Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

Introduction
Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out by human beings or by nature, is
caused due to flow of energy in one form or the other. The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the
Greek word ‘en "in" plus ergon "work." (energeia), which means ‘in-work’ or ‘work content’.
The work output depends on the energy input. Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic
development of any country. Thus, with an increase in the living standard of human beings, the energy
consumption also accelerated.
A systemic study of various forms of energy & energy transformations is called Energy
science. While fossil fuels will be the main fuel for thermal power, there is a fear that they will get
exhausted eventually in the next century. Therefore, other systems based on non- conventional &
renewable sources are being tried by many countries. These are solar, wind, sea, geothermal & bio-
mass.
Classification of Energy Sources
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria
1. Based on usability of Energy – Primary and Secondary sources
• Primary resources - are those that are embodied in nature, common primary energy
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, sunlight, wind and biomass (such as wood). These
resources are extracted, processed and converted to a form required by the consumer.
• Secondary resources – are supplied directly to consumer for utilization after one or more
steps of transformation e.g., electrical energy and thermal energy.

2. Based on Long-term Availability – Renewable and Non-renewable

• Renewable sources – which are obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible.
Examples wind, solar, tidal and geo-thermal etc.,

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• Non-renewable sources – which are finite do not get replenished after their consumption
or these sources are exhaustible do not quickly replenished. Examples fossil fuels, nuclear
etc.,

3. Based on traditional use – Conventional and Non-conventional

• Conventional – energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and
were common in use around oil crisis of 1973. E.g., fossil fuels, nuclear and hydro-
resources.
• Non- conventional – energy resources which are considered for large scale use after the
oil crisis of 1973. E.g., solar, wind, biomass etc.
4. Based on commercial Application
• Commercial Energy resource - energy sources that are available in the market for a
definite price. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source
not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
• Non-Commercial Energy - energy sources that are not available in the commercial market
for a price. which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in
rural households.
Examples Firewood, agricultural waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation, for drying grain, animal power for transport, wind energy for lifting
water and electricity generation.

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India’s production & reserves of commercial sources

1. Fossil fuels – i.e., solid fuel coal including anthracite, bituminous, peat and lignite,
liquid fuels including petroleum and its derivatives and natural gas.
2. Hydro-power
3. Energy of nuclear fission
4. Minor sources of energy include sun, wind, tides, geo-thermal etc.,
(a) Coal and Lignite
Coal is highly carbonaceous material formed when dead plant submerged in swamp
environments is subjected to the geological forces of heat and pressure over hundreds of
millions of years.
• Coal - has been considered as the major source of energy in India. It can be easily converted
into other forms of energy such as electricity, gas and oil.
• The total estimate resources of coal are now placed at 1, 48, 790 million tonnes, but the
mineable reserves are estimated to be 80,000 million tonnes i.e., on 55% of the total coal
reserves.
(b) Oil and Natural Gas
Demand for fossil fuels grew rapidly with the growth of the industrial sector and
transport services. After Independence, the Government of India felt the need for oil
exploration on an extensive scale, and therefore, (ONGC) was set up in 1956, and (OIL) was
established in the year 1959.
• Total recoverable reserves of oil are estimated at 550 million tonnes and those of gas are
estimated at 500 billion cubic tonnes.
• Production of crude oil is estimated in 2004- 05 at about 54 million tonnes and only 10 % of
the total potential has been utilized.
(c) Hydroelectric power
It plays an important role in the field of power development in India, our country has made
considerable progress in the field of hydroelectricity power generation.
• It is the most economical source of power
• There no environmental pollution problem
• There is no waste disposal problem

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• The annual hydroelectric potential is estimated to be around 90,000 MW (Mega-watt). Out of

this, so far about 18,000 MW has been developed. This mean that only 20% of the total
potential has been utilized.
(d) Atomic or Nuclear Power
India has also developed nuclear power. Uranium and thorium are both sources of nuclear
power generation.
• India’s uranium reserves have been estimated to be of the order of about 70,000 tonnes, which
is equal to 120 billion tonnes of coal.
• Similarly, our thorium reserves of 3, 60,000 tonnes would be equivalent to 600 billion tonnes
of coal.
• Considering the availability of uranium and thorium, the government of India took steps in
setting up nuclear power plants at Tarapur (Maharashtra) , Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu) during
1984- 86, Narora (Uttar Pradesh) during 1989-91 and only 3% of the total potential has been
utilized.
(e) Non-commercial energy sources
• Fuelwood – used for cooking purpose its estimated about 223 million tonnes in 2020-21.
• Agricultural waste -It is also used how for cooing purpose its estimated about 65 million tonnes
in 2001.
• Animal dung commonly used as fuel in our rural India, out of the total estimated production
of 324 million tonnes of animal dung, nearly 73 million tonnes and only 10% of the total
potential is burnt as fuel every year.

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Need for Non-conventional energy sources

1. Fossil Fuels Are a Finite Resource – Due to ever increasing of fossil fuels their
availability rapidly declining.
2. Demand of energy increasing exponentially - due to rapid growth of industrialization &
population conventional sources not be sufficient in the long run. i.e. Most of the reserves
of oil & Natural gas are likely to be consumed in 50 to 100 years.
Example - Coal could be fully consumed by 2250AD.
3. Fossil Fuels Contribute to Climate Change – Petroleum fuels and nuclear fuels cause
pollution leading to degradation of the environment.
Example - Greenhouse gases set to double the existing level – this will increase global
warming problems.
4. Large hydro resources affect wild life – cause deforestation and pose various social
problem.
5. Renewable Energy Is Generally Better for the Environment – in order to reduce
pollution – CO, NOx, Sox, CO2 etc.
6. Renewable Energy Is Democratic.

SALIENT FEATURES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Advantages
• NCES are available Plenty in nature, free of cost.
• They cause no or very little pollution.
• They are environmentally friendly.
• They are inexhaustible.
• They have low gestation period.
Dis-advantages
• Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from NCES is high,
as in general, these are available in dilute forms of energy.
• Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena
beyond human control.
• Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.

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Energy Alternatives
In order to meet energy demand, social & economic development and to improve human
welfare & health, clean energy and associated service is necessary this can be done by non-
conventional energy resources or Renewable energy resources.
List of Non-conventional or Renewable energy resources are
1. Solar energy.
2. Wind energy.
3. Biomass energy.
4. Tidal energy.
5. Wave energy.
6. Geothermal energy.
7. Hydro (Micro hydro).

SOLAR ENERGY

• Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy.

• The power from the Sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8×1011MW which is
many thousands of times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all
commercial energy sources.
• This makes it one of the most promising of the Non-conventional energy sources.
• Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into
other forms of energy, such as heat & electricity.
• Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth ‘s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46%
of visible light, 46% Infrared radiation.

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Advantages
• It is an environmental clean source of energy
• It is free & available in adequate quantities in all most all parts of world where people live
Dis advantages
• Large collecting areas are required in many applications & these results increase of cost.
• It is a dilute source of energy because even in hottest region the radiation flux is available
only 1 KW/m2 & total radiation over a day is 7 KW/m2. These are low values from the
point of view of technological utilization
• Solar energy availability varies widely with time, it occurs because of the day-night cycle
& also seasonally because of the Earth ‘s orbit around the Sun even also depends on local
weather condition.
Solar Applications
• Solar heating
• Solar cooling
• Solar pumping
• Solar furnace
• Solar production of hydrogen
• Solar green houses
• Solar distillation
• Solar energy
• Solar cooking
(a) Thermal Energy
• Thermal energy refers to the internal energy present in a system in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium by virtue of its temperature.
Or
• Thermal energy (also called heat energy) is produced when a rise in temperature causes
atoms and molecules to move faster and collide with each other. The energy that comes
from the temperature of the heated substance is called thermal energy.
• Thermal energy is the total energy of all the molecules in an object.
The thermal energy of an object depends on the 3 things:

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1. The number of the molecules in the object

2. The temperature of the object (average molecular motion)
3. The arrangement of the object molecules (states of matter).
There are 3 modes of thermal energy

• Conduction – is the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact.

• Convection - is the transfer of thermal energy through the movement of a liquid or gas.
The main difference between convection & conduction is that convection involves the
movement of matter & conduction does not.
• Radiation - it is the transfer of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves/ thermal
emission.
Liquid flat plate collector

Main parts of flat plate collector are

Absorber plate – it’s usually made up of copper coated with black so as to absorb all the
radiations falling on it.
Water tube – are the metallic tube through which water circulates.
Transparent glass cover – its made of toughened glass of 4-10 mm thick which helps to
reflect incident solar energy back to absorber plate hence heat remains trap in the aair space
between absorber plate and glass cover.
Insulation – it’s provided below the absorber plate to prevent heat losses by conduction.
Working
• In operation cold water from the over head tank is made to flow through water tubes.
• When solar radiation passes through transparent glass cover & falls on the absorber plate
it absorbs heat energy.
• Heat energy transferred to the cold water flowing through the tube and gets heated up.

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• Heated water being lighter in density than cold water hence it raises up and collects in the
solar water heater tank.
(b) Photovoltaic (PV) or Solar Cell
It is a device that converts solar energy into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels, composed of number of solar cells containing
photovoltaic material.
Photovoltaics are made up of semiconductors & it converts solar radiation into direct current
electricity.

Working Principle
• photo-voltaic cell is made up of semi-conductor materials like silicon one layer has n-type
silicon and another layer has P-type silicon and interface between n-type and p-type silicon
is called P-n junction.
• In a P-n junction semi-conductor material, electrons from n-side tend to move towards P-
side rapidly combine with large number of holes concentration.
• Similarly holes from P-side tend to move towards n-side rapidly combine with large
number of electron concentration, this charge distribution across the junction gives rise to
electrical field.
• When a P-n junction semi-conductor material exposed to the sunlight some of the solar
photons will have a tendency to dislodge free-electrons from its fixed position in the
material.
• Ejected free-electrons tend to move towards p-side and this flow negatively charged
electrons constitute an electric current.
WATER POWER (HYDRO POWER)

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Power obtained from the energy of falling water & running water, which may be harnessed
for useful purposes. In ancient years hydropower has been used for irrigation & the operation of
various mechanical devices such as water mills, saw mills, textile mills, domestic lifts, power
house & paint making.

Classification of hydro power

Conventional hydro-electric power plant develops hydro-electricity by capturing kinetic
energy of flowing river or even from a stream of water without the dams.
• Small hydro projects are 100KW to 30 MW or less & often have no artificial reservoirs.
• Micro hydro projects a few 5 KW to 100KW a few hundred KW isolated homes, villages
or small industries.
• The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate & density of
water, the height of fall & the local acceleration due to gravity.
P=ƞ*ρ*Q*g*h
Where, P – Power in Watts
Ƞ- dimension less efficiency of the turbine
ρ –density of water in Kg/m3
Q- Flow in m3/sec
g- Acceleration due to gravity
h- Height difference between inlet & outlet
Working
• Figure shows hydro-electric power plant which converts energy of flowing water into
electricity.
• Water from the reservoir having high potential energy enters into the nozzle through
penstock.
• In the nozzle potential energy of water is completely converted into kinetic energy.
• Kinetic energy of water is then made to flow over the blades of the turbine to converts into
mechanical energy in the form of rotation of the shaft.
• A hydro-electric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity.

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WIND ENERGY
Kinetic energy associated with the flow of wind can be economically used for the
generation of electricity.
Winds are caused from 2 main factors:
1. Heating & cooling of the air in the atmosphere which generates convection currents/wind.
Heating occurs due to absorption of solar energy in the earth surface.
i.e. During the day, air above the lands heats up faster than air over water. Warm air over
land rises up and expands, cooler air rushes into it & takes it’s place hence creates wind.
Similarly at night winds are reversed because air cools faster over the land than water.
2. The rotation of the Earth about it’s own axis & its motion around the sun.
• The energy available in the wind over the Earth ‘s surface is estimated to be 1.6×107 MW.
• In India, high wind speeds are obtainable in coastal areas of Saurashtra, Western Rajasthan
& some parts of Central India.
Working
• Wind energy which is an indirect source of solar energy conversion can be utilized to run
wind mill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.
• The combination of wind turbine & generator is sometimes referred as an AERO-
GENERATOR.
• Wind turbine consists of hub with specially designed blades that are connected to shaft.
• Hub is connected to the electrical generator through gear box which are completely
enclosed in a housing.

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• Most of the wind mill consists of either 2 to 3 blades which are designed to extract largest
possible volume of air and these blades are mounted high above the ground level.
• When wind flows over the blades of the wind mill, kinetic energy converted to mechanical
work in the form rotation of shaft, which in turn drives the electrical generator produce the
electricity.

• Data quoted by some scientists that for India wind speed value lies between 5 Km/hr to 15-
20 Km/hr

The power of the wind

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion, there are 3 factors determine the output
from a wind energy converter.
1. The wind speeds
2. The cross section of wind swept by rotor
3. The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system & generator or pump
Kinetic energy = K.E= ½ mv2
But m = ρ*A*v
Available wind Power =Pa = 1/8 ρπD2V3 ......Watts

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BIO MASS
• Bio-mass means organic matter, the energy obtained from organic matter or derived from
biological organisms (plants & animals) is known as bio-mass energy.
• Animals feed on plants, & plants grow through the photosynthesis process using solar
energy. Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of bio
mass energy.
• In simplest form the reaction is the process of photosynthesis in the presence of solar
radiation, can be represented as follows
• In the reaction, water & carbon dioxide are converted into organic material i.e., CH 2O, which
is the basic molecule of forming carbohydrate stable at low temperature, it breaks at high
temperature, releasing an amount of heat equal to 112,000 Kcal/mole (469 KJ/mole).
H2O + CO2 CH2O + O2

CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + 112 Kcal/mole

• The average efficiency of photosynthesis conversion of solar energy into bio mass energy
is estimated to be 0.5% - 1.0%.
• To use biomass energy, the initial biomass maybe transformed by chemical or biological
processes to produce intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol &
charcoal etc.
• The dry matter mass of biological material cycling in biosphere is about 250 × 109 tons/Y.
The biomass energy is used directly by burning or is further processed to produce more convenient
liquid & gaseous fuels

Bio-mass resources fall into three categories

1. Bio-mass in its traditional form solid bio-fuel - The first category is to burn the bio-mass
directly & get the energy. (wood & agricultural residue), &
2. Bio-mass in non-traditional form liquid bio-fuel - In the second category, is converted into
ethanol & methanol to be used as liquid fuels in engines.
3. Bio-mass in the 3rd category is gaseous bio-fuel called bio- gas (bio-gas contains 55to 65%
Methane, 30-40% CO2 & rest impurities i.e., H2, H2S, & some N2).

ADVANTAGES

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• It is renewable source.
• The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
• It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange.
• The forestry & agricultural industries that supply feed stocks also provide substantial economic
development opportunities in rural areas.
• The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower than fossil fuels.
DISADVANTAGES
• It is dispersed & land intensive source.
• Low energy density
• Labour intensive & the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial applications are
significant.

TIDAL ENERGY

The tides in the sea are the result of the universal gravitational effect of heavenly bodies like
SUN & MOON on the Earth. Periodic rise & fall of the water level of sea is called TIDE.
These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power.
• When the water is above the mean sea level called flood tide.
• When the water is below the mean sea level called ebb tide.
Basic principle of tidal power
• To harness the tides, a dam built, across the mouth of the bay. It will have large gate in it and
also low head reversible turbine.
• The difference in water level is obtained between the basin and sea.
• The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low- tide passing through
sluices gate respectively.
• Reversible water turbine, which can run continuously, both during high tide and low tide,
turbine is coupled to generator.
• i.e. Potential energy of the water stored in the basin as well as energy during high tide, is used
to drive the turbine which is coupled to the generator to generate electricity.

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• Above arrangement of harnessing tidal energy called single basin plant. The plant
continues generate power till the tide reaches, its lower level.
• The potential in ocean tides resource is estimated as 550 billion KWh/year [120,000 MW]
power.

WAVE ENERGY
Waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface of winds to sea. The rate of energy
transfer depends upon the wind speed & the distance over which interacts with water.
• Wave Energy refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to
do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water
(into reservoirs).
• Wave power is a form of renewable energy.
• The energy flux in waves is more than that available from solar, wind & other renewable
sources.
• Wave motion is highest at the surface and diminishes exponentially with depth; however,
wave energy is also present as pressure waves in deeper water.
• Wave height is determined by
✓ wind speed
✓ the duration of time the wind has been blowing, fetch (the distance over which the
wind excites the waves)
✓ Depth and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy of
the waves).

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• It consists of two chambers and reversible turbines, with a one chamber over the other.
• In operation when water go into low chamber, then the water in low chamber rises up and
push up the air in the surface of water to turn a turbine.
• when the water drops down to lower chamber, so the air flows back into the upper
chambers to run turbine. Therefore, we can generate electricity from reversible turbine
which make we have more profitable than only a turbine.
ADVANTAGES:
• The availability of large energy fluxes
• Productivity of wave conditions over periods of days.
DIS ADVANTAGES
• Irregularity of wave patterns in amplitude, phase & direction, which makes it difficult to
extract power efficiently.
• The slow & irregular motion of wave is difficult to be coupled to electrical generator
requiring high & constant speed motion.
• The power extraction system is exposed to occasional extreme stormy conditions.

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OCEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a renewable energy technology that uses
the natural temperature difference in oceans to produce clean, reliable electricity, day and night,
year-round.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) technology uses a turbine generator to create
renewable energy from the temperature difference between cold deep seawater circulating
in the ocean and surface seawater warmed by the sun.
• In order to produce power with the low temperature range, a working fluid with low
boiling point is used.
Example: Ammonia (NH3)
Working Principle

• OTEC uses the ocean's warm surface water with a temperature of around 25°C to vaporize
working fluid such as ammonia in the evaporator.
• The vapor expands and spins a turbine coupled to a generator to produce electricity.
• vapour is then cooled by deep seawater that has been pumped from the deeper ocean layer,
where the temperature is about 5°C.
• That condenses the working fluid back into a liquid, so it can be reused. This is a continuous
electricity generating cycle.
• The amount of energy created is dependent on the amount of water available to cool or heat
the working fluid.
• Interesting areas for OTEC are in the tropical, equatorial zone, where the ocean temperature
difference is highest.

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Advantages
• OTEC is fuel free
• IT has a low environmental impact
• can supply pure water for both drinking and agriculture,
Disadvantages
• Capital cost is very high.
• Efficiency of energy conversion is very low.
• Needs very large sized turbines due to use of low pressure of steam having high specific
volume in case of open cycle.
• Cost of electric power generation per kWh is very high.

TAR SANDS
Tar sands (also known as oil sands) are a mixture of mostly sand, clay, water, and a thick,
molasses-like substance called bitumen.
• Bitumen is made of hydrocarbons the same molecules in liquid oil and is used to produce
gasoline and other petroleum products.

• The above schematic diagram indicating the processes involved in producing synthetic crude
oil from tar sands which is made up of sand stone deposits containing bitumen.
• The sands obtained from surface mining are first passed through a conditioning drum where
water, steam & caustic soda are added & slurry is formed.
• The slurry passes into a separation tank where the coarse sand settles at the bottom & a froth
of bitumen, water & fine mineral matter forms on the top.

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• The froth is diluted with Naptha & subjected to centrifugal action, as a result, fine mineral
matter & water is removed.
• After this, the Naptha is recovered & recycled, & the bitumen obtained is subjected to hydro
processing & desulphurization to produce synthetic crude oil.
OIL SHALE
Oil shale is an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen from which
liquid hydrocarbons can be produced, called shale oil.

• After crushing the oil-shale, it can be burnt directly [like coal] & has a heating value
ranging from 2000 to 17,000 KJ/Kg.
• It is used in this manner for generating electricity & supplying heat.
OR
• Alternatively, the oil-shale can be converted into oil, this is done by heating crushed oil-
shale to about 500 ˚c in the absence of air in a retort, under this condition, pyrolysis occurs
& the kerogen is converted to oil.
Note: Kerogene is a complex organic fossil fuel found in oil shale & other sedimentary rock
which is insoluble with organic solvent yields petroleum products on distillation.

NUCLEAR POWER
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can
be obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions.
Or
Nuclear energy is the chemical energy released during nuclear fission or fusion of an atomic nuclei.
the 2 alternatives under study are,
1] The Nuclear breeder reactor (Nuclear Fission)
2] Nuclear fusion
Nuclear breeder reactor (Nuclear Fission)

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In order to understand the working of a breeder reactor, it is necessary to understand the fission
reactions. Naturally occurring uranium contains 3 isotopes, U234, U235 & U 238.

• In nuclear fission chain reaction, small particle called neutron bombarded with uranium U 235
and splits it into 2 lighter elements like barium & krypton, 3 neutron and large amount of
energy in the form of heat and light.
• Heat energy used to generate high pressure steam to drive generator and produce
electricity.

• The break-up of U235 when subjected neutrons & the release of a large amount of energy as
heat [8.2 ×107 KJ/gm of U235].
• The neutrons are slowed down by a moderator, & used to bombard the U235 nucleus again,
there by setting up a controlled chain reaction.
Working Principle

• It mainly consists of nuclear breeder reactor, steam generator, cooling water condenser, cooling
tower, turbine and generator.
• In nuclear breeder reactor where nuclear fission chain reaction is initiated, controlled and
sustained at a steady rate and enormous amount of heat is produced.

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• Large amount of heat is then absorbed by coolant in the reactor and then flows through
the tubes of heat exchanger and transfer its heat to the water hence steam is produced.
• Steam leaving the heat-exchanger is made to flow over the blades of the turbine hence
heat energy of steam is converted into mechanical energy in the form of rotation of the
shaft which in turn drives electrical generator to produce electricity.
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process in which atomic nuclei are fused together to form heavier nuclei.
For example: sun like all other stars creates heat and light through nuclear fusion. In sun
hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium.
• Nuclear fusion reaction occurs at very high temperature.
• The process of fusion in the sun is known as proto-proton chain reaction.
• Fusion starts in a sun with a proton and through a series of steps it turns into helium. i.e.
fusion of proton release energy along with the formation of helium.
Step 1: two pairs of protons fuse to form deuteron and positron with the emission of energy.

Step 2: Each deuteron fuse with an additional proton to form Helium-3 and releases
gamma rays as energy.

Step 3: two Helium-3 nuclei fuse together to form Be-6, which is unstable further
disintegrates into two protons and He-4 Nuclei and energy released 17.59 MeV.

Step 4: 4 protons fuse to produce one He-4, two positrons and release energy. Here energy
of He-4 atom is less than energy of 4 protons fused together.

Advantages
• Small quantity of fuel can generate large amount of energy.

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• Not affected by adverse weather conditions.

• It reduces the demand for depleting energy sources such as coal, oil and gas.
• It can be used in transportation systems especially in nuclear powered submarines.
• Cost of nuclear power generation is comparable with coal and oil base power plants
• Requires less floor space
• More reliable in operation.
Disadvantages
• Disposal of nuclear waste is a major problem.
• Initial cost is high.
• Maintenance cost is high.
• Radioactive waste are hazardous.

Geo-thermal Energy – is the energy which lies embedded within the earth crust. In other
words heat energy stored deep inside the earth-crust. Volcanoes, Geysers, Hot springs &
boiling mud pots are visible evidence of the great reservoirs of heat that lies within the
earth.
• Most Geothermal energy produces low grade heat at about 50-70˚c which can be used
directly for thermal applications.
• Occasionally, geothermal heat is available at temperature about 90˚c & so electrical power
production from turbines can be contemplated.
Two ways of electrical power production from geothermal
1. Heat energy is transformed to a working fluid which operates the power cycle. This
may be particularly useful at a place of fresh volcanic activity. Where the molten
interior mass of earth vents to the surface through fissures & substantially at high
temperature, such as between 450 to 550 ˚c can be found. By embedding coil of pipes
& sending water through them can be raised.
2. Hot geothermal water & or steam is used to operate the turbines directly. Here highly
pressurized water is pumped from deep underground through well. When water reaches
the surface, pressure drop causing the water turns into the steam and steam spins the
turbine and generates electrical power.
• Here pipe lines are usually 1 m in diameter over distance up to about 3 Km.

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• Water separators are usually required to separate the moisture & solid particles
from steam.
Geothermal Power Plants
• At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to pump
steam or hot water to the surface.
• Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
• When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn
into steam.
• The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
• The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.
• The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.

ADVANTAGES:
• It is reliable source of energy
• It is available 24 hours/day
• It is available is independent of weather
• It has an inherent storage future, so no extra storage facility is required
• Geo thermal plants require little land area.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Generally, energy is available as low-grade heat
• Continuous extraction of heated ground water may lead to subsidence [setting or slumping
of land]
• Drilling operation leads to noise pollution
• Thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over long distances [longer than ̴ 30 Km]

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• Corrosive & abrasive geo thermal fluid reduces the life of plants.

Applications

• Direct heat use

• Electric power generation

Solar Radiation and its Measurement

Introduction

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

• Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. It can be received in the form
of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat
and electricity.
• Sun is an enormous fusion reactor which turns hydrogen into helium, It radiates energy
towards earth by its Surface temperature of about 60000C.
• The power from the Sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8×1011MW which is
many thousands of times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all
commercial energy sources.
• Sunlight, is the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. its
recorded by using,
1. sunshine recorder
2. Pyranometer
3. Pyrheliometer.
• The World Meteorological Organization defines sunshine as direct irradiance from the Sun
measured on the ground of at least 1120 W/m2/nm.
• Solar Radiation - Its radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that
creates electromagnetic energy.
• The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about
5800 K.
Definition of Solar radiation / Extra-terrestrial Radiation
Is the radiation which is incident outside the earth’s atmosphere. The extra-terrestrial
radiation is 1367 w/m2

Solar Radiation Spectrum – The solar spectrum covers wavelengths ranging from gamma rays
to radio waves.
• Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth ‘s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46%
of visible light, 46% Infrared radiation.
• Visible range – spans 400 to 700 nm. As the name suggests, it is this range that is visible
to the naked eye.
• Infrared range that spans 700 nm to 1mm. It is largely responsible for the warmth or heat
that the sunlight carries.

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

It is also divided into three types on the basis of wavelength:

a. Infrared-A: 700 nm to 1400 nm
b. Infrared-B: 1400 nm to 3000 nm
c. Infrared-C: 3000 nm to 1 mm.
• Ultra-violet range that spans from 100-400 nm.

Solar Radiation Received at the Earth’s surface

Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is in the attenuated form because it is
subjected to the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth’s
atmosphere.

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• Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapor in the
atmosphere and lesser extent due to other gases (like CO2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4) and
particulate matter. It results in an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere.
• Scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate matter in the
atmosphere. Scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions, some going back to the
space and some reaching the earth’s surface.
1. Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without change of direction i.e., in line
with the sun is called Direct radiation or Beam radiation.
2. Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface from all parts of sky’s after being
scattering is called Diffuse radiation.
3. The sum of Beam radiation and Diffuse radiation is called as Total or Global
radiation.
I Global = I Direct + I Diffused.
Solar Constant
• Sun is a large sphere; heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions and its
diameter is 1.39 *106 km while that of the earth is 1.27 * 104km.
• The mean distance between the two is 1.50 * 108km, it subtends an angle of only 32 minutes
at the earth’s surface. This is because very large distance.
• As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears to be it’s essentially
equivalent to that coming from black body surface at 57620k.
Definition
Solar Constant (Isc): It’s the rate at which solar energy received at the top of the earth’s
atmosphere on a unit area perpendicular to the rays of the sun at mean distance of the earth and
the sun.
• The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light.
• It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1366 W/m2.
• Earth is closest to the sun in the summer and furthest away in the winter. This variation in
distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation I that
reaches earth.
• The value on any day can be calculated from the equation.

Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 27
Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

Where n = day of the year

AM = Y/ x

Solar radiation data – Radiation data are measured on a horizontal surface.

• Typical records of global and diffused radiation versus solar time on a horizontal surface
for a clear day and partly cloudy day.
• Figure shows daily radiant energy is obtained from the area under the corresponding curve.
• Similarly, monthly average of daily radiation is obtained by averaging over a span of the
corresponding month and expressed in KJ/m2.

Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 28
Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

• Incident solar radiation is also a function of the tilt or orientation of the solar collector from
horizontal surface.
• A typical pattern of relative irradiation throughout the year for tilt angles
i. Latitude at 00
ii. Latitude at -150
iii. Latitude at +150

• Above figure shows, seasonal adjustment of tilt angles may results in enhanced radiation.
• From the above figure, maximum solar radiation on a collector surface, when it’s placed at
normal to the incident rays.
• But as the position of the sun in the sky changes throughout the day the collector has to
adjust itself continuously to collect maximum radiation.
• Therefore maximum energy can be collected if collector also tracks the sun along two axes.

Instruments used for measuring solar radiation

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

1. Pyranometer - is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling

on a horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view.
• Here sensor that is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density in watts/m2
from a field of view of 180 degrees.
• Greek words pyr – fire, ano – above, sky with a wavelength ranging from 0.3µm to 3µ.
Principle
• Here incidence angle Ɵ is the angle between normal to the PV module face and incoming
solar beam radiation.
• Response to “beam” radiation varies with cosine of the angle of incidence.

Zero angle of incidence – Full response

90-degree angle of incidence – zero response

60 – degree angle of incidence – 50% response

Main components of Pyranometer are

1) Black surface 2) Glass Dome 3) Guard plate 4) Leveling Screws 5) Platform

• Thermopile is a contactless temperature sensing element, here several thermocouples are

connected in series/parallel connection

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

• It works on thermo-electric detection principle. Here incoming solar radiation absorbed by

horizontal blackened surface over a wide range of wavelength.
• Temperature difference between hot & cold junctions is a function of solar radiation falling
on the sensitive surface.
• Due to temperature difference emf generated which is function of measure of global
radiation.
• A thermopile sensor with a black coating, it absorbs all the solar radiation falling on it.
• A glass-dome, limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers (cutting off the
part above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 1800 field of view. Another function of the
dome is that it shields the thermopile sensor from convection.
• The hot junctions of thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions
are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly.
Working
• Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation.
• Its temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat
loss by convection, conduction and radiation.
• The heat flows through the sensor to the pyranometer housing.
• The thermopile sensor generates a voltage signal (emf) that is proportional to the solar
radiation.
• This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10mv can be read, recorded or integrated
over a period of time and is a measure of global radiation.
Shading Ring arrangement for measuring Diffused Radiation
• Diffuse solar radiation can be measured by adding a shading device to a pyranometer,
which blocks the direct beam radiation.
• The shading ring is fixed in such a way that it’s plane is parallel to the plane of path of
sun’s daily movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile element and glass domes
of pyranometer at all the times from direct sun shine.
• Consequently, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the sky.

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2. Pyrheliometer - This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on a

surface normal to the sun’s rays
• In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a thermopile
attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube.
• The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis tracking
mechanism and alignment indicator.
• Thus the black plate receives only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse radiation
falling within the acceptance angle of the instrument.
Working
• Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which
converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded.
• This voltage can then be calibrated to give units of w/m2.
• Pyrheliometers are used for scientific research and for placing solar panels.

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3. Sunshine recorder
• It was invented by John Francis Campbell in 1853 and modified in 1879 by Sir George
Gabriel Stokes.
• This instrument measures the hours of bright sunshine during course of the day.
• It essentially consists of glass sphere about 10 cm in diameter mounted on its axis parallel
to that of earth, within a spherical bowl as shown in the fig.
• The bowl and glass sphere is arranged in such a way that sun rays are focused sharply at a
spot on a card which held in a groove in the bowl.
• As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns a path along this paper.
• The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the
bright sunshine.

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain briefly classification of Energy sources
2. Elaborate on India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources.
3. Mention the need of Non-convention energy sources and explain briefly.
4. Explain the advantages and limitations of non-conventional source of energy
5. What are energy alternatives.
6. Explain the working of Liquid flat plate collector and mention its advantages and
limitations.
7. Explain the working of photo-voltaic cell and mention its advantages and limitations.
8. Explain the construction & working of hydro-electric power plant.
9. Explain the construction & working of Wind power plant.
10. What are bio-mass and mention it’s advantages and disadvantages.
11. Mention types of tides and explain the working of Tidal energy.
12. Explain the working of Wave energy and mention it’s advantages and disadvantages.
13. Explain the working of Ocean thermal energy conversion and mention it’s advantages and
disadvantages
14. Explain the working of geo-thermal energy and mention it’s advantages and disadvantages.
15. Mention the nuclear reactions and explain the working of nuclear power plant
16. Explain the following energy sources: i) Tar sands ii) Oil shale
17. With a schematic representation, explain the mechanisms of absorption, scattering, beam
and diffuse radiation received at earth surface.
18. With a neat sketch, explain the working of an instrument used to measure beam radiation
of solar energy.
19. With a neat sketch, explain the working of an instrument used to measure Global radiation
of solar energy.
20. What are the various instruments used for solar radiation measurement?
21. Explain the working of Pyranometer and Pyrheliometer

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Module1: Introduction, Solar Radiation and it’s Measurement

UNIVERSITY EXAM QUESTIONS

1. What are non-conventional energy sources? Explain in brief the prospects of these energy
sources with reference to Indian context. (12 marks April 2018)
2. Explain the following energy sources: i) Tar sands ii) Oil shale (8 marks April 2018)
3. Explain in brief beam and diffuse solar radiation (3 marks April 2018)
4. With a neat sketch, explain the working of an instrument used to measure beam radiation
of solar energy (8 marks April 2018)
5. With a neat sketch, explain the production of oil from oil shale and tar sands. (12 marks
Dec 2017/Jan 2018)
6. Explain the advantages and limitations of use of non-conventional source of energy
(8marks Dec 2017/Jan 2018).
7. With a neat sketch, explain the working of an instrument used to measure global radiation
of solar energy (10 marks Dec 2017/Jan 2018)
8. Elaborate on India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources (10 marks Dec
2016/Jan 2017)
9. Enlist the merits and demerits of any 3 non-conventional energy sources (10 marks Dec
2016/Jan 2017)
10. With a schematic representation, explain the mechanisms of absorption, scattering, beam
and diffuse radiation received at earth surface. (6 marks Dec 2016/Jan 2017)
11. What are the various instruments used for solar radiation measurement? Explain
pyranometer with neat sketch. (8 marks Dec 2016/Jan 2017)
12. Explain Tar sands and oil shale as energy source and also mention their limitations (10
marks Dec 2015/Jan 2016)
13. What is the need for alternate energy sources? Explain by considering solar energy (5
marks Dec 2015/ Jan 2016)
14. Discuss the limitations of non-conventional sources of energy (5marks dec 2015/ Jan 2016)
15. With a neat sketch, explain the working of pyranometers? (5 marks Dec 2015/ Jan 2016)
16. Write short notes on spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial radiation (5 marks Dec 2015/
Jan 2016)

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Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

Introduction
 Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. It can be received in the form
of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat
and electricity.
 Sun is an enormous fusion reactor which turns hydrogen into helium, It radiates energy
towards earth by its Surface temperature of about 60000C.
 The power from the Sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8×1011MW which is
many thousands of times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all
commercial energy sources.
 The World Meteorological Organization defines sunshine as direct irradiance from the Sun
measured on the ground of at least 1120 W/m2/nm.
 The spectrum of solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about
5800 K.
Solar Radiation Received at the Earth’s surface
Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is in the attenuated form because it is
subjected to the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth’s
atmosphere.

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Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

 Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapor in the
atmosphere and lesser extent due to other gases (like CO2, NO2, CO, O2 and CH4) and
particulate matter. It results in an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere.
 Scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate matter in the
atmosphere. Scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions, some going back to the
space and some reaching the earth’s surface.
1. Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without change of direction i.e., in line
with the sun is called Direct radiation or Beam radiation.
2. Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface from all parts of sky’s after being
scattering is called Diffuse radiation.
3. The sum of Beam radiation and Diffuse radiation is called as Total or Global
radiation.
I Global = I Direct + I Diffused.

Sun-Earth relationship
 Sun is a large sphere; heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions and its
diameter is 1.39 *109m while that of the earth is 1.27 * 107m.
 The mean distance between the two is 1.50 * 1011m, it subtends an angle of only 32
minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because very large distance.
 As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears to be it’s essentially
equivalent to that coming from black body surface at 57620k.

Earth’s Rotation
 The term earth’s rotation refers to the spinning of earth on its axis.
 Due to rotation, the earth’s surface moves at the equator at a speed of about 467m per
second or slightly over 1675km per hour.
 One rotation takes exactly 24 hours and it’s called a mean solar day.

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Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

 The earth’s rotation is responsible for daily cycles of day and night i.e. at any moment in
time one half of the earth is in sunlight while other half is in darkness.
 Its axis is inclined at an angle of 23.50. i.e., earth’s axis is not at right angles to their surface,
but inclined at an angle of about 23.50 from the perpendicular.

Earth’s Revolution
 The orbit of the earth around the sun is called an earth revolution. This celestial motion
takes 365.26 days to complete one cycle.
 Earth’s orbit around the sun is not circular, but oval or elliptical. An elliptical orbit causes
the earth’s distances from the sun to vary over a year.
 on January 3, perihelion, earth is closest to the sun (147.3 million km) and on July 4
aphelion, earth is farthest from sun (152.1 million km) and average distance of earth from
sun over a period is 149.6 million km i.e. 14.96 * 108km.
 The ecliptic plane be defined as a 2-D flat surface that geometrically intersects the earth’s
orbital path around the sun.

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Definition of solar constant

Solar Constant (Isc): It’s the rate at which solar energy received at the top of the earth’s
atmosphere on a unit area perpendicular to the rays of the sun at mean distance of the earth and
the sun.
 The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light.
 It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1366 W/m2.
 Earth is closest to the sun in the summer and furthest away in the winter. This variation in
distance produces a nearly sinusoidal variation in the intensity of solar radiation I that
reaches earth.
 The value on any day can be calculated from the equation.

Where n = day of the year

SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY

1. Declination angle (δ)
It is an angle between a line extended from the center of the sun to the center of the earth
and the projection of this line upon the earth’s equatorial plane.
 Also, angle of declination is positive when measured above the equatorial plane in the
northern hemisphere.
 Declination is the direct consequence of earth’s tilt and it would vary between + 23.50 on
June 22 to -23.50 on December 22.
 Similarly on equinoxes march 21 & sept 22 declination is zero.

Where n is the day of the year

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2. Angle of Latitude (ϕ)

It is the vertical angle between the line joining that point of location to the center of the
earth and it’s projection on the equatorial plane.
 When the point is north of equator the angle is positive and when south it is
negative. also ϕ = 00 for point on the equator and ϕ = 900 for a point at the poles.
Construction
 Let us consider a center of the earth, N-S pole and equatorial plane with some
declination angle (δ).
 Let us assume some random Point P on the earth surface, draw an arc parallel to
merdian from N-S pole to an equatorial plane in order to project the point on
equatorial plane.
 Now joining the line from point of location P to the center of the earth similarly
line joining on the point on the equatorial plane to the center of the earth.

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3. Inclination angle or Altitude (α)

It is the angle between sun’s rays and its projection on a horizontal surface is known as
the inclination angle/altitude (α).
 α = 00 at Sunset and sunrise
Construction
 Let us consider a horizontal plane as shown in the figure and marking direction
North, south, West and East also represented.
 Consider a sun’s ray and Mark of incidence at a point P on horizontal surface.
 Now taking the projection of sunrays on the horizontal palne and P-Q will be
horizotal projection of sun’s ray on horizontal plane.
 Therefore angle between sun’s rays and it’s projetion on horizontal plane is
known as altitude or inclination angle.

4. Zenith angle (Ɵz)

The angle between the sun’s ray and the perpendicular (normal) to horizontal plane is
known as Zenith angle (Ɵz).
 Zenith angle is compliment of inclination (altitude) angle, i.e. α + Ɵz = 900.
 Hence at sunrise zeinth angle is +900, where as at sunset -900.
Construction
 Let us consider a horizontal plane as shown in the figure and marking direction
North, south, West and East also represented.
 Consider a sun’s ray and Mark of incidence at a point P on horizontal surface.
 Now taking the projection of sunrays perpendicular/normal to the horizontal
palne.

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Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

 Therefore angle between sun’s rays and perpendicular or normal to the horizontal
plane is known as altitude or inclination angle.

5. Solar azimuth angle (γs)

It is the horizontal plane between the line due south and the projection of the sun’s ray on
the horizontal plane.
 It is considered as positive when it is measured from south towards west.

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6. Hour Angle ()

It is the angle representing the position of the sun with respect to clock hour and with
reference to the sun’s position at 12 noon.
OR
Angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly in line
with the sun’s rays.
 It’s a measure of the time of the day with respect to solar noon. =150 per hour.
 At noon =0.
 Based on the local solar time (LST) hour angle  +ve at forenoon and -ve at
afternoon.

7. Slope - It is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal.
 It’s positive for surface slopping towards south.
 It’s negative for surface slopping towards north.

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Expression for the angle between the incident beam and the normal to a plane surface
(Angle of Incidence (θi).
It is the angle between sun’s ray incident on the plane surface (collector) and normal to that
surface.
In general, the angle of incidence can be expressed as,

Local Apparent Time (Solar Time)

Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when sun is crossing
observer’s meridian. At solar noon the sun is at the highest position in the sky. The sun traverses
each degree of longiutde in 4 minutes (as earth takes 24 hours to complete onerevolution).
Standard time is converted into solar time by incorporating two corrections, as follows:

 Difference in longitude of observer’s location (Lioc) and standard longitude (Lst) used for
measuring the standard time of country. ( Standard logitude: has a magnitude of 4minutes
for every degree differennce in longitude.)
+ve sign convention is used if the standard meridian of the country lies in western
hemisphere and -ve sign convention if that lies in eastern hemisphere.
 Equation of time (E):E is the correction arising out, if variation in length of solar day due
to variations in earth’s rotation and orbital revolution.
E can be calculated by using the below equation

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Apparent motion of sun

The apparent motion of the sun, caused by the rotation of the earth about it’s axis. It
chnages the angle at which sunlight will strike the earth.
 From a fixed location on earth, the sun appears to move throughout the sky.
 The position of the sun depends on the location of a point on earth, time of day and the
time of year.
 This apparent motion of the sun is shown in the figure below..

 This apparent motion of the sun has a major impact on the amount of power received by a
solar collector.
 When the sun's rays are perpendicular to the absorbing surface, the power density on the
surface (solar collector) is equal to the incident power density.
 However, as the angle between the sun and the absorbing surface changes, the intensity
on the surface is reduced.
 When the module is parallel to the sun's rays the intensity of light essentially falls to zero.
 For intermediate angles, the relative power density is cos(θ).
where θ is the angle between the sun's rays and the module normal.

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Day length
At the time of sunrise or sunset, the zenith angle, Ɵz = 900, substituting this equation 3, we
obtain sun rise hour angle (s).

Since s =15° per hour, the duration of sunshine hours (Day length) td is given by:

Thus, day length is a function of latitude (ϕ) and solar declination (δ).

RADIATION FLUX ON A TILTED SURFACE

The flux density on a solar collector depends not only on the incident solar radiation, but
also depends on the angle between the collector and the sun. i.e. When the absorbing surface and
the sunlight are perpendicular to each other, the flux density on the collector is equal to that of
the sunlight . However, as the angle between the sun and a collector surface is continually
changing, the flux density on a solar collector is less than that of the incident solar radiation.

Total radiation incident on an inclined surface consists of three components:

(i) Beam radiation
(ii) Diffuse radiation and
(iii) Radiation reflected from ground and surroundings.

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Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

It may be mentioned here that both beam and diffuse components of radiation undergo
reflection from the ground and surroundings.
Total radiation on a surface of arbitrary orientation may be evaluated as:

Where Ib & Id is the beam and diffuse radiation respectively, simillarly rb, rd and rr are
known as tilt factors for beam, diffuse and reflected components respectively.

The definitions and expressions for these factors are given below:
1. Beam Radiation (rb)
It is defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation incident on an inclined surface (I’b) to
that on a horizontal surface (Ib).

where, Ibn is the beam radiation on a surface normal to the direction of sunrays.

For a tilted surface facing south, γs = 0°, the expression for rb may be written as:

Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 12
Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

2. Diffuse Radiation (rd)

It is defined as the ratio of flux of diffuse radiation falling on inclined surface (Id) to that
on the horizontal surface.
 The value of this tilt factor rd depends upon the distribution of diffuse radiation
over the sky and on the portion of the sky dome seen by the tilted surface.
 Surface is tilted at slope β from the horizontal surface appears as ( 1 + cos β) / 2.
 Assume that the sky is an isotropic source of diffuse radiation.
Note: Isotropic is a physical property which has the same value when measured in
different directions.

3. Reflected Radiation (rr)

The reflected component mainly comes from the ground and surrounding objects.
 Since ( 1 + cos β) / 2 is the radiation shape factor for the tilted surface with
respect to the sky.
 Simillarly ( 1 - cos β) / 2 is the radiation shape factor for the surface with respect
to the surrounding ground.
 Assume that the reflection of the beam and diffuse radiation falling on the ground
is diffuse & isotropic and the reflectivity is considered as ρ.
Therfore tilt factor for reflected radiation may be written as:

Note: where r is reflection coefficient of the ground (equal to 0.2 for ordinary grass or
concrete and 0.6 for snow-covered ground respectively).
Total Radiation
For total radiation, let Hb= hourly beam radiation and Hd= hourly diffuse radiation.
Thus the total radiation such as beam, diffuse and reflected radiations incident on a tilted
surface is given as,

Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 13
Module2: Solar Radiation Geometry and Solar Thermal Conversion

Prof. Krishna Prasad S, Assistant Professor Dept. of ME, MIT Mysore Page 14