NAVIGATION

CHAPTER-1
(Direction, Latitude and Longitude )
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude

 Earth’s shape is an Oblate Spheroid, slightly flattened at its poles

 Shape of Earth developed due to higher centrifugal forces at the equatorial region
than in regions nearer the poles

 Flattening is called compression which is approximately 0.3% (1/300th)

 Earth’s polar diameter is or 23 nautical miles or 43 km less than its equatorial

diameter

 Satellite surveys of the Earth shown slightly pear-shaped with its maximum
diameter occurring south of the Equator

 Southern hemisphere distortion is considerably less than the compression

distortion and is measured in tens of metres rather than kilometres

 Earth is neither Spherical nor Ellipsoid but Geoid

Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Geodosy and Geoid Models

 Each agency has tended to optimize its Geoid to give the best fit to the actual
shape of the Earth over the area in which it is interested in mapping

 Geoid does not fit the actual Earth in another part of the world
a) UK Ordnance Survey uses a geoid based on a survey of 1936 (OS36),
b) France uses the Nouvelle Triangulation de France (NTF) 1970 model,
c) Other European countries use the European Datum 1950 model (ED50),
d) USA uses the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)

 ICAO has adopted WGS 84 as the world standard

 For examination, the Earth is considered to be a true sphere with a

circumference of 21 600 NM or 40 000 km
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
The Poles

 The Poles are defined as the extremities of the axis about

which the Earth spins

 The axis of the Poles is inclined to the axis of the Earth’s

orbit around the Sun at an angle of 23½°

 When viewed from above the North

Pole, the Earth appears to rotate in
an anticlockwise (counter-
clockwise) direction
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Basic Direction on the Earth

 Cardinal Points- North, South, East and West

 Quadrantal directions - midway directions North-East (NE),

South-East (SE), South-West (SW) , and North-West (NW)

 Direction on the Earth is measured in degrees clockwise from

North

 North is defined as 000°, East 090°, South 180° and West 270°

 When the North datum is the North geographic pole, it is

referred as True direction

 3-figure groups is used for directions to avoid any ambiguity,

particularly in transmitting messages by R/T or other means
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
DIRECTION MEASUREMENT
a) TRUE
b) MAGNETIC
c) COMPASS

TRUE DIRECTIONS measured with reference to earth Geographical North Pole

 Abbreviated as BRG(T)
 Clockwise angle measured from true north
 Expressed in three digits

a) EAST = 090(T)
b) WEST = 270(T)
c) NORTH = 000(T)
d) SOUTH = 180(T)
e) N,S,E & W ARE CALLED ‘CARDINAL DIRECTIONS’
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
MAGNETIC DIRECTIONS
 Referenced from Magnetic North
 Mag north is the direction pointed by a freely suspended Magnetised needle
 Expressed in three digits
 Abbreviated as BRG(M)
 Jeppesen route charts indicate magnetic directions

Position Reference Systems

 Cartesian system, i.e. co-ordinates x and y works well on a flat surface but
must be modified to work on a spherical surface i.e. the Earth
 linear co-ordinates x and y are replaced by angular co-ordinates known as
Longitude and Latitude
 The definition and use of these axes involves circles on the Earth - Great
Circles and Small Circles
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
CIRCLES ON THE EARTH

 Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the earth whose

centre and radius are those of the earth itself is called a
Great Circle

 The shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s

surface is the shorter arc of the Great Circle joining the
two points

 Given two points on the Earth’s surface, there will be

only one Great Circle joining them (unless the points are
diametrically opposed)

EQUATOR

 The Great Circle whose plane is at 90° to the axis of rotation of the earth (the polar axis) is
called the Equator
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
MERIDIANS
 Meridians are semi-Great circles joining the North and South poles
 All meridians indicate True North-South direction
 Every Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridian and its Anti-meridian
 The meridians cross the Equator at 90°

PRIME (OR GREENWICH) MERIDIAN

 The meridian passing through Greenwich is known the Prime Meridian
 The Prime Meridian is the datum for defining Longitude and is the equivalent of the Y axis of
the Cartesian system.

SMALL CIRCLE
 A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are not those of the earth is
called a Small Circle

PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
 The parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the earth whose planes are parallel
to the Equator, and indicate position North or South of the Equator
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
GRATICULE
 The network formed on a map /globe by the Prime
Meridian, the meridians, the Equator and the parallels of
latitude is called the Graticule

 The graticule is an analogy on the Earth’s surface of the

X - Y grid on graph paper

 Position is defined by angular measurement (degrees,

minutes, and seconds of arc), not by distance, as on
Cartesian co-ordinates. This is the foundation of the
Latitude/ Longitude system

LATITUDE

 The latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) measured along the meridian
through the point from the Equator to the point, and is annotated North or South according to
whether the point lies North or South of the Equator
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Geocentric Latitude - it is the angle between the line joining the
point to the centre of the Earth and the plane of the Equator,

 Geodetic (or Geographic) Latitude - is the angle between the

normal (90°) to the meridian at the point on the spheroid and the
plane of the equator

 The latitudes plotted on navigation charts are Geodetic

Latitudes.

 The maximum difference between Geocentric and Geodetic

Latitudes occurs at approx 45° N/S and is about 11.6 minutes of
arc.

 Parallel of Latitude – Equtor is a parallel of latitude (spl case)

 Arctic Circle the parallel of 66½°N (Earth’s tilt)
 Antarctic Circle the parallel of 66½°S
 Tropic of Cancer the parallel of 23½°N
 Tropic of Capricorn the parallel of 23½°S
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
LONGITUDE
 The longitude of any point is the shorter distance in the arc along
the Equator between the Prime Meridian and the meridian through
the point.

 Longitude is measured in degrees and minutes of arc and is

annotated East (E) or West (W) depending whether the point lies
East or West of the Prime Meridian (Greenwich).

POSITIONS IN LATITUDE AND

LONGITUDE

 The Latitude is always quoted first

and the Longitude second, eg.
41°00’N 074°00’W, or 4100N 07400W

 Precise position expressed as

51°50’12”N, 001°19’11”W or 515012N
0011911W
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Reversal of the Apparent Sense of Longitude at the Greenwich Anti-meridian (180°E)

 On the Greenwich Meridian, Eastern Longitudes are East of you, and Western
Longitudes are West of you

 At 180°E longitude (the Greenwich anti-meridian), the direction of East/West has

not changed, but the Eastern Longitudes are to your left (West of you) and the
Western Longitudes are to the right of you (East of you)

 So you get a situation where the

Eastern hemisphere is to your West
and the Western hemisphere is to
your East

 Need to consider this while solving

navigation problems
Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Accuracy resolution table summary

GREAT CIRCLE VERTICES

 The northern vertex of a Great Circle is the most northerly point on that Great
Circle, and the southern vertex is the most southerly point on the Great Circle.

 The vertices are antipodal and the Great Circle distance between them is 10,800 nm.
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 At either of its vertices, the direction of the Great
Circle will be East 090°(T)/West 270°(T).

 A Great Circle will cross the Equator at the 2 points

whose longitude is 90° removed from either of its
vertices, eg. a GC with a north vertex at 63N 010E
(and a south vertex at 63S 170W) will cross the
Equator in positions 100E and 080W

 A Great circle will cross the Equator at an angle

equal to the latitude of its vertices. Vertices at 63N/S
will cross the equator at an angle of 63°.

 Travelling eastbound (from Northern vertex), the great circle first crosses the Equator at 100E
in direction 153°(T) (090 + 63) travelling towards the Southern vertex

 Having passed the southern vertex, the Great circle next crosses the Equator at 080W in
direction 027°(T) (090 - 63) travelling back to the north vertex
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude

Two special cases:

 A great circle with vertices at 90 N/S (a meridian)

crosses the equator at 90° in direction 180°(T) (090 +
90) or 000°(T) (090-90)

 A great circle with vertices at 0 N/S crosses the

Equator at 0°(T) (it is the Equator) and has direction
090°(T) or 270°(T)
 CHAPTER-2
(Great Circles, Rhumb Lines & Directions on the Earth)
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the
earth whose centre and radius are those of the
earth itself is called a Great Circle

 It is called ‘great’ because a disc cut through

the earth in the plane of the Great Circle
would have the largest area that can be
achieved

 The shortest distance between two points on

the Earth’s surface is the shorter arc of the
Great Circle joining the two points

 Given two points on the Earth’s surface, there will be only one Great Circle
joining them (unless the points are diametrically opposed)
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
THE RHUMB LINE

 Classroom wallchart shows all the Meridians (the vertical lines) as parallel to each
other, when in fact this only happens at the Equator, but on the real Earth, they
converge towards the nearer pole

 A Rhumb Line is a regularly curved

line on the surface of the Earth which
cuts all meridians at the same angle - a
line of constant direction

Transfer of the line

from the Mercator
chart to a globe,
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude

 The Great Circle track is actually the shortest distance over the Earth between
Moscow and Vancouver, notice also that the track direction changes.

 The track starts out as it leaves Moscow with a direction of about 330°, passes near
the north pole with track direction of about 270°, and approaches Vancouver on
direction about 210°.

 The Great Circle track is always nearer to the nearer pole

 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Like Great Circles, there is only one Rhumb Line that can be drawn between 2 points.
 Examples of common Rhumb Lines are:
 Parallels of Latitude (because they cut all meridians at 90°)

 Equator (a special case because the Equator is also a Great Circle)

 Meridians (are also Great Circles and the cut angle involved is 0°)

 The Rhumb Line between 2 points will always lie nearer to the Equator than the
corresponding Great Circle

 Conversely, the Great Circle between the 2 points will always lie nearer the Pole than
the Rhumb Line.

 Rhumb lines are Convex to the Equator or Concave to the nearer Pole

 The only lines which are both Great Circles and Rhumb lines are the Equator and any
meridian (along with its associated anti-meridian)
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude

Northern Hemisphere
Consider Rhumb Line track of 090° in Northern
Hemisphere

 Heading Easterly, the Great Circle track direction

increases

 Heading Westerly, the Great Circle track direction

decreases

Southern Hemisphere
Consider Rhumb Line track of 090° in Southern
Hemisphere

 Heading Easterly, the Great Circle track direction decreases

 Heading Westerly, the Great Circle track direction increases

 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
 Diagram which spells out DIID - (decreasing -
increasing - increasing - decreasing)

 The Great Circle direction always changes towards

the Equator

 Kilometre is 1/10,000th of the average distance on

the Earth between the Equator and either Pole

 The circumference of the Earth is 40,000 km

For conversions
 1 Kilometre (km = 3280 feet (ft)
 1 metre(m) = 3.28 ft
 One Nautical Mile = 1852 metres ( Defined by ICAO).
 Standard Nautical Mile = 6080 ft
 The Statute Mile (sm) = 5280 ft
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Remember the following:
 One degree of latitude = 60 minutes = 60 nm
 One minute of latitude = 1 nm
 One minute of Longitude = 1 nm AT THE EQUATOR ONLY
 The distance between the Equator and the Poles is 90o x 60 = 5400nm
 The circumference of the Earth at the Equator is 360o x 60 = 21,600nm
VARIATIONS IN THE LENGTH OF A NAUTICAL MILE
 System of latitude and longitude is based on geodetic,
not geocentric, latitude

 Earth is flattened at the Poles, a nautical mile is longer

at the Poles, at about 6108 ft

 A nautical mile is shortest at the Equator and

measures about 6048 ft

 For navigation calculations the Standard (or Admiralty)

Nautical Mile is 6080 ft
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
CONVERSION FACTORS
 5400 nm (from the Equator to either pole) = 10,000 km
 21,600 nm (circumference of the Earth) = 40,000 km
GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES
Example 1 - Same meridian, same hemisphere

Q. What is the shortest (GC) distance between (A)

London (5137N 00012W) & (B) Accra (0648N
00012W)?
 Change in Lat (ch.Lat) = 51°37’ - 06°48’ = 44°49’
South

 angular distance into linear distance

 44°49’ = (44 x 60) + 49 = 2689 minutes Lat = 2689

nms
Be prepared to convert this answer to km or sm as required by the question
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Example 2 - Same meridian, different hemispheres
Q. What is the shortest distance between (D) Durban (2930S
03030E) and (E) Leningrad (5947N 03030E)?

A. Ch.lat = 29°30’ + 59°47’ = 89°17’ north from D.

The linear distance = (89x60) + 17 = 5357 nm

Example 3 - Meridian and anti-meridian, same hemisphere

Q. What is the shortest distance between (F) Rome (4155N
01110E) and (G) Honolulu (2117N 16850W)?

A. Both positions are in same hemisphere but they are on meridian

and anti-meridian - the two longitude values - 011°10’E +
168°50’W = 180°

Angular distance = 180° - ( 41°55’ + 21°17’ ) = 180° - 63°12’ =

116°48’
Angular distance 116° 48’ = (116 x 60) + 48 = 7008 nm
 Direction, Latitude and Longitude
Example 4. Meridian and anti-meridian, different hemispheres
Q. What is the shortest distance between (J) Tokyo (3557N
13535E) and (K) Rio de Janeiro (2210S 04425W)?

A. Angular distance of (90°- 35°57’ = 54°03’) + 90° + 22o 10’

= 166° 13’

linear distance of (166 x 60) + 13 = 9973 nm

Example 5 - Two points on the Equator

Q. What is the shortest distance between (L) Dakar (0000N

01635W) and (M) Singapore (0000N 10355E)?

A. Change of longitude (ch.long) L to M = 016°35’ + 103°55’ =

120°30’

linear distance of (120° x 60) + 30 = 7230 nm

 Direction, Latitude and Longitude

Example 6 - A special case

Q. What is the shortest distance between (N)

Greenwich (5130N 00000E) and (P) Antipodes Island
(5130S 18000E)?

A. Points N and P are diametrically opposite each other

on the same great circle and are said to be antipodal

Great Circle distance between antipodes = 180°

linear measure 180 x 60 = 10,800 nm

 CHAPTER-3
(Earth Magnetism )
 Earth Magnetism

True Direction
 True direction is reference to the Geographical North
pole (N/S about which the Earth spins)

Magnetic Direction
 Earth act magnetically as though a huge bar magnet
running through it, aligned fairly closely to the North and
South True poles

 Magnetic pattern is not symmetrical in the N - S sense; the North and South
magnetic poles are not exactly opposite each other on the Earth

Magnetic North
 Magnetic North is the horizontal direction indicated by a freely suspended magnet
influenced by the Earth’s magnetic field, also referred as ‘magnetic meridian’ at that
point
 Magnetic Direction is measured from Magnetic North clockwise through 360°, and
is suffixed by the letter ‘M’, e.g. 043(M) and 270(M)
 Earth Magnetism
Variation: Variation is the angular difference between True North
and Magnetic North

 Variation is measured in degrees East or West from True North

according to whether magnetic North lies to the East or West of
True North

Isogonal : line joining equal magnetic variation is called Isogonal

Agonic Line - line joining points of zero variation

 Variation depends on the relative geometry of the observer, the True Poles, and the
Magnetic Poles
a) From A, Magnetic North is to the right (East) of True North
b) At B, Magnetic North is left of True North, ie. Magnetic North is West of True North
c) At C, Magnetic North is East of True North, but the angular difference (i.e. the variation) is
smaller
d) At D, Magnetic North is West of True North (variation West), but angular variation is smaller
e) At E, the Magnetic North Pole and True North Pole is on the same Great Circle, the value of
variation is ZERO
Earth Magnetism
 Earth Magnetism
Situation at the Poles
 An aircraft flying between the North True
Pole and the North Magnetic Pole, the
variation on that shorter arc of the Great
Circle is not zero, it is 180°

 The Maximum possible value of variation is

180° which occurs at both North and South
Poles

The Real Variation Map

 North and South Magnetic Poles are not Antipodal (not directly opposite each
other)

 Magnetic map for 01 Jan 2000 positions the North Magnetic Pole at approximately
81N 110W and the South Magnetic Pole at 63S 135E

 The position of the North Magnetic Pole in 2009 was 84N 120W
 Earth Magnetism
 The disposition of variation is not as geometrically neat as in
the previous slide

 2 lines of zero variation, one running southwards from the True

North Pole and the other running southwards from the
Magnetic Pole

 One runs down through Europe (the variation near Stuttgart, in

Germany, is zero) and the other runs down through the USA

 The agonic line running

up from Europe (yellow)
changes to 180° (black)
at the True North Pole

 Isogonals converge on
True and the Magnetic
North and South Poles
 Earth Magnetism
Magnetic Dip Angle
 Angle between the Magnetic lines of force and Earth’s
horizontal known as the Angle of Dip

 Earth’s Magnetic field (T) can be resolved into horizontal

component H and a vertical component Z

 Horizontal Component of a compass needle determines

Magnetic North and is known as the directive force

 At Earth’s magnetic poles the

H component approaches
zero strength, while the value
of Z approaches that of T

 Angle of Dip is 90o over N/S

pole
 Earth Magnetism
 The horizontal component of the Earth’s field
becomes too small to be detected by a
compass ≤ 6 microteslas

Isoclinic Lines : Line joining places of equal Dip

is known as Isoclinic Lines

Deviation

 Difference between Magnetic North and

Compass North is called Deviation

 It is termed East or West according to whether Compass North lies to the East or
West of Magnetic North

 When deviations are quoted as plus or minus they are to be applied to the compass
heading in order to get Magnetic heading (deviation of -3° is the same as 3°W )
 Earth Magnetism

Application of Variation and

Deviation

 The direction in which the fore

and aft axis of the aircraft is
pointing is known as the aircraft’s
Heading

 Remember
VARIATION IS 17°W VARIATION IS 17°E

VARIATION WEST - MAGNETIC BEST

VARIATION EAST - MAGNETIC LEAST
 Earth Magnetism
 Deviation is the angle between Magnetic North and Compass North measured in
degrees East or West from Magnetic North

DEVIATION EAST - COMPASS LEAST

DEVIATION WEST - COMPASS BEST
 Earth Magnetism
Example
 Deviation 3°E
 Hdg 263(M) deviation 3°E Deviation East Compass Least Hdg 260(C)
 Hdg 260(C) deviation 3°E Deviation East Compass Least Hdg 263(M)

 Alternatively Deviation +3°

 Hdg 263(M) deviation +3 to convert from Magnetic to Compass
 Change the sign and apply to Hdg(M);
 Hdg 263 - 3 = Hdg 260(C)

 Or Apply deviation to Hdg (C)

 Hdg 260(C) + 3 to convert from Compass to Magnetic

 Hdg 260 (C)+3 = Hdg 263(M)

 From Compass to Magnetic the signs are true (E is +, W is -)

 Earth Magnetism

Definitions

 Heading is the direction in which the fore and aft axis of the aircraft is pointing; it is
measured from True, Magnetic, or Compass North

 Variation is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North,
and termed East or West according to whether Magnetic North lies to the East
or West of True North

 Deviation is the angular difference indicated by a Compass needle and the

direction of Magnetic North, and termed East or West according to whether
the Compass North lies to the East or West of Magnetic North

 ISOGONALS are line joining places of equal magnetic variation

 Earth Magnetism

Definitions

 Agonic Line - isogonals joining places of zero variation

 Angle of Dip is the angle in the vertical plane between the horizontal and
the Earth’s magnetic field at a point

 Isoclinals are lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip

 Aclinic Lines - isoclinals joining places of zero dip

Note:- Isoclinals and Aclinic lines do not appear on Navigation charts

CHAPTER-10
(1-in-60 Rule)
 1-in-60 Rule
The Geometry of the 1 in 60 Rule
 Circumference = 2 π r

 Circumference = 2 × 3.142 × 60 nm = 376.99 nm 1 nm

 A circle has 360o angle 1o

60 nm
376.99
 Hence 1o arc = = 1.0472 nm ≃ 1 nm per degree at 60 nm
360o

 ∵ 1nm = 6080 ft ≃ 6000 ft

 ∴ 1o = 6000 ft (1 nm) at 60 nm
 1-in-60 Rule

 The tangent of an angle is not a linear

relationship, but up to about 20 degrees it is very
close

 At 60 nm along track pilot fixes himself 8 nm left

of track
 Therefore track angle error is 8° left

 At 30 nm along-track, with track angle error of 8°

left, we will only be 4 nm left of track
 1-in-60 Rule
Therefore, the formula is :-
distance off track
Track error (in degree) = × 60
distance gone

For Example:- You find yourself 6 miles right of track after 40 miles along
track.

In the above formula:

6
Track error = × 60
40

= 9° right
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)

Q1. You are flying from A to B. You find that your position is 60 NM outbound from A
and 7 NM left of the required track. What is your track error angle?
7o L

Q2. You are flying from C to D. You find that your position is 120 NM outbound from C
and 8 NM right of the required track. What is your track error angle?
4o R

Q3. You are flying from E to F. You find that your position is 90 NM outbound from E
and 6 NM right of the required track. What is your track error angle?
4o R

Q4. You are flying from G to H. You find that your position is 30 NM outbound from G
and 4 NM left of the required track. What is your track error angle?
8o L
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q5. You are flying from J to K, which is a required track of 045°(T). You find that your
position is 80 NM outbound from J and 4 NM left of the required track. What is your
track made good?
042o (T)

Q6. You are flying from L to M, which is a required track of 220°(T). You find that your
position is 45 NM outbound from L and 3 NM right of the required track. What is your
track made good? 224o (T)

Q7. You are flying from N to P, which is a required track of 315°(T). You find that your
position is 40 NM outbound from N and 6 NM left of the required track. What is your
track made good?
306o (T)

Q8. A surveyor places himself 660 metres from a mast and measures an elevation
angle of 4° to the top of the mast. What is the height of the mast?
44 nm
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q9. You are flying an instrument approach to an airfield and the required glide slope
angle is 3.00°. What height should you be passing when you are exactly 2 nautical
miles from the touchdown point? (NOTE: For this question, assume 1 NM = 6000 feet).
600 ft

Q10. You are flying an instrument approach to an airfield and the required glide slope
angle is 2.5°. You are correctly on the glide slope and you are passing a height of 1000
feet QFE. What is your range from the touchdown point? (Assume 1 NM = 6000 feet).

4 nm
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q11. You are flying from Q to R, which is a required track of 125°(T). You find that
your position is 40 NM from R and 2 NM left of the required track. What track must
you fly to arrive overhead R?
128o (T)

Q12. You are flying from S to T, which is a required track of 272°(T). You find that
your position is 50 NM from T and 5 NM right of the required track. What track must
you fly to arrive overhead T?
266o (T)
 CHAPTER-11
(Navigation Using the 1 in 60 Rule )
 1-in-60 Rule
 Track intended to fly is called “Planned track”

 Track actually made over the ground due to

wind is called “Track made good” (or TMG)
 Difference between Planned Tr & Tr Made Good is called “Track Error Angle”
 Track Error Angle is NOT Drift (Most common mistake)

 DRIFT is the angle between Heading and Track (either planned track or TMG)

 Difference between Planned Tr and the TMG is the Track Error Angle

 Difference between Hdg & Planned Tr is expected Drift

 Difference between Hdg & TMG is the

actual Drift
 1-in-60 Rule
There are 3 basic techniques for getting back to track:
a) Double Track Angle Error
b) Track Error Angle and Closing Angle
c) Combined Track Error Angle and Closing Angle
Single Calculation

Double Track Angle Error Method

 4 NM off in 30 NM along is 8° Tr error

 Diverging by 8° to the left, so turn 8° right

 Turning 8° right, you fly parallel to the track 4 nm

to the left, but not getting back to the track

 Turn another 8° right, making a total change of 16°

right

 it takes the same distance to get back on track as

it took to get off track
 1-in-60 Rule
 Starting at 1000 hours and find off track at 1020,
and if you turn by double the Track Angle Error,
you get back on track at 1040

 Having turned 16° right to regain the Tr, and do

nothing about it, you will now diverge to the
right of Tr

 So you turn back 8° left, on regaining the Tr,

unless the wind changes again, you should
now stay on track

Track Error Angle and Closing Angle

 Consider total Tr distance is 78 nm, after 30 nm

along track, you get 4 nm left of Tr, your track
error is 8° left
 1-in-60 Rule
 30 nm along a 78 NM Tr, a further 48 nm
remaining

 with 4 nm off Tr in 48 to go, so the closing

angle is 5°

 So, by turning 8° right to parallel Tr and further 5° right to converge, making a total
turn of 13° required

 Therefore, the required amount of turn is the sum of Track Error Angle and Closing
Angle

Combined Track Error Angle and Closing Angle Single Calculation

 Only establish Closing Angle, multiply by a factor the proportion of distance along
track to the total leg distance, for quicker result
 1-in-60 Rule
 4 nm off track in 48 nm to go (1 in 12 -
which is 5 in 60) the closing angle is 5°

78
5o x = 13o Alter 13o right to reach destination
30
Practical application of 1-in-60 Rule
 pinpointed yourself at C, left of your desired
track from A to B
 The closing angle is 5° and you are about ¼
of the way down your track. So:

a) Proportion of leg travelled = ¼

b) Invert this fraction, giving 4/1
c) Multiply this by the closing angle of 5°

 This gives 20°. You alter heading 20° (starboard, of course) for destination B
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q1. If an aircraft is 3° off required track at a range of 120 NM, how far in nautical miles
(NM) is the aircraft off required track?
6 nm

Q2. If an aircraft is 2 miles off required track at a range of 40 NM, what is the angle off
track (track error)?
3o

Q3. An aircraft leaves A to fly to B, 95 NM distance. Having flown 35 NM, the aircraft
position is found from a ‘pinpoint’ (a geographical point over which the aircraft has
flown); the pinpoint is 7 NM right of track.
a. What is the track error? 12o Right

b. What alteration of heading is required to fly direct to B? 19o L; TA=12o, CA=7o

c. What is the drift? Cannot calculate as heading not given. To calculate drift, you
must know heading. Drift is angle between heading and “track”.
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q4. An aircraft is flying from Oxford to Cambridge, planned track 074°(M), distance 70
NM, heading 065°(M). Having flown 30 NM, the pilot ‘pinpoints’ the aircraft position
overhead Cranfield, 4 NM left of planned track.

a. What is the track error overhead Cranfield? 8o Left

b. What is the Track Made Good (TMG) from Oxford? 066o (M)

c. What was the expected drift? 9o S

d. What has the actual drift been? 1o S

e. What alteration of heading should be made over Cranfield to fly direct to

Cambridge? 14o Right (TA=8o, CA=6o)

f. What is the new heading to be flown from overhead Cranfield? 079o (M)
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q5. An aircraft is flying from Norwich to Oxford, planned track 250°(M), distance 96
NM, heading 260°(M), ground speed 180 kt. The aircraft departs Norwich at 1000 hrs.
At 1012, the aircraft is overhead Ely, 3 NM right of planned track. Use the 1:60 to
estimate the following.
a. What was the planned drift? a. 10°P (Hdg 260o M, planned track 250o M)

b. What is the track error at 1012 hrs? b. 5° right (aircraft has travelled 12 minutes at 180
kt = 36 NM. 3 NM in 36 NM = 5° error)

c. What TMG has been flown between 1000 hrs and 1012 hrs. c. TMG = 255°(M)

d. What has the actual drift been between 1000 hrs and 1012 hrs?
d. 5° port (left) (Heading 260o M, TMG 255o M)

e. What alteration of heading should be made to track directly to Oxford?

e. 8° left (TE = 5°, CA = 3°)
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q5. An aircraft is flying from Norwich to Oxford, planned track 250°(M), distance 96
NM, heading 260°(M), ground speed 180 kt. The aircraft departs Norwich at 1000 hrs.
At 1012, the aircraft is overhead Ely, 3 NM right of planned track. Use the 1:60 to
estimate the following.
f. What heading is required to fly directly to Oxford? f. Heading 252°(M)

g. What alteration of heading should be made to regain track at 1024 hrs?

g. 10° left (2 × TE = 2 × 5 = 10)

h. What heading should be flown between 1012 and 1024 hrs to regain track at
1024 hrs? h. Heading 250°(M)

i. Given the situation in g. and h. above, what heading change should be made at
1024 hrs and what heading should be flown from 1024 hrs onwards?
i. Heading 255°(M) (original planned heading corrected for track error).
j. Estimate the ETA at Oxford. j. ETA 1032 hrs (1000-1012 = 36 nm, 1012-1024 = 36 nm)
24
(Leaves 24 miles which takes × 12 = 8 min)
36
 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Other Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
a) Calculation of height on a glide slope
b) Calculation of rate of descent to maintain a glide slope
c) Calculation of change of speed on a glide slope
d) Calculation of distance off required track using radio aids such as VOR/DME
Height on a Glide Slope
 Let the glide slope angle = Z°
 If the range is 1 nm ≃ 6000 ft

When Z = 1°
When range = 60 feet, the height is 1 foot
When range = 600 feet, the height is 10 feet
When range = 6000 feet, the height is 100 feet
This gives the rule:

 To make good a glide slope of Z°, the rate of descent should be (100 × Z) ft / nm
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Height estimation on ILS approach
a) 2.5° glide slope 250 ft per nautical mile
b) 3° glide slope 300 ft per nautical mile
c) 3.5° glide slope 350 ft per nautical mile
d) 5.5° glide slope 550 ft per nautical mile

Example 1
On a 3° glide slope at 4 NM from touchdown
Height (ft) = 3 × 100 × 4 = 1200 ft

Example 2
On a 5.5° glide slope at 3 miles from touchdown
Height (ft) = 5.5 × 100 × 3 = 1650 ft

Note: 3° glide slopes are the most common

 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Rate of Descent (ROD)

 If ground speed is 60 knots, range is 1 nm, on a 3°

glide slope, height is 300 ft, rate of descent needs to
be 300 ft/min

ROD (in feet per minute) = 5 × Ground speed (in knots) - for a 3° glide slope only

Example:
Q. What ROD is required to maintain a 4° glide slope at a ground speed of 100 knots?

 For a 3° glide slope = 5 × 100 = 500 ft/min

4
 For a 4° glide slope = 500 × = 667 ft/min ≃ 670 ft/min
3
 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Change of Speed on a Glide Slope
 To calculate the effect on ROD of changing speed

 Apply the following rules to maintain a glide slope:

a) Decrease ground speed, decrease ROD

b) Increase ground speed, increase ROD

Change in ROD = 5 × change in speed (3° glide slopes only)

Example 1
Q. On an ILS approach using a 3° glide slope, If the ground speed is 140 kt, ROD is
required to maintain the glide slope?
For 3° glide slope,

ROD = 5 × 140 = 700 ft/min

 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Example 2
Q. On an ILS approach on a glide slope of 5.5°, with ground speed of 120 kt, what
ROD is required to maintain the glide slope?

5.5
ROD = 5 × 120 × = 1100 ft/min
3

Example 3
Q. Approaching London Heathrow (3° glide slope), an aircraft decreases speed from
140 kt to 120 kt. What change in the ROD must be made to maintain the glide slope?
 Decrease speed = Decrease ROD

 Change in ROD = 5 × change in ground speed (3° glide slopes only)

= 5 × 20 = 100 ft/min

Decrease ROD by 100 ft/min (this links with Example 1 and would result in a new ROD of
600 ft/min).
 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Example 4
Q. Approaching London City airport (glide slope 5.5°), you reduce ground speed from
120 kt to 110 kt. What change should you make to your ROD to maintain the glide
slope?

 Decrease speed = Decrease ROD

 For a 3° glide slope.

Change in ROD = 5 × ground speed change = 5 × 10 = 50 fpm

 For a 5.5° glide slope.

Change in ROD = 50 × 5.5/3 = 92 ft/min
 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
VOR/DME Problems

Example:
Q. While flying along an airway to VOR/DME ‘Q’; the
airway QDM is 271°(M). Your Radio Magnetic
Indicator indicates your QDM to Q as 266°(M), range
48 NM. How far are you off the airway centre line and
to which side?

 Using Track Error formula

Distance off (DO) × 60 DO × 60
 Angle off (TE) = ; 5° =
DME range (DG) 48

5 × 48
 DO = = 4 NM to the right of centre line
60

Note: you are off track but still within the airway because most airways are 10 NM
wide, i.e. 5 NM either side of centre line
 Applications of the 1 in 60 Rule
Finding Range from Change of VOR Bearing

Q. An aircraft is tracking 090°(M) at 180 knots G/S, at 1100 hrs

the QDM to the VOR is 002° (QDR 182°). Five minutes later the
QDM to the VOR has changed to 357° (QDR 177°). What is the
range R from the VOR to the aircraft (at the closest point of
approach)?

 With G/S of 180 kts, distance in 5 mins =15 nm between 1st and 2nd bearing

15 × 60 15 × 60
5o = ; or R = = 180 nm
R 5
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q1. An aircraft is flying due South. At 1000 hrs, point P bears 267°(T) from the aircraft.
At 1006 hrs, point P bears 275°(T) from the aircraft. If the aircraft has a ground speed
of 120 kt, estimate the range of the aircraft from point P. A1. 90 nm

Q2. You are approaching Innsbruck, Austria on a glide slope of 3.5°. What height
(QFE) should you be at 2 miles range? A2. 700 ft (2 × 350)

Q3. You are approaching Rota, Spain on runway 28 which has a glide slope of 2.6°. At
what height should you be at 4 miles range? A3. 1040 ft (4 × 260)
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q4. You are approaching Paris/Charles de Gaulle on a glide slope of 3°. At what
height (QFE) should you be at a range of 2 NM? A4. 600 ft (2 × 300)

Q5. Using the detail in questions 2 - 4, what rates of descent (ROD) are required to
maintain the glide slopes in:
a. question 2 if ground speed is 120 kt 5a. 700 ft/min

b. question 3 if ground speed is 180 kt 5b. 850 ft/min

c. question 4 if ground speed is 150 kt. 5c. 750 ft/min

Q6. On the approach to London Heathrow runway 27, glide slope 3°, you reduce
speed from 150 kt to 120 kt. What change should you make to your ROD to maintain
glide slope?
A6. Decrease ROD by 150 ft/min
 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q7. You are flying an aircraft into Gioia Del Colle, Italy, on a glide slope of 2.5°.
Having had a hydraulic failure, you cannot select any flaps. You approach at 220 kt
TAS and have a headwind component of 10 kt.
a. What rate of descent do you need to maintain the glide slope?
7a. 875 ft/min

On the approach, you regain some hydraulic power and can select ‘mid’ flaps
position. This enables you to reduce your approach speed to 190 kt TAS.

b. What change in the ROD is required to continue to maintain the glide slope?
7b. Decrease ROD by 125 ft/min

c. What is your new ROD? 7c. 750 ft/min

 1-in-60 Rule (Q & A)
Q8. You are flying an airway with a centre line QDM of 137 °(M) towards VOR/DME ‘A’.
Your RMI reads 141°(M)/DME 90 NM.

a. Are you left or right of centre line? 8a. Left

b. What is your distance off the airway centre line? 8b. 6 nm

c. Are you in trouble with ATC? (Airways normally extend 5 NM either side of the
centre line). 8c. Usually, yes. (Airways are generally only 5 NM wide from
centre line in most countries, but rules may vary).