Segment is specially coded into a Data Block inside the on-board navigation
database. It is known as the FAS DB

106
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LPV minima FAS DB

 “The set of parameters to identify a single

precision approach or APV and define its
associated approach path” (ICAO)”

 Is part of the data package of an APV SBAS

procedure:
o The FAS-DB contain the parameters that
define the Final Approach Segment geometry
o The integrity of the data in ensured by the
generation of a CRC algorithm (Cyclic
redundancy check)

 References:
o ICAO Doc 8168: procedure design criteria
o ICAO Annex 10: Aeronautical
Telecommunications
o RTCA Do-229: Approval of GPS/SBAS Rx
equipment

Source: Austrocontrol

107
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH
LNAV LP LNAV/VNAV LPV

• LPV minima FAS DB: why?

 To ensure the integrity of databases

 In ILS/MLS approaches, integrity is ensured by:

o Proper alignment of transmitting antennas

o Flight checks
o Integrity monitors on the transmitted signal

 LPV approaches:

o A kind of approach based on on-board data

o Integrity rests on the data describing the approach path
o Hence the importance of having a CRC wrapping the FAS DB

108
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

• In terms of phraseology, no distinction is made between the different types of RNAV (GNSS)
approaches (no distinction according to LPV, LNAV/VNAV and LNAV minima)

• The minima to which the procedure is flown is unknown to Air Traffic Controllers

(adapted from French DGAC/DSAC)

109
062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

• Most RNAV (GNSS) final approach procedures leading to

LNAV, LNAV/VNAV or LPV minima, may be preceded by
either an initial and intermediate T-bar or Y-bar approach.
In this case all segments are published on the same chart.

• A T- or Y-bar arrangement permits direct entry to the

procedure from any direction, provided entry is made
from within the capture region associated with an IAF.

• Where one or both offset IAFs are not provided, a direct

entry will not be available from all directions. In such
cases a holding pattern may be provided at the IAF to
enable entry to the procedure via a procedure turn.

• Sometimes may be preceded by an initial and

intermediate RNAV 1 approach (generally preceded by a
RNAV 1 STAR) or by radar guidance
(source: UK CAA)

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 062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

90 degree turn 70 degree turn

IAF, IF, FAF Fly-by

T-bar arrangement MAPt Fly-over Y-bar arrangement

All segments:
5NM
5NMoptimum
optimal length
length
(source: ICAO)

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062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

• An RNP APCH shall not be flown unless it is retrievable by procedure name from the on-board
navigation database and conforms to the charted procedure

Source: Bendix King by Honeywell

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062 07 05 05– RNP APCH

• Retrieving a procedure from the database:

 By name: usually IAF

 If LPV is available, also by SBAS Channel Number, which is
a unique worldwide identifier composed of 5 numeric
characters, in the range of 40000 to 99999

• Example GRAZ RNAV (GNSS) RWY 35

 3 IAFs: WG832, WG834 and WG833

 1 Channel Number: 48472
 Pilot can select one of the 4 previous options. Selecting
the channel number will load an ‘extended’ Final
Approach Segment, as an ILS. In this later case, pilot is
expected to intercept the extended FAS following ATC
Vectors To Final
 ‘Direct to’ waypoints following ATC clearances are allowed
except for FAP

Source: Austrocontrol

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062 07 05 05– PBN Point in Space (PinS) Approach

• The Point-in-space approach is based on GNSS or SBAS and is an approach procedure

designed for helicopters only that includes both a visual and an instrument segment.
Therefore, it can be published with LNAV and/or LPV minima

• Obstacle clearance is provided for all IFR segments of the procedure including the missed
approach segment

• During an approach to land, the instrument segment ends at the PinS (MAPt). From there,
flight continues with a visual segment

• In an approach procedure, the visual segment (VS) is the segment of a helicopter PinS
approach between a point (MAPt) and the heliport or the landing location

The flexibility that offers the free positioning of the PinS is the main asset of this
concept.

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062 07 05 05– PBN Point in Space (PinS) Approach

Visual Segment (VS)

• The PinS approach procedure includes either a “proceed visually” instruction or a “proceed VFR”
instruction from the MAPt to the heliport or landing location

• Proceed VFR: developed for heliport or landing locations that do not meet the standards for a heliport. The
PinS instrument approach delivers the helicopter to a MAPt. Prior to or at the MAPt, the pilot shall decide
to proceed VFR or to execute a missed approach, based on visibility

 Pilot determines whether visibility is met based on the published minimum visibility or the visibility required by State regulations
(whichever is higher)
 There is no protection after the MAPt if MA is not initiated. The pilot is responsible to see and avoid obstacles

• Proceed visually: developed for a heliport or a landing location. The PinS instrument approach segment
delivers the helicopter to a MAPt. Prior to or at the MAPt, the pilot shall decide to proceed visually to the
heliport or landing location or to execute a missed approach

 A Direct VS or a Manoeuvring VS connects the MAPt to the heliport or landing location

 The minimum visibility is based on the distance from the MAPt to the heliport or landing location
 IFR obstacle clearance areas are not applied to the visual segment. However the visual segment is protected, by operational
limitations in the case of “manoeuvring” VS

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© Rega Photo Service

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 Bibliography

• EASA NPA 2013-25

• ICAO Doc 9613, Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual, Ed 4

• ICAO Doc 8168 PANS-OPS, Volume II “Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedures”, Ed 6

• ICAO State Letter SP 65/4-13/24, 14 June 2013

• Technical Guidelines 01 – PBN, Guidelines for RNP APCH operations also known as RNAV (GNSS), Ed 2,
DGAC/DSAC

• Official U.S. Government information about the Global Positioning System (GPS) and related topics
(gps.gov)

• Aeronautical Information Publication Austria

• digital — Terminal Procedures Publication (d-TPP)/Airport Diagrams, FAA

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