1.

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION TO SUSPENSION DYNAMICS

Suspension dynamics is a branch of science that deals with suspension system of vehicle
which include two as well as more than three wheeled vehicles. The suspension dynamics
is branch of vehicle dynamics. The suspension system includes list of components that is
used to achieve various goals such as flat ride, pitch, roll and so. As the name of the report
says Suspension Dynamics it makes clear that the report is purely based on suspension
system. Here the topic of Suspension Dynamics is discussed in detail with detailed
explanation on mathematical approach as well as theoretical approach on designing a
suspension system. Here Suspension Dynamics is being divided into three major subtopics
named “Ride Rate and Ride Frequency”, “Roll Gradient” and “Pitch Gradient”. In each of
the above-mentioned chapter’s a clear explanation will be given for finding each of the
parameters with diagrams and formulas explaining the physics behind it. Along with the
suspension dynamics a chapter of steering kinematics is discussed for better understanding
of the suspension system.

1.1 SUSPENSION SYSTEM

To understand suspension dynamics, one must understand what is a suspension system and
the parts of a suspension system. The word suspension itself makes clear to think of
isolation. Hence the main idea here is to isolate (isolating an object from the other). Here
instead of an object the suspension system has to isolate the acceleration force, braking
force, steering force and the force due to the irregularities from the road being transferred
to the body of the vehicle hence maintaining the balance.

Suspension systems are basically divided mainly into two categories.

• Dependent Suspension System
• Independent Suspension System

The above-mentioned categories are further divided into different categories or suspension
systems.

DEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

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 A dependent suspension system has a solid axle that goes across the width of the frame.
In a dependent suspension system wheels on both sides are connected and operate
together as one, hence making car bend or follow the direction of one suspension
depending on the other.

INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Any automobile system that allows both of the wheels to operate freely independent of
each other is considered an independent suspension system or in other words force or
movement from one wheel has no effect on the other wheel.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

The aim of the thesis focuses on explaining the suspension dynamics with a practical
approach by making the reader understand the basic science of a suspension system. The
thesis has a clear as well as a step-by-step procedure on understanding the suspension
dynamics of a vehicle. As mentioned earlier the thesis has been divided into three main
categories. Hence this can be summarized as follows,
i. Understanding the ride frequency and ride rate
ii. Steering kinematics
iii. Load transfer
Load transfer is further divided into two main categories as longitudinal and lateral
load transfer which constitutes of two separate chapters namely roll gradient and
pitch gradient.

Further details and explanations are given in the following chapters.

2. CHAPTER 2 – RIDE RATE AND RIDE FREQUENCY

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 This chapter explains the way of determining the ride rate and ride frequency along with
the basics required to calculate same.

2.1 ROLL CENTER

Roll center of a vehicle is nothing but a point or a force coupling at which the cornering force
in the suspension are reacted to the vehicle body. In other words, roll center establishes a force
coupling between the sprung mass and the un-sprung mass. Roll center of a vehicle is found
by projecting a line from the center of the tire ground contact patch through the front view
instant center for each side of the car. When these two lines from each side of car intersects, it
is known as the roll center of the sprung mass. So, when a car corners a centrifugal force at the
center of gravity (CG) if acted and this lateral force at CG is translated to the roll center.

FIGURE 2.1-1 ROLL CENTER

The higher the roll center the smaller the rolling moment about the roll center that has to be
resisted by the springs.

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 FIGURE 2.1-2 ROLL CENTER HEIGHT

Rolling moment (M) = Fy*h

2.2 MOTION RATIO

Motion ratio may be defined as the change in displacement of force elements to the change
in vertical wheel center movement. The motion ratio can also be called as installation ratio.
Hence it really is inverse of mechanical advantage. The image below illustrates a simple
suspension system in which the trailing arm is pivoted on the chassis at a point P. Now when
the wheel moves vertically at a distance (▲x), the difference of distance between the spring
(a) and the wheel center (b) makes the spring to compress an amount (▲y).

FIGURE 2.2-1 SIMPLE SUSPENSION SYSTEM

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 Motion Ratio => (▲y/a) = (▲x/b)

▲x = (b/a)*(▲y)

▲y = (a/b)*(▲x)

2.3 FORCE RELATIONSHIP WITH MOTION RATIO

FIGURE 2.3-1 SIMPLE SUSPENSION SYSTEM DISPLAYING FORCE RELATION

Consider the above image following a wheel in motion. Here (a) is the distance between
the chassis and the spring and (b) is the distance between the chassis and the wheel center. Also
(Fwc) is the wheel center which moves vertically following the wheel movement and (Fs) is
the spring frate or change in length if spring corresponding the wheel movement.

(Fwc*b) = (Fs*a)

Fwc = Fs*(a/b)

Taking the equation of motion ratio (▲y) from the chapter 2.2 and divide it in the above
equation.

Fwc/▲x = Fs/▲y

Kwc = ks*(a/b)^2

Considering the spring to be inclined at an angle the motion ratio becomes

Motion ratio = (a/b) sin θ

θ – angle made by the spring

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2.4 ANTI CHARACTERISTICS

Anti-characteristics is a term that gives us the longitudinal to vertical force coupling

between the sprung and the unsprung mass. That is the amount of force transferred through the
springs and the suspension linkages. It purely depends on the side view swing arm geometry.
Consider the following condition,

FIGURE 2.4-1 CAR BODY

The above image represents a car body with w1 and w2 as wheels, l as wheelbase and Fb as
the braking force. Now consider the car is braking conditions. As the car brake’s the front of
the car dives and the suspension compresses (front braking condition), which in turn makes the
force to act at the instant center (IC) for the anti-characteristics.

FIGURE 2.4-2 CAR BODY IN BRAKING (OR) ANTI DIVE

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The above figure represents a simple free car body in braking or anti-dive motion, where Fb is
the braking force, Fz is the normal force action on the tire and finally e and d are the vertical
and horizontal distance of tire contact patch from instant center.

Fb * e = Fz * d

Fb – M * a

Fz – (M * a) * (h/l)

Now the equation becomes,

(M*a) * e = ((M*a)*(h/l) * d

(e/d) = (h/l) → 100% anti dive

The anti-characteristics is the result of reaction force due to braking. Due to the braking force
a moment Fb is produced and this moment causes the suspension to dive. Hence as a result a
load transfer occurs from the rear to front. Now as the suspension system is inclined at an angle
the percentage of anti-dive in the front and the percentage of anti-lift in the rear can be
calculated using the following formula.

% anti-dive front = ((tan θf) /(% braking front) * (h/l)) * 100

% anti-lift rear = (( tan θr) / (h/l) * (% braking rear)) * 100

FIGURE 2.4-3 ANTI-CHARACTERISTICS WITH BRAKES APPLIED

2.5 RIDE FREQUENCY

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 Ride rate is defined as the vertical force per unit vertical displacement of the tire ground
contact with respect to chassis. In other words, it is the undamped natural frequency of the body
(sprung and unsprung mass).

FIGURE 2.5-1 SIMPLE CAR BODY

𝑘
Natural frequency ω = √ 𝑚

Where,

k – stiffness

m – mass

𝐾𝑟
ωs (sprung mass) = √𝑀𝑠

1/Kr = ( 1/Ks ) + ( 1/Kt )

Kr – ride rate

Kr = (Ks * Kt) / (Ks + Kt)

Now considering unsprung mass the setup becomes parallel,

Kr = ( Ks + Kt )

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 𝐾𝑠+𝑘𝑡
ω us (unsprung mass) = √ 𝑀𝑢𝑠 (rad/s)

We also know that,

ω = 2πf

f = ω / 2π (hz)

𝑘
f = ½π √ 𝑚

2.6 SUSPENSION DAMPING: SHOCK ABSORBERS.

Hydraulic dampers are used to suppress the oscillation and control the vertical motion of
the sprung mass. On contrary to the name “Shock Absorber” the dampers dose not absorbs the
road shocks, instead it dissipates the energy put into them by the suspension. This does this by
moving hydraulic fluid between different chambers through small orifices, hence converting
the kinetic energy of bump into heat. Now let us see the suspension damping fundamentals.
The Image below represents a spring mass damper system. With k as spring and c as damper.

FIGURE2.6-1 SIMPLE ONE CORNER RIDE MODEL

Now consider the system where a constant force F is being applied which makes the body to
move a distance x, this makes the equation quite simple

X = F/k

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Now equation on the system becomes as follows with k in (N/m) and c in (N/ms)

m𝑥̈ +c𝑥̇ +kx=0

we already know that, the undamped natural frequency can be found by,

𝑘
ωn = √ 𝑛

Now moving on to the damping ratio, it is convenient mathematical tool that shows us the
influence of damping constant c on transient response. Hence considering a non-zero
damping coefficient, that is c is not equal to zero. This makes the non-zero making the
damping the transient, in x, between the time that the force is removed and then the mass
comes to rest. That is at x=0 will vary in accordance with the damping ratio (ς).

c= 2ς√𝑘𝑚

critical damping Ccrit = 2√𝑘𝑚

damping ratio ς = c/2√𝑘𝑚

3.CHAPTER 3 – LONGITUDINAL LOAD TRANSFER

This chapter deals with the calculation of load on each wheel under given condition. Load
transfer is nothing but shifting of total normal load around a vehicle during acceleration,
braking and cornering. Load transfer is one of the important factors that decides a vehicles
steady state cornering with maximum efficiency. The total load transfer is governed by vehicle
dimension, mass and center of gravity of the vehicle.

3.1 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia is the vehicle’s ability to resist rotation. In other words, it helps in
finding the torque required fir angular acceleration.

I = W𝑑 2

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3.2 LOAD TRANSFER – SPRUNG AND UNSPRUNG MASS

The mass on the vehicle side of the spring (the mass that is supported by spring) is 100%
sprung mass. The tires, wheels brake rotors, calipers, knuckle assembly are some of the
examples of the unsprung mass. Where as the suspension links are 50% sprung mass and 50%
unsprung mass. The % unsprung mass of shock, springs and roll bars would be a function of
their motion ratio.

FIGURE 3.2 -1 FRONT AND REAR SUSPENSION SYSYTEM

3.3 LOAD TRANSFER – CENTER OF GRAVITY

The center of gravity of a vehicle is one of the most fundamental design parameters for
vehicle dynamics as tire performance depends on the vertical or in other words normal force
applied on the tire. Most of the setup changes made in the car in a way affects the tire by change
of balance. This may be either by change in center of gravity or by weight distribution. Hence
for a better setup change one must know location of CG.

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 FIGURE 3.3-1 HORIZONTAL LOCATION OF CG

Now considering the above image as a simply supported beam

FIGURE 3.3-2 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Taking moment,

W*b = Wf * l

b = (Wf / W) * l

also, a = l – b

3.4 LOAD TRANSFER: SPRUNG MASS CG (LATERAL)

If the springs are about to resist the roll motion, then it is due to the sprung mass. So in
this condition, we will not use the total CG of the vehicle. The unsprung mass CG is isolated
from the total and only the sprung mass CG is left behind for the calculation and it is shown
separate in the following figure:3.1-1. Here, the lateral force is zero as we are not considering
the offset ý́́́́́́́ ́́́́

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 FIGURE 3.4-1 LATERAL AND LONGITUDINAL SPRUNG MASS CG LOCATION

Total sprung weight (Ws) = W-Wu1-Wu2-Wu3-Wu4

Here Wu is the unsprung weight. The longitudinal location of the sprung mass CG is found by
taking moment about the rear axle

bs = ( Wb – Wuf * l )/ Ws

FIGURE 3.4-2 SPRUNG MASS CG HEIGHT

To find the height of the sprung mass CG, a moment is taken about the x1 axis.

hs = ( ( W * h ) – ( Wuf * Rlf ) – ( Wur * Rlr )) / Ws

3.5 LONGITUDINAL LOAD TRANSFER: WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

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 Longitudinal load transfer occurs due to positive (acceleration) or negative (braking)

acceleration. These positive and negative acceleration is given in terms of ax or -ax. When a
vehicle us subjected under any of these forces, an inertial reaction force is developed that is
similar to the centrifugal force in a turn.

FIGURE 3.5-1 LONGITUDINAL LOAD TRANSFER

The above image shows case for driving traction,

Wf = W*(b/l)

Wr = W*(a/l)

▲W = (Max*h)/l

3.6 LOAD TRANSFER: VEHICLE PITCH

Pitch is the angle that the vehicle body makes with horizontal in side view. This is due to
the load transfer of a vehicle as a result of positive or negative acceleration. In other words,
pitch angle is a function of load transfer and wheel rate. Pitch of a vehicle is classified as, squat
due to positive acceleration and dive due to negative acceleration.

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 FIGURE 3.6-1 VEHICLE PITCH

Consider the springs acting in opposite direction, where Zf and Zr are the front and rear
displacement with ▲W is load on the (front and rear) wheel.

FIGURE 3.6-2 SIMPLE REPRESENTATION OF SUSPENSION DISPLACEMENT

Zf = (▲W/2) / Kf

Zr = (▲W/2) / Kr

Kf – front ride rate

Kr – rear ride rate

Pitch angle θ = ((Zf+Zr) / l) * (180/π))

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3.7 LONGITUDINAL LOAD TRANSFER: ANTI-CHARACTERISTICS

“Anti” in suspension, is a term that describes the longitudinal to vertical force coupling
between sprung and unsprung masses. It results from the slope of side view swing arm angle.
This slope can be changed by changing the side view instant center (SVIC) location. This can
be done by hardpoint optimization. It tells us the fraction of longitudinal load transfer occurring
through the springs and that occurring through the suspension links. The net longitudinal load
transfer however remains the same as it is governed purely by the CG height, the vehicle weight
and the wheel base.

FIGURE 3.7-1 Fx AND Fz REACTED BY THE LINKS

The actual change in load ▲load is given by,

▲load = W * (ax / g) * (h/l)

The change of load through the suspension changes the pitch altitude of the car. The % brake
distribution or in other words brake balance determines the actual force as a part or fraction of
longitudinal force.

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 Fz * d = Fx * e

(W (ax /g) * (h/l)) * d = (W * ax /g) * e

e/d = h/l → (100% anti-sqat condition)

This 100% anti squat shows that during acceleration, the rear spring will not compress. From
the above equation, (h/l) is the swing arm angle for 100% anti-squat (θideal) and (e/d) is the
actual swing arm angle (θ).

% anti-squat = (θ/ θideal) * 100

The above-mentioned equation is for rear-wheel-drive vehicle. In case of all wheel drive
vehicle,

% = (ϕdrive * (e/d)) / (h/l)

We already know,

Load transfer (dynamic) ▲W = W * (ax/g) * (h/l)

Anti-squat force = ϕdrive * (e/d) * (W * ax /g)

Total net force = load transfer – anti-squat force

Now this anti-characteristic can be used to reduce or eliminate the vehicle pitch. Now consider
a rear-wheel-drive anti-squat.

Fr => Kr * Zr = ((Wax/g) * (h/l)) – ((Wax/g) * (e/d) * ϕdrive)

Consider, ϕdrive = 1

Fr = ((Wax/g) * (h/l)) – ((Wax/g) * (e/d))

Ff => Kf * Zf = ((Wax/g) * (h/l))

Now,

Zr = ((Wax/g) * (h/l) – (Wax/g) * (e/d)) / Kr

Zf = ((Wax/g) * (h/l)) / Kf

We know that,

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 θ (pitch) = (Zf+Zr) / l

for the pitch angle to be zero,

Zf = - Zr

𝑊𝑎𝑥 ℎ 𝑊𝑎𝑥 𝑒
( 𝑔 )( 𝑙 )+( 𝑔 )(𝑑)
(Wax /g)∗ (h/l)
=
𝐾𝑓 𝐾𝑟

𝑒 ℎ
(𝑑)−( 𝑙 )
Kr / Kf = ℎ
(𝑙)

This gives e/d, that is 100% pitch compensation swing arm setup.

Assuming (Kr = Kf), the equation becomes,

e/d = 2h/l

𝑒
𝑑
% pitch compensation = 2ℎ (100% pitch compensation)
𝑙

Now let us summarize the above-mentioned concept and to introduce some new formulas. If
the tire is assumed as a rigid body this makes the spring rate is equal to wheel rate.

Ks = Kt

To calculate the distance of CG from the front axle, percentage of balance in front is multiplied
with wheel base.

Distance of CG from front axle = % front * wheelbase (l)

Distance of CG from the rear axle = %rear * Wheelbase (l)

To calculate the front and rear instant center distance from the wheel center,

Front IC vertical distance from wheel center = Front IC vertical distance from contact patch –
tire radius

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Front IC vertical distance from wheel center = Rear IC vertical distance from contact patch –
tire radius

So far from the above mentioned concept of longitudinal load transfer concept of vehicle
pitch can be determined. Now to calculate longitudinal load transfer the following formulas
are some derived from the longitudinal load transfer concept. To calculate the front and rear
static axle weight, we know that the it is the percent of total weight from the front and rear.

Front axle static weight = % front * total weight

Rear axle static weight = % rear * total weight

The total longitudinal load transfer (LLT) can be calculated with total weight (W), CG height
(h) and wheel base (l).

𝑤∗ℎ
LLT =
𝑙

Once load longitudinal load transfer occurs front and rear axle will have in change of weight
and this can be calculated with the following formula.

Front axle weight after load transfer = Front axle static weight – LLT

Rear axle weight after load transfer = Rear axle static weight – LLT

If load transfer is complete and they may transfer either to front or rear depending on the
positive or negative acceleration, there will be a deflection in the front and rear axle. Hence to
calculate the front and rear end deflection under load the total longitudinal load transfer has to
be divided by front wheel rate.

𝐿𝐿𝑇
Front end deflection under load =
2∗𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝐿𝐿𝑇
Rear end reflection under load =
2∗𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Now the longitudinal load transfer makes the vehicle to transfer the vehicle weight in front or
rear, and hence making an angle or pitch. This pitch gradient can be calculated by,

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 Pitch gradient without compensation (deg/g) =
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑+𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
tan−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

As the above formula is in deg/g it can be converted to radian by multiplying with 180/π

Pitch gradient without compensation =

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑+𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 180
tan−1 *
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝜋

Now assuming that the vehicle is under acceleration, hence the acceleration pitch gradient can
be found by the following.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐶 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 180

Front pitch angle = tan−1 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐶 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ*
𝜋

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝐶 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 180

Rear pitch angle = tan−1 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝐶 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ ∗ 𝜋

To find the front and rear swing angle for 100% anti-lift and anti-squat angle the following
formula is used with (h) as CG height and (l) as wheelbase

ℎ 180
Front swing arm angle for 100% anti-lift = tan−1 ∗
𝑙 𝜋

ℎ 180
Rear swing angle for 100% anti-squat = tan−1 ∗
𝑙 𝜋

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡

Front anti-lift % = * 100
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 100% 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟

Rear anti squat % = * 100
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 100% 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡

Front end deflection under deflection (deg) =

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑∗(100−𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 %)
100

Rear end deflection under compensation (deg) =

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑∗(100−𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖−𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡 %)
100

20
 Pitch gradient with compensation =
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛+𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
tan−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒∗(180/𝜋)

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛−𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Pitch compensation = ∗ 100
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

For a formula vehicle the following are the anti-squat and anti-lift geometry.

FIGURE 3.7-2 ANTI SQUAT GEOMETRY OF FORMULA CAR

The following are the formula for calculating the anti-squat geometry of a formula car.

tan 𝜙𝑅
% anti-squat = ℎ * 100
𝐿

𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
tan 𝜙𝑅 =
𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

21
 FIGUER 3.7-3 ANTI-DIVE GEOMETRY OF FORMULA CAR

The following are the formula for calculating the anti-dive geometry.

𝐿
% front dive = % front braking * tan 𝜙 𝑓 * ℎ

𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
tan 𝜙𝑓 = 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

22
 FIGURE 3.7-4 ANTI-LIFT GEOMETRY FOR FORMULA CAR

The following are the formula for anti-lift geometry for formula car.

Front anti lift = Fthrust * tan 𝜙

𝐿
% Rear anti-lift = % rear braking * tan 𝜙𝑅 * ℎ

𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
tan 𝜙𝑅 = 𝑆𝑉𝑆𝐴 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Theoretically, anti-characteristics can be used to eliminate suspension deflection and hence

pitch. But practically 100% compensation is never done. Following are some of the reasons
100% compensation is never done, suspension links may take more load, flat stops are not
desirable, caster change my occur during braking thus changing steering effort and so.

4. CHAPTER 4 -LATERAL LOAD TRANSFER

23
 Assume that the car is cornering in a steady turn, load is transferred from inside pair of
wheels to the outside pair of the wheels because the car center of gravity is above the ground.
this chapter shows how to calculate the total load transfer due to cornering and the distribution
of load transfer at the front and rear axle.

4.1 FRONT VIEW SWING ARM GEOMETRY: ROLL CENTER HEIGHT

This front view swing arm instant center location controls the roll center height (RCH),
the camber change rate, and the tire lateral scrub. The roll center is the one that connects the
front and rear roll center’s projected through a line known as roll axis. This is repeated for each
side of the car and the line where these two lines intersect is the roll center of the sprung mass.

FIGURE 4.1-1 WEIGHT DSTRIBUTION

Taking moment about point O,

∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 0

𝑡
WL = W * 2 + Way * h

𝑊 ℎ
WL = 2
+ Way * 𝑡

𝑊 ℎ
Here 2
is the static weight and 𝑡 is the dynamic lateral load transfer.

24
 ℎ
Change in load ▲W = W*A*y*
𝑡

▲𝑊 ℎ
= 𝐴𝑦 ∗
𝑊 𝑡

▲𝑊
This shows that ( 𝑊 ) the lateral load transfer is purely dependent on the CG height and half

the track width (t/2).

4.2 LOAD TRANSFER COMPONENTS

Normally to control of lateral load transfer is done by changing the height of CG and the
track width, but these are only limited only to a extend. To improve handling by looking load
transfer as a whole, there are three main components to play with. They are as follows.

1. Load transfer from unsprung mass

2. Load transfer from direct lateral force
3. Roll transfer from roll

Note that the tuning of lateral load transfer is adjustable only through the direct lateral force
and load transfer from roll and load transfer from unsprung mass is not advisable as it will
affect the unsprung mass itself and also the wheel hop frequency.

4.3 LOAD TRANSFER FROM UNSPRUNG MASS

Now consider the unsprung mass is isolated and the CG is found. As mentioned earlier
load transfer from unsprung mass is not advisable as it will affect the unsprung mass itself and
also the wheel hop frequency, but at least this component is useful as a setup tool as it involves
adding or removing mass from the unsprung part and this could affect the wheel hop frequency
and tire contact with the road and hence grip.

25
 FIGURE 4.3-1 SIMPLE REPRESENTATION UNSPRUNG MASS

From the above figure 4.3-1, (Wua) is the unsprung mass per axle and (Zus) roll center
height.

𝑊𝑢𝑎∗𝐴𝑦∗𝑍𝑢𝑠
▲Wua =
𝑡

4.4 LOAD TRANSFER FROM DIRECT LATERAL FORCE

The load transfer from direct lateral force is the result of force coupling effect that roll
center have. Change of roll center height or the change of sprung mass changes the load
transfer from the direct lateral force. This links the force on the sprung mass to the unsprung
mass. As this involves change of load transfer laterally it is responsible for overturning
moment or in other words rolling moment.

As it is clear that the car is taking a turn and from the figure below, as the car gradually
approaches and takes the turn the inside of sprung mass leans towards the outside due to the
lateral force acting on it.

26
 FIGURE 4.4-1 TRNASFER OF LATERAL LOAD FROM CG TO RC

From the above image it is clear that sprung mass leans towards inside to the outside edge of
the car when taking a corner. As there is a distance between the CG and the roll center (RC), a
moment is produced during the corner. As a result of this moment the force Fy is being
transferred from the CG to the RC and it is shown in the image below.

FIGURE 4.4-2 TRANSFER OF FORCE FROM CG TO RC

As the force is being transferred from the CG to RC, Mϕ becomes,

Mϕ = Fy * harm

Now taking moment about point O, that is at the center of contact patch of the outer wheel.

𝑊𝑠𝑎∗𝐴𝑦∗𝑍𝑟𝑐
▲W =
𝑡

27
 𝑙−𝑥
Wsa =
𝑙

From the above formula, (l-x) is the distance between the sprung mass CG and the axle
opposite to being analysed. Consider analysing the front axle, then x is the distance between
the rear axle and CG and vice versa. Also note that depending on the axle being analysed x
changes between a and b

FIGURE 4.4-3 SIMPLE REPRENSENTATION OF CAR TO FIND Wsa

On taking moment,

∑𝑀 = 0

W * b = Wf * l

𝑙−𝑎
Wf = W * 𝑙

4.5 LOAD TRANSFER FFROM BODY ROLL

28
 This component is the reason for roll moment or in other words it is known as the elastic
component. When the vehicle corners, the centrifugal force from inertia generates a moment
that makes the sprung mass roll to the outside of the corner. Due to this the springs deflect and
the loads are reacted by the tires and this contributes to lateral load transfer. As the lateral load
transfer occurs during cornering, the CG is shifted and gives rise to another moment. Hence
this body roll is resisted by the roll stiffness of the suspension system which includes both
springs and anti-roll bars. From the image below, consider that a car is travelling at speed V
and traversing at a radius R.

FIGURE 4.5-1 TRANSFER OF LATERAL FORCE FROM CG TO RC

𝑉2
From the image, h1 is the harm, W is the sprung mass (Ws) and is the lateral acceleration
𝑅𝑔

(Ay). As there are two moments, one from the lateral component and the other from the shift
of CG, lateral moment can be calculated from the following.

Roll moment (Mϕ) = 𝑊𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑦 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ cos 𝜙 + 𝑊𝑠 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ sin 𝜙

From the above equation ( 𝑊𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑦 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ cos 𝜙 ) acts as the lateral component and ( 𝑊𝑠 ∗
ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ sin 𝜙 ) acts as the shift of CG. When this lateral load transfer occurs, the roll moment
is shifted by roll stiffness.

29
 Mϕ = Kϕ * ϕ

From the above equation ϕ is the roll angle and Kϕ is the total roll stiffness.

Kϕ = ( Kϕf + Kϕr )

Where,

Kϕf – front roll stiffness

Kϕr -rear roll stiffness

This makes the roll moment equation as follows,

Mϕ = Kϕ * ϕ

𝑊𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑦 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ cos 𝜙 + 𝑊𝑠 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ sin 𝜙 = ( Kϕf + Kϕr ) * ϕ

On assuming cos 𝜙 as 1 and sin 𝜙 as ϕ, the equation becomes as follows.

( Kϕf + Kϕr ) * ϕ = 𝑊𝑠 ∗ 𝐴𝑦 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 + 𝑊𝑠 ∗ ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚 ∗ 𝜙

𝜙 𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚
(roll gradient) =
𝐴𝑦 𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦
(roll angle) ϕ =
𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

No considering for a particular axle,

𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦
Mϕa = Kϕa *
𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

Where,

Kϕa – roll stiffness

𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦
– roll angle
𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

As the above equation is in moment, it has to converted to load transfer.

𝑀𝜙𝑎
Load transfer =
𝑡𝑎
Where,

30
 𝑀𝜙𝑎 – roll moment
ta – track width
From all the equations from the above from all three components, the expression for total load
transfer for a particular axle can be found by,
▲𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑢𝑎∗𝑍𝑢𝑠 𝑊𝑠∗𝑍𝑟𝑐 (𝑙−𝑥) Kϕa ∗𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦
= + * +
𝐴𝑦 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑎 𝑙 𝑡𝑎∗(𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚)

(unsprung mass) (direct force) (elastic)

To calculate the harm,

FIGURE 4.5-2 REPRESENTSTION OF harm

There are two possibilities of forming a triangle, one from ZRCF and point x and the other from
ZRCF difference between front and rear RC height.

FIGURE 4.5-3 ILLUSTRATION OF TRIANGLE FOR harm CALCULATION

31
From the above figure,
ZRCF – front roll center height
ZRCR – rear roll center height
harm – distance between CG and roll axis
l = as + bs
𝑥 ZRCR− ZRCR
=
𝑎𝑠 𝑙

harm = hs – (ZRCF + x)

4.6 SPRING AND ROLL BAR SELECTION

Before selection of spring and roll bar, some basics are being explained. We know that,
Roll stiffness Kϕ = Kϕs + Kϕarb
Where, Kϕs is primary roll stiffness and Kϕarb is auxiliary stiffness. Now consider the static
condition of a car with KL as left stiffness and KR as right stiffness.

FIGURE 4.6-1 SIMPLE SPRING SETUP

As the lateral load transfer occurs, the sprung mass tends to move from outside to inside edge.
When the sprung mass moves from outside to inside edge, the sprung mass tends to roll about
the center line with x as deflection in springs.

32
 FIGURE 4.6-2 SPRUNG MASS ROLLING OVER CENTER LINE
𝑥
𝑡 = tan 𝜃
2

tan 𝜃 ~ θ
𝑡∗𝜃
x=
2
𝑡 𝑡
Roll moment ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = (KL * x) * 2 + (KR * x) * 2

Normally, both left (KL) and right (KL) will be of same stiffness,
KL = KL = K
𝑡 𝑡
∑ 𝑀𝑜 = K * x * + K * x *
2 2
𝑡
∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 2 * k * x *
2

∑ 𝑀𝑜 = K * x * t
We know that ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = Kϕs * θ
Kϕs * θ = K* x * t
2∗𝑥
Kϕs * =K*x*t
𝑡
𝐾∗ 𝑡 2
Kϕs =
2

from the above equation,

Kϕs – roll stiffness due to spring
t – track width
θ – roll angle

33
As the roll stiffness of the spring is found, the roll stiffness can be found from the total. Apart
from the spring and anti-roll bar’s the one other component that provides roll stiffness is tire.
Here the spring (Ksp) and anti-roll bar (Karb) is in parallel connection and the (Ksp) and (Karb)
act series with the tire (Ktire).

FIGURE 4.6-3 COMPONENTS CONTRIBUTING TO ROLL STIFFNESS

As the selection of spring is done, now roll bar has to be selected. The selection of roll bar has
the following steps to it.
The first step is calculating the total load transfer. The total load transfer (TLT) can be found
by the following formula.
𝑊∗𝐴𝑦∗ℎ
TLT =
𝑡

The second step is to find the percentage of weight distribution. Normally finding the front is
enough, once the load transfer in front is found it can be used to find the rear from the total.
The front load transfer can be found from the following equation.
FLT = % Wf * TLT
The third step is selecting the roll stiffness of the particular axle, in this as we found the frontal
area, the front roll stiffness (Kϕa) has to found. We know that the total load transfer from all
𝑊𝑎
the three components ▲ 𝐴𝑦 ,

▲𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑢𝑎∗𝑍𝑢𝑠 𝑊𝑠∗𝑍𝑟𝑐 (𝑙−𝑥) Kϕa ∗𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦

= + * +
𝐴𝑦 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑎 𝑙 𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

𝜙 𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚
Since, = ,
𝐴𝑦 𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

substituting for Ay we get,

34
 ▲𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑢𝑎∗𝑍𝑢𝑠 𝑊𝑠∗𝑍𝑟𝑐 (𝑙−𝑥) Kϕa ∗𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗(𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚)𝜙
= + * +
𝐴𝑦 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑎 𝑙 𝑡𝑎∗(𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚) ∗(𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚)

▲𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑢𝑎∗𝑍𝑢𝑠 𝑊𝑠∗𝑍𝑟𝑐 (𝑙−𝑥) Kϕa ∗𝜙

= + * +
𝐴𝑦 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑎 𝑙 𝑡𝑎

The fourth step is to find the roll stiffness Kϕ. It can be found from the equation of roll angle
ϕ,
𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚∗𝐴𝑦
ϕ=
𝐾𝜙𝑓+𝐾𝜙−𝑊𝑠∗ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚

as, Kϕ = 𝐾𝜙𝑓 + 𝐾𝜙r

The fifth step is to find the roll contribution due to spring at wheel center level. It can be found
from the total roll stiffness formula with Kϕs as primary or spring stiffness and Kϕr as auxillary
stiffness.

Kϕ = 𝐾𝜙𝑠 + 𝐾𝜙𝑟
The sixth step is to find and isolate the tire contribution. To isolate the tire contribution towards
the roll stiffness, first tire rate and the wheel rate has to be found.
Kwf ∗ 𝑇𝑤 2
Kϕsf = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡+ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Static normal load can be found from the following equation,

Static normal load front = total vehicle weight * % distribution on front
Static normal load rear = total vehicle weight * % distribution on rear
(front wheel rate) Kwf = Ks * 𝑀𝑅 2
Where,
Ks – spring rate
MR - motion ratio
The same procedure is followed for the rear.
Kwr ∗ 𝑇𝑤 2
Kϕsr = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡+ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Where,
Kϕsf – roll stiffness front
Kϕsr – roll stiffness rear
Now moving on to roll stiffness of front and rear from front and rear tire rate’s
Ktf ∗ 𝑇𝑤 2
Kϕtf = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡+ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Ktr ∗ 𝑇𝑤 2
Kϕtr = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡+ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

35
To isolate the tire stiffness from the above formulas,
Kϕ ∗ Kϕt
Total stiffness after tire isolation =
(𝐾ϕ− Kϕt)

The seventh step is to find the auxiliary stiffness,

Kϕarb = Kϕf – Kϕs
Kϕf – total roll stiffness after tire isolation
Kϕs – roll stiffness of tire
As the values of anti-roll bar stiffness are in degrees, it has to be converted into linear stiffness
180
by a factor of ( 𝜋 ) or (57.2958). Once this is done, diameter of the roll bar can be determined.

500000∗(𝑂𝐷 2 −𝐼𝐷2 )
Kϕarb = 0.4422∗𝐴2∗𝐵+0.2264𝐶 3 * 𝑀𝑅 2 * 𝑇𝑊 2

FIGURE 4.6-4 ANTI-ROLL BAR

5. CHAPTER 5 -STEERING SYSTEM

This chapter deals with the basic concepts and ideas of steering system along with
Ackermann steering geometry.

5.1 KING PIN GEOMETRY

36
 The entire steering system is governed by kingpin and it is the main pivot pin of the steering
mechanism. For s solid axle a physical kingpin is present where as for a double wish bone a
virtual king pin is formed from the two ball joints.

5.2 KING PIN GEOMETRY [ FRONT VIEW ]

The front view geometry of a king pin is used to identify the scrub radius. Scrub radius is the
distance between the steering axis and the tire center line. The scrub radius is being
differentiated into two types depending on the position the king pin axis that meets the center
line of the tire and they are positive scrub radius and negative scrub radius. If the intersection
is made from inside of the vehicle from the tire then it is positive scrub and if the intersection
is made outside the vehicle from tire then it is negative scrub.

FIGURE 5.2-1 FRONT VIEW KING PIN GEOMETRY

As the scrub radius is a virtual point, consider it as a moment arm. If this moment arm is large
(distance) the force gets amplified and is kicked back. That is if the scrub radius is high, the
force that is transmitted to steering system is also high. As the scrub radius is considered a
moment, this moment is given by the following equation, where SR is the scrub radius and F
is force acting

M = SR * F

37
5.3 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SCRUB

As discussed earlier that the scrub radius gives rise to a moment, this moment is
responsible for a moment the counteracts moment that is created by unequal braking and in
turn helps in stabilizing the same.

FIGURE 5.3-1 POSITIVE SCRUB

From the above image above, it is clear that imbalance moment (M) created during a braking
condition is in same direction from the moment created during braking condition. As this is in
same direction the positive scrub aids imbalance moment and makes the turning more
complicated.

FIGURE 5.3-2 NEGATIVE SCRUB

38
From the figure 5.3-2 it is clear that the imbalance moment (M) is in opposite direction with
the moment created from braking. Due to this reason this moment, negative scrub creates a
counter acting moment that helps in aligning the wheel back.

5.4 KING PIN GEOMETRY [ SIDE VIEW GEOMETRY ]

From the side view geometry of king pin geometry, the caster angle is obtained. Caster is
the angle that the kingpin makes with vertical in side view. Caster trail is the distance between
the tire center and the point where the kingpin axis meets the ground. There are two types of
caster, positive and negative caster. If the king pin axis is tilted towards the rear of vehicle, the
caster is positive. If the king pin axis is tilted towards the front of vehicle, the caster is negative.

FIGURE 5.4-1 CASTER ANGLE

As the king pin makes an angle and gives rise to the caster, it creates a moment arm or in other
words gives rise to caster trail. The caster trail is affecting the steering characteristics. As the
castor trail increases, the steering effect increases.

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 FIGURE 5.4-2 MOMENT DUE TO CASTER

M = Fy * x

5.5 KING PIN GEOMETRY: INCLINATION / OFFSET

King pin inclination or offset can be obtained from the front view of the car. If the kingpin
axis leans towards the body, then it is positive and if the kingpin axis leans outward of the
body, it is negative. The distance between the wheel center and the point where the kingpin
axis meets the wheel center is known as spindle length. Wheel offset is the distance between
the wheel centre and the hub center. For details refer figure 5.2-1. King pin inclination changes
the body height and also changes dynamic camber when steered.

5.6 STEERING KINEMATICS: STEERING RATIO

Steering ratio is the angle made between the steering wheel and the angle made at the
wheel.

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

Steering ratio = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

The rack and pinion steering system are used to convert the rotary motion at the steer wheel to
linear motion at the tie rod ball joint. This is determined by C – factor.

𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙
C – factor = 360 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

FIGURE 5.6-1 SIMPLE REPRESENTATION STEERING SYSTEM

Consider the vehicle is being steered and the wheel makes an angle as in figure 5.6-2.

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 FIGURE 5.6-2 WHEEL MAKING AN ANGLE

𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑣𝑙
sin 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑣𝑙
θ = sin−1 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

If C-factor Is being used instead of using rake travel, it gives the tire rotation for angle for 360̊
of steer wheel angle.

𝐶−𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
θ = sin−1 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Hence the tire rotation angle for 360̊ of steer wheel angle is found, dividing it by 360 gives the
tire angle for 1̊ steer wheel rotation.

𝐶−𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
sin−1
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
θ= 360

5.7 STEERRING KINEMATICS: TORQUE STEER

Torque steer is the tendency of the vehicle to steer by itself during hard acceleration. This is
due to the suspension and steering geometry error. This is most often seen in front wheel drive
cars. This is normally due to the varying drive shat length. If one drive shaft is short or longer
than the other, torque steer occurs. This is because the torsional stiffness dependent of polar
moment of inertia. This also is amplified by the spindle length. To reduce this effect ford came
up the idea of “revo-knuckle”. In a revo-knuckle the king pin axis is not defined by strut
inclination. Instead, the suspension part is isolated and knuckle is separated.

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 FIGURE 5.7-1 CONVENTIONAL STRUT VS REVO KNUCKLE STRUT

5.8 CAMBER CHANGE (MACPHERSON STRUT)

The McPherson strut may have a slight negative camber gain in jounce for a small wheel
travel. This is usually small as the front view swing arm length is large (because of the near
vertical strut). The strut orientation does not change much during suspension travel. So, the
instant center is governed primarily by the lower control arm. As the wheel travel increases in
jounce and once the control arm is parallel to the perpendicular drawn from the strut, the instant
center goes to infinity and the camber change is zero. When the suspension goes in jounce
beyond this point, the instant center would shift to the outboard side of the wheel and this would
result in positive camber gain. An inclined strut and lower control arm would solve this
problem but moving the strut top point (body side) is difficult from a packaging standpoint and
this move would also decrease the motion ratio of the spring, making it less effective.

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 FIGURE 5.8-1 MACPHERSON STRUT WITH VARIOUS IC

5.9 STEERING KINEMATICS: ACKERMANN

The front wheels of the vehicle are steered away from the straight-line position as per the
drivers need to change the path of the vehicle. While the vehicle is steered, the design of
steering system linkage determines whether the wheels stay parallel to each other or if one-
wheel steers more than the other. Ackermann is normally differentiated into three categories
based on the turn center namely true Ackermann, parallel Ackermann and negative
Ackermann.

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 FIGURE 5.9-1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ACKERMANN GEOMETRY

5.10 STEERING GEOMETRY ERROR

It is clear from the previous chapter that every suspension has an instant center about
which the suspension pivots. If the tierod is not aimed at the instant center or if it is not the
correct length for its location, then the steering and suspension would move about different
centers and this would result in a steer that will occur with suspension travel called ride steer
or bump steer. The outer tierod end must intersect line 1, the inner end must intersect line 2
and the tierod should be aimed at the IC. It could be in an alternate location on lines 1 and 2
as long as the angle is correct

FIGURE 5.10-1 PROJECTION OF IC

The following images shows the various configuration of tire-rods.

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 FIGURE 5.10-2 TIEROD LOCATION FOR ZERO BUMP STEER
The figure 5.10-2 shows a proper tierod setup with proper length and angle.

FIGURE 5.10-3 TIEROD LENGTH ERROR

The figure5.10-3 shows steering error with an error in tierod length.

FIGURE 5.10-4 TIEROD ANGLE ERROR

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The figure 5.10-4 shows a steering error with wrong tierod error.
A linear but sloped ride steer plot may be used to add roll understeer in a suspension (toe out
in jounce –outer front wheel toes out and inner wheel toes in when the vehicle rolls). Note that,
when tuning for roll steer, one-wheel inputs also need to be taken into consideration –else,
straight line tracking may become difficult.

5.11 COMPLIANCE

Compliance is basically the inverse of stiffness. That is force pre unit deflection.
Compliance is caused due to various reasons, some of them may include bushings, soft
mounted parts (example: cross member, cradle, subframe), soft mounted steering racks and
hard parts that deflect under deflection. Compliance can modify geometric relationship in
suspension and have a large effect on understeer. The compliance occurs normally due to two
components, applied force component and effect on wheel position.

The effect on the wheel position is the reason behind the steer compliance. It is the force or
moment that affects the steer angle of the road wheel. Now let us discuss about the lateral force
compliance steer. Force can normally express as force element or as a spring.

FIGURE 5.11-1 TOP VIEW OF A SUSPENSION

From the figure 5.11-1 the vehicle is cornering (right turn) and a force Fy is acted in the wheel.
Consider the tire with two components, one is spring and the other is steering. The relative
stiffness on both steering and suspension is one of the factors that determines if the vehicle will
understeer or oversteer. From the above condition, the vehicle will turn right and as the loaded
wheel gains positive camber and the so vehicle will under steer.

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 FIGURE 5.11-2 SIMPLE REPRESENTAION OF TIRE WITH COMPLIANCE

6. CHAPTER 6- CONCLUSION

As suspension system is one the major component that plays an important role in load
transfer and vehicle handling, it results a huge impact in the vehicle performance. Hence it is
important to design a better suspension system that could help in improving the vehicles
performance and achieve better result. Hence, this thesis discusses the concept of suspension
dynamics to understand better and design the suspension system to give better performance.

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REFERNCES

[1] WF Milliken, DL Milliken - 1995 - Society of Automotive Engineers, “Race Car Vehicle
Dynamics”

[ 2 ] https://suspensionsecrets.co.uk/

[ 3 ] TD Gillespie - 1992 - academia.edu, “Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics”

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