OPTICAL |

EC405|
COMMUNICATIO
N
 TEXT BOOKS I
FOLLOW
Gerd Keiser: Optical Fibre Communications
John M Senior- Optical communications
 MODULE 0
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Basics of Light |P of
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NUMERICAL APERTURE,
CRITICAL ANGLE & TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION
The measure of maximum angle at which light
rays will enter and be conducted down the fiber

Critical Angle

Total Internal Reflection?

REFRACTIVE INDEX
n = c/v
The refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning
that light travels 1.333 times faster in vacuum
than in the water
MODULE 1: LIGHT, FIBRE Dr. Vishnu Rajan
& PROPERTIES
MODULE 1
1. General light wave system, Advantages
2. Classification of light wave systems
3. Fibres: types and refractive index profiles
4. Mode theory of fibres: Modes in SI and GI fibres
5. Linear and non linear effects in fibres
6. Dispersion: Group Velocity Dispersion, modal,
wave guide and Polarization Mode Dispersion
7. Attenuation- absorption, bending and scattering
losses.
TRANSMISSION OF
LIGHT VIA OFC
WHAT IS OPTICAL
COMMUNICATION
Communication using light to carry information.
It can be performed visually or by using electronic
devices.
1. Wired – optic fiber communication
2. Wireless – LIFI, Photophone, IR
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
 1. LIGHT WAVE
SYSTEM

Optic Fiber
Information Optical Transmission Optical Information
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Message Encoded Weakene Restored

Input Input d Signal Signal
2. CLASSIFICATION -
SEMINAR
1. Point to Point Links
2. Distribution Networks
3. Local Area Networks
FIBERS –
PROPAGATION OF
LIGHT
Electromagnetic
1. ADVANTAGES OF
LIGHT WAVE SYSTEM
1. Long Distance Transmission
1. Lower Transmission Losses
2. Reduction in number of repeaters
3. Low cost

2. Large Information Capacity

1. Low number of lines

3. Small
4. Immune to electrical interference
5. Enhanced Safety
6. Increased Signal Security
BASICS OF OPTICS –
QUANTUM EFFECT
Optical radiation has particle & wave nature
Particle Nature: Light energy is always emitted
or absorbed in discrete units called quanta or
photons
Photon Energy, E = hv
h= 6.625*10-34 Plank’s constant, v is frequency
Frequency is measured, considering wave property
When photon is incident in an atom, 1 electron is
excited
Viceversa
3. BASICS OF OPTICS –
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)
Ratio of speed of light in vacuum to that in matter
n = c/v
c= 3*108 m/s
Typical Values:
1 for air
1.33 for water
1.45 for silica glass
2.42 for diamond
3. BASICS OF OPTICS
– REFLECTION & REFRACTION
Snell’s Law
Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the
angles of incidence and refraction is equivalent to
the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or
equivalent to the reciprocal of
the ratio of the indices of
refraction
3. BASICS OF OPTICS
– REFLECTION & REFRACTION
3. BASICS OF OPTICS
– TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
3. BASICS OF OPTICS
– TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which
occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium
boundary at an angle larger than a
particular critical angle with respect to
the normal to the surface.
If the refractive index is lower on the other side of
the boundary and the incident angle is greater
than the critical angle, the wave cannot pass
through and is entirely reflected.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence above
which the total internal reflection occurs.
SinØc = n2/n1
3. OPTIC FIBER
STRUCTURE
Normally Cylindrical waveguide
Properties – Modes of waveguide
Single solid dielectric cylinder (core)
radius, a & refractive index n1
Core is surrounded by cladding, n2 < n1
Cladding reduce scattering loss & adds
mechanical strength
Normally core is pure silica glass, SiO2, surrounded
by glass
Most fibres are encapsulated with elastic
nonabrasive plastic
3. TYPES OF OPTIC
FIBER (INDEX)
Step Index
If refractive index of core is same throughout
Graded Index
If refractive index of core vary as a function of
radial distance
3. TYPES OF OPTIC
FIBER (MODES)
Single Mode
1 mode of propagation
Normally LASER is used
Multi Mode
Multiple modes of propagation
Large core area aids in launching optical power to
the fiber or connecting 2 fibers together. LEDs can
be used
Disadvantage: Suffer from Intermodal Dispersion
3. TYPES OF OPTIC
FIBER
3. STEP INDEX FIBER
Core – constant refractive index, n1
Cladding – slightly lower refractive index, s
Many Modes can be transmitted through same
fiber – Multimode
Only 1 Mode through same fiber – Single mode
4. SINGLE MODE &
MULTIMODE STEP INDEX
4. ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES
Sl. Single Mode Multi Mode Multi Mode
No Step Index Step Index Graded Index
1 Low Intermodal Considerable Lowest
dispersion Dispersion Dispersion
(Broadening of
transmitted light)
2 Highest Low Bandwidth Medium
Bandwidth Bandwidth
3 Coherent sources Use of Incoherent >
are must optical sources
(LED can be used
as source)
4 Coupling must be Easy Coupling >
precise
5 Higher Tolerance Lower Tolerance >
COHERENCE

They’re all going

the same
direction, and
taking each
“stroke” in the
same way and at
the same time. In
other words, all
the waves are “in
phase.”
4. NUMBER OF
MODES - SI

Here, Ms is the mode volume or total number of

guided modes
Vc is the cut-off value of normalized frequency
Core Radius a
Relative refractive index difference Δ
Operating wavelength λ
4. GRADED INDEX
FIBER
Graded index fibers do not have a constant
refractive index in the core but a decreasing core
index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum
value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2
beyond the core radius a in the cladding

Δ is the relative refractive index difference

α is the profile parameter
step index profile when α = ∞
parabolic profile when α = 2 (BEST)
4. GRADED INDEX
FIBER
SKEW RAYS
A skew ray is a ray that travels in a non-planar
zig-zag path and never crosses the axis of
an optical fibre
 SIGNAL Attenuation
Dispersion
DEGRADATION
7. ATTENUATION – HW-
NOTE PREPARATION

In optical fibers, attenuation is the rate at which

the signal light decreases in intensity.
Glass fiber is used for long-distance
fiber optic cables
Plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and, hence,
shorter range
Basic attenuation mechanisms
1. Absorption Loss – Related with material
2. Scattering Loss – Material and structural
imperfections
3. Bending Loss – Fiber twisting
7. ABSORPTION

Atomic defects – Imperfections in atomic structure

like missing molecules, high density clusters of
atom groups, oxygen defects
Direct melt method – Transition metal ions, Water
OH ions
10 ppb – upto 10dB/km
Intrinsic absorption is associated with fibre base
material, SiO2
Associated with UV & IR bands – Electron –Photon
SCATTERING LOSS
Due to microscopic variations in Material Density due to
1. Compositional fluctuations – Presence of oxides like Sio2,
GeO2, P2O5
This causes Rayleigh Scattering.

2. Structural inhomogeneities - Defects in fiber

manufacturing
Trapped air Bubbles, unreacted materials, crystalized regions
of glass
7. BENDING LOSS
Radiative losses whenever fiber undergoes a bend
of finite radius of curvature
1. Macroscopic – Large Radii compared with fiber
diameter
 Occurs when fiber turns a corner
 Macro bending Losses are essentially unobservable till
reaching a critical radius. Once critical radius is reach,
losses occurs exponentially

2. Microscopic – Small Radii compared with fiber

diameter
 Occurs when fibers are incorporated into cables
 Repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of
curvature of fiber axis
6. DISPERSION
Dispersion of light occurs when white light is
separated into its different constituent colours
because of refraction and Snell's law
Disadvantages:
1. Signal Distortion
2. Pulse broadening
3. Inter Symbol Interference
4. Low SNR
6. TYPES OF
DISPERSION
1. Group Velocity Dispersion
2. Modal Dispersion
3. Wave guide Dispersion
4. Polarization Mode Dispersion
6.1. GROUP
VELOCITY
DISPERSION
At the fiber acceptance point, all modes are
excited equally with same energy
But as signal propagate, each spectral component
travel independently and undergo time delay or
group delay per unit length
6.2 MODAL
DISPERSION
Due to different values of group delay for different
modes
Can be eliminated in single mode operation
Can be minimized by using optimum refractive
index profiles
6.3 WAVEGUIDE
DISPERSION
Exists mainly in single mode fibers
We assume that the refractive index is
independent of wavelength
6.4 POLARIZATION
MODE DISPERSION
Type of modal dispersion
2 different signals of different polarizations may
travel at different velocity through the fiber which
may create dispersion
6.1. MATERIAL
DISPERSION
Happens because refractive index varies as a
function of optical wavelength
Figure shows plot of ‘n’ variations in silica
POLARIZATION
Light is Transverse
 Linear
LINEAR
POLARIZATION
Field of plane linearly polarized waves in k
direction

Here, &
A0 is Maximum Amplitude of the wave,
ei is a unit vector parallel to the axis designated
by I
Actual measurable electric field is given by real
part of this eqn
LINEAR
POLARIZATION
LINEAR
POLARIZATION
 MODULE II : FIBER
MATERIALS OPTICAL Dr. Vishnu Rajan

SOURCES & DETECTORS

FIBER MATERIALS
1. Must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers
2. Material must be transparent at a particular optical
wavelength to guide light efficiently
3. Compatible materials that have slightly different
refractive indices for core and cladding must be
available
Example: Glass & Plastic
Majority of fibers are made using Silica (SiO 2) or Silicate
Glass fibers have more efficiency
Plastic fibers are used for short distance transmission in abusive
environments