ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

ELE2018 - Semiconductor diode

• Introduction – pn junction diode
• Internal structure & operation
• Basic material properties
• Energy band diagram
• Built-in voltage and electric field
• Depletion region width
• Effect of external bias
• Carrier concentration profiles and I-V characteristics
• Reverse Bias and breakdown
• Basic fabrication technology
• pn junction diode fabrication

Semiconductor diode - introduction

Basic building block for most semiconductor devices
including: bipolar and MOS transistors, solar cells, LEDs.
A diode is formed from junction between p-type and n-type
semiconductor regions.

p n
n-type semiconductor contains dopant atoms that can release
a mobile electron, p-type semiconductor contains dopant
atoms that can release a mobile hole
+ -

When external bias is iD vD

applied, current can
flow through the
diode. p ANODE n CATHODE

Electrical characteristics

iD Forward
bias

Reverse
bias
So – why does a pn junction have these IV characteristics?
Reverse IO vD
What is happening inside the device?
breakdown
Can we adjust the characteristics – i.e. design a device with
Current flows easily in forward bias direction particular characteristics?
In reverse bias, virtually no current flows until the breakdown
voltage is exceeded. How can we fabricate a pn junction diode?
Applications: Rectifiers, voltage level shifting, ac-dc conversion,
protection circuits. Refer to circuits section of the module. This is what we will investigate over the next few lectures.

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

Individual neutral p and n -type semiconductor regions

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

fixed acceptor atoms (dopant + fixed donor atoms (dopant atoms

atoms that have accepted an that have released an electron to
electron to become -vely charged) become +vely charged)
mobile holes (+ve charge) mobile electrons
plus approx. 1,000 –(-ve charge)
10,000,000
neutral semiconductor atoms for each
Energy band diagramdopant atom
EC Conduction band EC
Fermi-level EF
Ei midgap Ei
EF
EV Valence band EV

Conduction band EC
Fermi-level
qfFn EF
midgap Ei

Valence band EV

Energy level = charge potential

EF – Ei = - q fFn where fFn is the Fermi potential

where:
kT  n 
f Fn = ln  q is electronic charge
q  ni  n is electron concentration
(or donor atom concentration ND)
 qf  ni is intrinsic carrier concentration
n = ni exp Fn 
 kT  k is Boltzmann’s constant
T is temperature (Kelvin)
Junction between n-type and p-type regions
p-type E n-type

neutral neutral
region depletion region
p-type E
region
n-type
Electrons diffuse from n region (where they are high concentration -
majority) to p region (where they are low conc – minority ) leaving
behind fixed +ve donors and region depleted of carriers
Holes diffuse from p to n leaving behind fixed -ve acceptors
Thus: +veneutral
charge on n-side : -ve charge on p-side
neutral
region
Electric field established inDepletion region towards p-side.
the depletion region
region

ALSO Charge carriers “drift” due to the electric field.

Electrons experience force towards n-side
Holes experience force towards p-side

An equilibrium is established where carrier movement due

to drift is balanced by carrier movement due to diffusion.

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell
In order to draw the energy band diagram we need to know
the fermi level across the pn junction. Current per
In equilibrium, the hole current density unit area
Jp = Jp(drift) + Jp(diffusion) = 0 (1)
dp
= q p pE -  pkT (2)

where: dx
q is elementary charge x is distance from junction
µp is hole mobility k is Boltzmann’s constant
p is hole concentration T is temperature (Kelvin)
E is electric field
df i 1 dEi (3)
E = =
dx q dx
where:
Remember: Energy is
Ei is mid-band energy
charge potential

 1 dEi  dp
Substituting (3) into (2) → q p p   −  pkT =0 (4)
 q dx  dx
dE i dp
p = kT (5)
dx dx

 qf   E − EF  EF is Fermi energy
p = ni exp FP  = ni exp i 
 kT   kT  fFP is Fermi potential

dp ni E − E F   dEi dE F  p  dEi dE F 
= exp i  −  =  − 
dx kT  kT   dx dx  kT  dx dx 

dE i  dE dE  dE F
p = p i − F  → =0
dx  dx dx  dx
Thus, for hole drift to be equal and opposite to hole diffusion
current, the Fermi level EF must be constant.
Same is true for electrons.

p-type n-type
EC EC
EF
EF
EV EV

Bring the p and n regions together – remember EF is constant

EC

EI EC
EF EF
EV EI

E EV
-- ++ n
p -- ++

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell
Depletion
p e- drift
region n

e- diffusion EC
EF
EI
h+ diffusion
EV
h+ drift
E
Under influence of the electric field, holes drift from the n-side
to the p-side.
Due to their high concentration in the p-region relative to the
n-region, holes will predominantly diffuse in the opposite
direction (p to n).
The directions are reversed for electrons.

For simplicity, assume that the depletion region is “completely

depleted” of carriers and that the transition from neutral (bulk)
regions to space charge (depletion) region is abrupt.
p - - - - + + + + n
Neutral p-region Depletion region Neutral n-region

Charge
density ρ xn is the depletion
xp is the depletion width on n-side
width on p-side +qND
xn
xp
-qNA
Charge
density ρ
Chargepdensity
(NA) in p-side Charge densitynin (N D)
n-side
depletion region = -qNA x
depletion
n region = +qND
xp

Total charge (per unit area) Total charge (per unit area)
in p-side depletion region in n-side depletion region
Qp− = − q N A x p Qn+ = q N D x n

Qp− + Qn+ = 0 → Qn+ = −Qp− → N D xn = N A x p

pn junction - BUILT-IN VOLTAGE V0 - given by the

difference in band potential between p and n sides

Note: all bands bend by same amount

p n

qV0 = q(fFp+fFn)
EC
qfFp
EF
qfFn
EI

V0 = fFp+fFn EV

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

V0 = fFp + fFn

kT  N A  kT  N D 
f FP = ln  f Fn = ln 
q  ni  q  ni 

kT  N D  kT  N A  kT  N A N D 
V0 = ln  + ln  = ln 2


q  ni  q  ni  q  ni 

EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the built-in voltage for an silicon p-n junction diode at 300 K with NA = 1018 cm-3 and ND = 1015 cm-3 .

CONSTANTS:
Electronic charge q = 1.610-19 C
Boltzmann’s constant k = 1.3810-23 J/K
intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 1.451010 cm-3 @ 300 K

ELECTRIC FIELD IN THE DEPLETION REGION.

Consider: abrupt junction; complete depletion;
constant doping on each side of junction;
heavily doped n-region.
Electric field E = 0 in the neutral regions.
Charge
Electric field can be obtained by density ρ
integrating Poisson’s equation. +qND
dE 
=
dx  o Si

ε0 – permittivity of free space -xp

= 8.8510-14 F/cm xn x
εSi – relative permittivity of silicon -qNA
= 11.7

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

p - - - - - ++ ++ n
p-n junction at x = 0 Charge
density ρ +qND
For –xp < x < 0
dE  − q NA
= = -xp
dx  o Si  o Si
xn x
-qNA
For 0 < x < xn E
dE  q ND -xp xn
= =
dx  o Si  o Si x
Maximum electric field Emax
at x = 0 is given by either Emax
−q N  A −q N 
D
E MAX =   x p or E MAX =   xn
  o Si    o Si 

VOLTAGE ACROSS THE DEPLETION REGION.

Can be obtained by integrating the electric field f = −  E dx
xn 0
Voltage at xp with respect to xn V0 = −  E dx − E dx
0 − xp
E
-xp xn
x

Emax
i.e. area under the E vs x curve (two triangles)
E MAX x p
V0 = −
E MAX x n
2
−
2
=
− E MAX
2
xn + x p ( )

DEPLETION WIDTHS
As noted earlier : Qn+ = −Qp− → N D x n = N A x p
N
x p = D xn
Also x n + x p = W NA

 ND 
 + 1  xn = W
N
 A 

W NA W ND
→ xn = & xp =
N A + ND N A + ND

W E MAX W q N D xn W 2 q NDN A
V0 = = V0 =
2 2  o Si 2  o Si ( N D + N A )

2 V0  o Si ( N D + N A )
W=
q NDN A

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DEPLETION WIDTHS
As noted earlier : Qn+ = −Qp− → N D xn = N A x p

ND
Also x n + x p = W xp = xn
NA
 ND 
 + 1  xn = W
N
 A 

W NA W ND
→ xn = & xp =
N A + ND N A + ND

W E MAX W q N D xn W 2 q NDN A
V0 = = V0 =
2 2  o Si 2  o Si ( N D + N A )

2 2V0V0 ooSi ( N( N
 Si DD A )A )
+ +NN
WW= =
q qNN
DNDN
AA

2 V0  o Si
If ND >> NA: W
q NA

2 V0  o Si
If NA >> ND: W
q ND

The depletion region width is thus dictated by the doping

concentration on the lightly doped side of the junction.

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the total depletion width, also the depletion widths at
thermal equilibrium in the n-side and p-side for an abrupt p-n
junction diode with NA = 1018 cm-3 and ND = 1015 cm-3 .
{NB: We previously calculated V0 = 0.756 V for this p-n junction}

CONSTANTS:
Electronic charge q = 1.6  10-19 C
intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 1.45  1010 cm-3 @ 300 K
permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.85  10-14 F/cm
relative permittivity of silicon εSi = 11.7

See Tutorial
Sheet (at end
of handout) for
more examples

See video recording 5 for work

through of this example

The depletion region is almost completely on the more lightly

doped n-side of the junction.

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DIODE BIAS

When no voltage is applied to the diode, it is in equilibrium

and no net current flow.
Application of external voltage can have significant effect on
the depletion region width, also the energy and potential
barriers across the junction.
The modified potential barrier, VD, is given by VD = V0 - VA
where V0 is the equilibrium potential barrier
and VA is the voltage applied to the p-side wrt the n-side

The depletion region width can be 2 VD  o Si ( N D + N A )

calculated as before but using the W =
modified potential barrier. q NDN A

EQUILIBRIUM FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

VA = 0 VA = VF (<VO) VA = -VR

p n p n p n

E q(V0 -VF)
EC
qV0 EFp q(V0 +VR)
EFp qVF EFn
EF
EV qVR EFn

See video recording 6 for build

Carriers Current Carriers Current Carriers Current
Hole up of this slide
diffusion
Hole
drift
Electron
diffusion
Electron
drift
Net I ZERO

CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS
To calculate diode current, the carrier concentrations at the
edges of the depletion region are required.
-- ++ n
p -- ++ diffusion current
is proportional to
x 0 gradient of the
minority carrier
conc profile

Consider the neutral p-region starting from x=0 at the edge of

the depletion region.
At equilibrium, qf
the concentration of holes: p p0 = N A = ni exp FP 
 kT 
(majority carriers)
n2  − qf FP 
the concentration of electrons: n p0 = i = ni exp 
(minority carriers) N A  kT 

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell
-- ++ n
p -- ++

0 x
Consider the neutral n-region starting from x=0 at the edge of
the depletion region.
At equilibrium,
 qf 
the concentration of electrons: nn0 = N D = ni exp FN 
(majority carriers)  kT 

ni2 − qf FN 
the concentration of holes: pn0 = = ni exp 
(minority carriers) ND  kT 
Taking the ratio of electrons at opposite sides of the depletion
region:
 − qf FP 
n p0 ni exp kT  −q
= = exp (f FP + f FN )  = exp − qVo 
qf
ni exp FN   kT   kT 
nn0
 kT 
So, in equilibrium, the ratio of electron concentrations is
controlled by the built-in voltage across the depletion region.

A similar analysis applies for holes:

− qf FN 
ni exp 
pn0
=  kT  = exp − q (f + f )  = exp − qVo 
qf  FP FN   
ni exp FP   kT   kT 
p p0
 kT 

Application of an external bias, modifies the voltage across

the depletion region VD → V0 – VA and hence the carrier ratios.

We can replace V0
with VD = V0 - VA
Where nn(0) and np(0) are the electron concentrations at the
depletion region edges.
electrons injected from p-region into the n-region will not
significantly affect the conc of electrons in the n-region, so
nn(0) will remain equal to the equilibrium value nn0.

similarly for holes

from from
earlier earlier

Conc of electrons in the Conc of holes in the

p-region at edge of n-region at edge of
depletion region depletion region

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EXAMPLE 3 Calculate the minority carrier concentrations at the

depletion region edges at 300K, for an abrupt p-n junction diode
at a forward bias of 0.6 V. NA = 1018 cm-3 and ND = 1015 cm-3.

For electrons injected into the p-side.

q(V A )  ni2 q(V A ) 
n p (0 ) = n p0 exp = exp 
 kT  N A  kT 

n p (0 ) =
(1.45  1010 ) 2 exp 0.6  12
 = 2.42  10 cm
−3
See video recording 6 for work
10 18  0.0259  through this example

For holes injected into the n-side.

qV n2 qV
pn (0 ) = p p0 exp A  = i exp A 
 kT  N D  kT 

pn ( 0 ) =
(1.45  1010 ) 2 exp 0.6  15
 = 2.42  10 cm
−3
10 15  0.0259 
MINORITY CARRIER PROFILES and CURRENT FLOW
The minority carriers injected across the junction will diffuse
away from the depletion region edge.
They are subject to recombination and thus their concentration
will fall with distance from the junction.
Assuming that there is no electric field in the neutral regions,
the steady-state continuity equation can be solved.
d 2 pn pn − pn0
For holes on the n-side of the junction =
dx 2 Dp p
where Dp is the diffusivity of holes, and
τp is hole recombination lifetime
This has the standard solution:
 −x   
pn ( x ) − pn0 = A exp  + B exp x 
 D p p   D p p 
   

 −x   
pn ( x ) − pn0 = A exp  + B exp x 
 D p p   D p p 
   
To find A and B, two boundary conditions are used.

The first is: pn () = pn0

→ pn0 − pn0 = A.0 + B. → 0 = 0 + B. →B=0

 −x   
pn ( x ) − pn0 = A exp  = A exp − x 
 D p p   Lp 
   
where Lp is the diffusion length of holes on the n-side and is
given by Lp = Dp p

Thus, the hole concentration decays exponentially away

from the depletion region edge.

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− x
pn ( x ) − pn0 = A exp 
 Lp 
 
 qV 
The second boundary condition (x=0) is: pn (0) = pn0 exp a 
 kT 

qV  qV 
→ pn0 exp a  − pn0 = A → A = pn0 exp a  − 1
 kT    kT  

  q VA   − x
→ pn ( x ) − pn0 = pn0 exp  − 1 exp 
 k T    Lp 
  

Similarly, for electrons on the p-side of the junction:

  q VA   − x
n p ( x ) − n p0 = n p0 exp  − 1 exp 
  k T    Ln 

where Ln is the diffusion length of electrons on the p-side

and is given by Ln = Dn  n

The carrier concentration profiles for a forward biased p-n

junction are thus illustrated below.

-- ++ n
p -- ++

pp0
nn0
np(0)
pn(0)

np0 pn0

x 0 0 x

• The diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of the

minority carrier concentration profile. Therefore, the
diffusion current decays exponentially with distance from
the junction.
• The total current must be constant throughout the device,
therefore, the majority carriers carry a larger fraction of the
current further from the junction.
• The majority carriers move by drift, but because the
majority carrier concentration is high, only an extremely
small electric field is required in the neutral region.
• At the p-contact, all the current is carried by holes (IP).
• At the n-contact, all the current is carried by electrons (IN).

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• The current is constant throughout the device and at any

point can be found by adding the hole current and the
electron current: ID = I N + IP

Assuming negligible recombination in the depletion region,

IN will be the same at both depletion region edges, as will IP.
I D = I P (0 ) + I N (0 )

-- ++ n
p -- ++
i
ID

IN
IP

IN IP
x x

d pn ( x )
The hole current : I P ( x ) = − Aq D p
dx
where A is the diode area
  q VA   − x
From earlier pn ( x ) − pn0 = pn0 exp  − 1 exp 
 kT    Lp 
  
d pn ( x ) ni 2   q VA   − x Remember
=−  exp  − 1 exp 
dx Lp N D   kT    Lp  ni 2
  pno =
ND

A q D p ni 2   q VA   − x
→ Ip (x) =  exp  − 1 exp 
Lp N D   kT    Lp 
 

A q Dp ni2   q VA  
→ I p (0 ) =  exp  − 1
Lp N D   kT  

A q Dn ni2   q VA  
Similarly I n (0 ) = exp  − 1
Ln N A   kT  

 A q D n 2 A q D p ni2    q VA  
n i
ID =  +  exp  − 1
 Ln N A Lp N D  
  kT  

  q VA  
I D = I S exp  − 1
  kT  
 A q D n 2 A q D p ni2   Dn Dp 
IS =  n i
+  = A q ni2  + 
 Ln N A Lp N D 
  Ln N A Lp N D 

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EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the current in a p-n diode with a junction area of
50 μm  40 μm; under
(a) forward bias of 0.5 V
(b) forward bias of 0.7 V

NA = 1  1019 cm-3 ND = 1  1016 cm-3

Dp = 8 cm2/s Dn = 30 cm2/s τn = τp = 1 μs

 Dn Dp 
First calculate IS I S = A q ni2  + 
 Ln N A Lp N D 
A in cm2  
( )( )(
= 50  40  10 − 8 1.6  10 − 19 1.45  10 10 ) 2  30
+
8 
 30  10
−6
(
10 19 ) (
8  10 − 6 10 16 ) 

Dn τn
= 1.906 10-16 A
See video recording 8 for work
a) 0.5 V forward bias through this example
  qV     0.5  
I D = I S exp A  − 1 = 1.906  10 − 16 exp 0.0259  − 1
  kT  
I D = 4.6  10 − 8 A or 46 nA
b) 0.7 V forward bias

 0.7  
I D = 1.906  10 − 16 exp −4
 − 1 = 1.04  10 A or 104 μA
  0259  
0.
EXAMPLE 5
Design a p+n diode where the current will be 200 A at a
forward bias of 0.6 V.
The design is subject to the following constraints:
junction area = 100 μm  100 μm

Assume the following parameters:

diffusivity of holes Dp = 8 cm2/s
diffusivity of electrons Dn = 30 cm2/s
carrier recombination lifetime τn = τp = 1 μs See video recording 8 for work
through this example
Since the diode is p+n , NA will be »ND and the equations
may be simplified accordingly.

To complete the design, we need to find a value for ND.

at 0.6 V forward bias ID = 200 A

  qV  
I D = I S exp A  − 1 = 200  10 − 6 A
  kT  

 0 .6  
I S exp −6
 − 1 = 200  10 A
  0.0259  

→ I S = 1.7  10 − 14 A

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

 Dn Dp 
I S = A q ni2  + 
L N
 n A Lp ND 

For NA >> ND
 Dp   Dp 
I S  A q ni2   = A q ni2  
 Lp N D   D p  p N D 

A q ni2  Dp 
ND =  
IS  D p  p 

ND =
(100  10 − 4 )2 (1.6  10 −19 )(1.45  10 10 )2  8 

− 14 −6
1.7  10  8  10 

N D = 5.6  10 14 cm − 3

DIODE IN REVERSE BIAS

ECp
In reverse bias, a
negative voltage is q(V0 +VR)
applied to the EFp
p–side of the diode.
EVp ECn
qVR
EFn
  q VA  
I D = I S exp  − 1
  kT  
EVn
 q VA 
For –ve VA, exp   1 so ID = – IS
 kT 
i.e. the reverse current is constant.

For more accurate calculation of the reverse current in a diode,

carrier generation must also be considered.
In the depletion region, carriers are generated at rate given by:

ni
G= cm − 3s − 1 where τg is the generation lifetime
g
The total current resulting from carrier generation can thus be
found

ni Multiply generation rate by volume of

I gen = AW q depletion region (A W) and by charge
g
on each carrier (q)

The total reverse current is therefore:

 Dn Dp  ni
I R0 = A q ni2  +  + AqW
 Ln N A Lp N D  g

diffusion generation

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

REVERSE BREAKDOWN
• Under higher reverse bias, electrons are accelerated across the
depletion region by the high electric field. The kinetic energy
they gain can become sufficient to break covalent bonds by
collision with the lattice. Thus, electron-hole pairs are created.
• The new electrons and the original electrons can both take part
in further collisions. The process is called avalanche
multiplication and increases the reverse current significantly.
• Holes can also have collisions and contribute to this process.
• Reverse breakdown occurs at the breakdown voltage, VBD.
• However, some multiplication occurs at lower voltages.
• The multiplication factor M can be expressed as:

and increases rapidly as VR

approaches VBD

CRITICAL ELECTRIC FIELD

• The maximum electric field occurs at the junction (see earlier)
• It is useful to equate reverse breakdown with a critical value
of electric field.
E
For a p+-n step junction,
the electric field graph ECRIT
at breakdown is :

xn x
The breakdown voltage
is given by the area 1
under the graph: VBD  ECRIT x n
2
 q ND   o Si
From earlier: E CRIT =   x n → xn = E CRIT
  o Si  q ND

 o Si
VBD = E CRIT 2
2 q ND
 o Si
Similarly for an n+ - p junction: VBD = E CRIT 2
2 q NA

The breakdown voltage is, thus, controlled by the lighter

doped side and increases with reduced doping.
The critical electric field varies slightly with doping as
shown in the table.
Doping Concentration Critical Electric Field
(cm-3) (V/cm)
1 × 1014 2 × 105
1 × 1015 3 × 105
1 × 1016 4 × 105
1 × 1017 5 × 105

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the breakdown voltage for a p+-n diode where the donor
concentration is:
(a) 1  1014 cm-3
(b) 1  1015 cm-3
(c) 1  1016 cm-3
(d) 1  1017 cm-3

Using the expression derived earlier:

 o Si
VBD = E CRIT 2
2 q ND

a) VBD =
 o Si
E CRIT 2 =
(8.85  10−14 )(11.7 ) (2  105 )2 = 1294 V
2 q ND 2 (1.6  10 −19 )(10 14 )
b) VBD = 291V
c) VBD = 52V
d) VBD = 8V
EXAMPLE 7
a) Calculate the breakdown voltage for an n+-p diode
NA = 2  1015 cm-3 & ND = 1018 cm-3.
b) Calculate the current density for a reverse bias of 10 V.
c) Calculate the current density at 10V less than the breakdown
voltage.
τg = 1  10-5 s
See video recording 10 for work
 o Si
a) VBD = E CRIT 2 Extrapolating ECRIT through this example
2 q NA value from table
( 8.85  10−14 ) ( 11.7 ) 3.3  105 2
= ( ) = 176 V
2 ( 1.6  10 −19 ) ( 2  10 15 )

a) Calculate the breakdown voltage for an n+-p diode

NA = 2  1015 cm-3 & ND = 1018 cm-3.
b) Calculate the current density for a reverse bias of 10 V.
c) Calculate the current density at 10V less than the breakdown voltage.
τg = 1  10-5 s

Assuming that generation current dominates:

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

a) Calculate the breakdown voltage for an n+-p diode

NA = 2  1015 cm-3 & ND = 1018 cm-3.
b) Calculate the current density for a reverse bias of 10 V.
c) Calculate the current density at 10V less than the breakdown voltage.
τg = 1  10-5 s

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

Past examination question (June 2017)

See also the

standard data
and equations
provided on the
examination
paper.

See video recording 13 for work through this past exam question

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

pn junction tutorial

Section A - theoretical

a) Show that at equilibrium the Fermi level is constant across a pn junction.

b) Draw the energy band and charge density diagram for a pn junction in thermal
equilibrium.
c) Draw the energy band and charge density diagram for a pn junction under reverse
bias.
d) Draw the energy band and charge density diagram for a pn junction under forward
bias.
e) Show that the minority carrier density at the edge of the depletion region on the p-side
 qV 
of a pn junction can be represented by the expression n p (0 ) = n p0 exp A  , where
 kT 
VA is the applied voltage.
f) Describe, with the aid of cross-sectional diagrams, the fabrication sequence for a pn
junction diode starting with an n-type silicon wafer.

Section B – calculations - where necessary refer to data sheet for value of constants and list
of standard equations

1. Calculate the built-in voltage and depletion region width at thermal equilibrium for a silicon p-
n junction with NA = 1×1017 cm-3 and ND = 1×1016 cm-3 at 300K.
(Ans. 0.756 V and 0.33 μm)
2. A silicon p-n junction is formed from material with 1×1014 acceptors per cm3 and 1×1017 donors
per cm3. Calculate the depletion width at room temperature when
a) a bias of +0.4 V is applied to the p-side with respect to the n-side,
b) a bias of −20 V is applied to the p-side with respect to the n-side.
(Ans. a) 1.75 μm, b) 16.3 μm)
3. What voltage is required to produce a depletion width of 14 μm at room temperature in a
silicon p-n junction with 51019 cm-3 donors on one side and 1×1015 cm-3 acceptors on the other
side?
(Ans. A reverse bias of 150.6 V)
Use the following parameters for the questions below:
τn = τp = 1 μs Dn = 30 cm2/s Dp = 10 cm2/s
4. If the junction area for the diode in Q3 is equal to 1000 μm2 , calculate the room temperature
current at a forward bias of;
a) 0.4 V, b) 0.5 V, c) 0.6 V.
(Ans. a) 9.4 nA, b) 0.45 μA, c) 21 μA)

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

5. Design a pn+ diode where the current will be 1 mA at a forward bias of 0.6 V.
The design is subject to the following constraint: junction area = 200 μm  200 μm
You will need to calculate a value for the p-type dopant concentration.
(Ans. 8.5×1014 cm-3)
6. Calculate the room temperature breakdown voltage for a silicon p+-n diode with
1×1019 cm-3 acceptors and 1×1015 cm-3 donors.
Take Ecrit for 1×1015 cm-3 doping to be 3105 V/cm.
(Ans. 291 V)
7. Taking avalanche multiplication into account, calculate the room temperature reverse
current for the diode in Q6 at a voltage equal to;
a) 80% of the breakdown voltage;
b) 95% of the breakdown voltage.
The diode is 1mm diameter and use τg = 1 μs.
(Ans. a) 43 nA and b) 125 nA)
8. a) Calculate the reverse voltage required to produce a depletion width of 3.5 μm in
a silicon pn diode with NA = 1×1019 cm-3 cm-3 and ND = 5×1015 cm-3 at 300K.
b) The reverse current measured at that voltage was found to be 8.4 nA.
Calculate the avalanche multiplication factor and the reverse breakdown voltage
of the diode. You may neglect diffusion current and assume that the diode area
is 1 mm2. Use τg = 1 μs.
(Ans. a) 46.5 V, b) M = 1.03, VBD = 83.8 V )

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

Table of constants (This will be given in the examination)

-19
Electronic charge q 1.6  10 C

Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38  10-23 J K-1

or 8.62  10-5 eV K-1

Room temperature T 300K

kT kT
at Room Temperature (300K) = 0.0259 V
q q

Permittivity of free space o 8.85  10-14 F cm-1

SILICON (at 300K)

-3
density 2.33 g cm
atomic weight 28 g mol-1
atoms/cm3 5  1022 cm-3
relative permittivity Si 11.7

intrinsic carrier concentration ni 1.45  1010 cm-3

bandgap Eg 1.12 eV
electron affinity Χ 4.05 eV

SILICON DIOXIDE (at 300K)

density 2.2 g cm-3
molecular weight 60 g mol-1
molecules/cm3 2.2  1022 cm-3
relative permittivity ox 3.9

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 ELE2018 Electronics 2 - pn junction Dr N Mitchell

Standard Equations (These will be given in the examination)

1 dE kT
Basic: E = Dp = p Lp = Dp p
q dx q
qf Fp
p0 = ni e kT qfFp = Ei − EFp

qf Fn
n0 = ni e kT qfFn = EFn − Ei

Drift: J p = qp pE J n = qn nE

dp dn
Diffusion: J p = − qDp J n = qDn
dx dx

kT  N A N D 
Diodes: V0 = f Fp + f Fn V0 = ln 
q  ni 2 

Q + = qN D x n = qN A x p = Q−

2 Si  0 VD ( N D + N A )
W=
qN D N A

 qV A    q VA   −x
p n (0) = p no exp  pn ( x ) − pn0 = pn0 exp  − 1 exp 
 kT   k T    L 
  p

  qV    Dp Dn 
I D = I S exp a  − 1 I S = Aqni 2  + 
  kT    Lp N D Ln N A 

Aqni W 1
IGEN = M= 6
g V
1 −  R V 
 BD 

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