“Techno-Social Excellence”

Marathwada Mitra Mandal’s

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (MMIT)
S.N. 35, Vadgaon Shinde Road,
Lohgaon, Pune – 411 047
__________________________________________________________________________________

First Year Engineering

Academic Year: 2021 - 2022

Engineering Physics
Subject Code - 107002
Laboratory Manual and Workbook

Name of Student : ______________________________________

Division : _____

Roll No. : _________

University Exam Seat No.: __________________________________

University PRN No. : ______________________________________

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 Engineering Program outcomes (POs) [All Branches]
Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

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 Marathwada Mitramandal’s Institute of Technology
The Vision of the Institution is to achieve
Techno-Social Excellence
The Mission of the Institution is to
​ Enhance technology transfer
​ Implement entrepreneurship
​ Promote global competency
​ Integrate innovative pedagogy
​ Create excellent human resource
The Core Values of the Institution are
​ Teamwork || Value based ethics || Societal trust
​ Pleasant environment || Industrial approach || Committed faculty
​ Standard report writing || Adaptive research || Lifelong learning

Department of Engineering Sciences

Vision:
Nurturing aspirant engineers by inculcating the knowledge of science, engineering and
moral values

Mission
To strive for......
● S-Student Success
● C-Critical thinking
● I-Inspire learning
● E-Enriching knowledge
● N-Noble attitude
● C-Continual improvement
● E-Encouragement by parenting

Objectives
Help students to
1. Develop a necessary foundation in basic sciences and engineering subjects
2. Understand integration of basic sciences, mathematics and engineering subjects for
further studies of their opted branch.

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Course Objectives [COs] - Engineering Physics [107002]

CO1 Develop understanding of interference, diffraction and polarization; connect it to a few

engineering applications.

CO2 Learn basics of lasers and optical fibers and their use in some applications.

CO3 Understand concepts and principles in quantum mechanics. Relate them to some applications.

CO4 Understand theory of semiconductors and their applications in some semiconductor devices.

CO5 Summarize basics of magnetism and superconductivity. Explore a few of their technological
applications.

CO6 Comprehend use of concepts of physics for Non Destructive Testing and it’s application to
engineering. Learn some properties of nanomaterials and their application

Course Outcomes (COs) : At the end of the course, the student will be able to

CO Course Outcomes Bloom’s

taxonomy

CO-1 Describe the interference, diffraction and polarization and explore few Knowledge
engineering applications. Explain a few characteristics and develop hands-on Comprehension
experience. Application

CO-2 Know fundamental principles and working of lasers. Explain working of single Knowledge
heterojunction and CO2 laser system. Extend it to understand the applications of
lasers in diverse fields. Comprehension
Understand the basic parameters of optical fibers. Study their types and losses.
Discuss their few applications.

CO-3 Illustrate significance of Wave Particle Duality to realize the behavior of Comprehension
microscopic systems. Application
Deduce Schrodinger's equations and apply it to one quantum mechanical
problem. Understand tunneling and its implications. Introduction to principles of
quantum computing.

CO-4 Understand basics of Solid State Physics. On this basis, discuss the functioning of Knowledge
few semiconductor devices. Demonstrate it in practical experiments. Comprehension
Application

CO-5 Summarize basics of magnetism and extend them to few applications. Knowledge
Summarize basics of superconductors and explore their technological Comprehension
applications in diverse fields. Application

CO-6 Describe a few methods of synthesis of nanoparticles. Understand their physical Knowledge
properties. Estimate their applications in diverse fields. Comprehension
Application

CO-6 Understand concepts of physics for Non Destructive Testing and extend them to a Knowledge
few engineering NDT applications. Understand properties of nanoparticles and Comprehension
estimate their applications in diverse fields. Application

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 INDEX
Academic Year : __________________ Semester: __________________

Sr. Experiment Aim Date of Sign. of Faculty

Performing

1 Newton’s rings To determine wavelength of

monochromatic source

2 Diffraction To determine grating element and

number of lines on grating

3 Laser To Determine thickness of a wire

4 Polarization To verify Malus law

5 Semiconductor To determine band gap energy

6 Solar Cell To determine efficiency and fill factor

7 Hall Effect To determine charge carrier density

8 Ultrasonic waves To determine velocity of ultrasonic

and compressibility

Total marks obtained -- -- --

Certificate
This is to certify that
Name of Student : _____________________________________________________
Division : __________________ Roll No.: ___________________
SPPU Exam Seat No. : ________________________________
First Year Engineering has satisfactorily completed the term work in the subject of
Engineering Physics in the Department of Engineering Sciences of Marathwada
Mitramandal’s Institute of Technology, Lohgaon, Pune - 47 as prescribed by Savitribai Phule
Pune University.

Date:

Faculty HOD Principal

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 CO-PO Mapping

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓
CO2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓
CO3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓
CO4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ -- ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓
CO5 ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓ -- ✓ -- -- -- ✓
CO6 ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- ✓ ✓ ✓ -- -- -- ✓

Experiments - CO Mapping

Expt. No. CO 1 CO 2 CO 3 CO 4 CO 5 CO 6

1 - Newton’s Rings ✓

2 - Diffraction, Grating element ✓

3 - Polarization - Malus law ✓

4 - Laser, diameter of wire ✓

5 - Semiconductor, Band Gap ✓

6 - Solar Cell, Efficiency & FF ✓

7 - Hall effect, Hall coefficient ✓

8 - Ultrasonic, velocity in liquid ✓

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 Instructions for Students
Before performing the experiment
1. Report to the laboratory in time. Keep your bags on the bag rack.
2. Keep your mobile phones switched off during the practicals.
3. Read and understand the theory related with experiment (from notes or books).
4. Listen to the instructions and demonstration carefully before performing the
practical
5. Every experiment is to be performed in a batch of 4 students.
6. Every student needs to take his/her own readings of every experiment turn by turn.
7. Do not switch on any apparatus without consultation with the faculty.

During experiment
1. Get the connections checked by faculty / demonstrator before switching on the
power supply.
2. Do not switch on the power supply (within the kit, mains) unless instructed to do so.
3. Discuss the observations, readings and calculations with faculty.
4. Plot the graph wherever required.

After experiment
1. Switch off the power supply (within the kit, mains)
2. Switch off the multimeters
3. Experimental write-up / readings need to be checked from the faculty after
performing experiment

Instructions
1. Previous experiments should be checked before performing the next experiment.
2. Minimum eight experiments should be performed by every student in a semester
3. Few questions are given at the end of every experiment. These are to be written by
students in their own words after understanding the theory
4. Index page should get signed by the faculty after completion of checking of every
experiment.

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1. Newton’s Rings – Wavelength of monochromatic light
Aim: To study the formation of Newton’s rings and hence determine the wavelength of
monochromatic source
Apparatus: Monochromatic source of light, Plano-convex lens, optically flat glass plate, traveling
microscope, convex lens
2 2
𝐷𝑚−𝐷𝑛
Formula: λ = 4(𝑚−𝑛)𝑅

Experimental Arrangement
● A plano-convex lens (of radius R) is placed over a plane glass plate.
● Away from the centre of the plano-convex lens, the gap (or air film) between the lower
surface of plano-convex lens and upper surface of plane glass plate goes on increasing.
● Monochromatic light of wavelength λ is allowed to fall normally over the upper flat surface
of the plano-convex lens using a glass plate kept inclined at an angle of 450.
● A travelling microscope is kept just over the plano-convex lens to observe interference
patterns.

Formation of Newton’s rings

● If R is large, the air gap between the lens and plate is very less. This situation is similar to that
of a thin film of wedge shape.
● The incident ray strikes normally on the top surface of the plano-convex lens.
● This light is reflected from the top surface (ray-1) and bottom surface (ray-2) of the air film.
● The interference pattern is in the form of a series of concentric, alternating light and dark
rings.
● These rings are known as Newton’s rings.
● Interference occurs between the two rays (ray-1 and ray-2) when they are focused by the
microscope.
● If the path difference between them is mλ, they produce constructive interference and
produce alternate bright.
● If the path difference between them is (m+ ½)λ, they produce constructive interference and
produce dark rings .
● Away from the centre, the thickness of air film goes on increasing. This changes the path
difference between the interfering rays and hence alternate bright and dark rings are
observed.

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Procedure:
1. Arrange the set-up as shown in figure.
2. Focus the microscope on the upper flat surface of the plano-convex lens till Newton’s Rings
will be clearly seen.
3. Adjust traveling microscope so that the centre of the cross-wire coincides with the central
dark spot.
4. Move the microscope slowly towards the left side of the patter while counting the rings.
5. Focus the microscope on the 8th dark ring. Note the reading of the microscope.
6. Move the microscope to the right and take readings for the 7th to 3rd dark rings on the left
side.
7. Move the microscope on the right side of the center. Note readings from 3rd to 8th dark
rings.
8. Evaluate the diameters of dark rings
9. Plot the graph of Dn2 vs n and find the slope.

Observations and observation table:

1. Radius of Plano-Convex lens: 80 cm
2. Least count of the travelling microscope: __________ (in mm)

No. of Microscope Reading Diameter of Diameter (Dn)2 Diff. in squares of

ring (n) (in mm) ring of ring (in (cm2) diameter (Y)
Left (x1) Right (x2) (in mm) cm)
Dn =|x1-x2|
8 (D8)2 - (D5)2 =
7 (D7)2 - (D4)2 =
6 (D6)2 - (D3)2 =
5 Mean (Y) =
4
3

(A) Result by calculations

2 2
𝐷𝑚−𝐷𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑌
Wavelength of monochromatic light =λ = 4(𝑚−𝑛)𝑅
= 4 𝑥 3 𝑥 80

(B) Result by graph

Plot a graph of (Dn)2 vs (n) and find its slope
2 2 2 2
𝐷𝑚−𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑚−𝐷𝑛 1 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Wavelength of monochromatic light =λ = 4(𝑚−𝑛)𝑅
= (𝑚−𝑛)
𝑥 4𝑅
= 4𝑅

Result: Wavelength of monochromatic source is found to be

(a) __________________m = ____________ AU (From calculations)
(b) __________________m = ____________ AU (From Graph)

Precautions:
1. The setup of the experiments should not be disturbed during the experiment
2. The microscope is always moved in the same direction to avoid backlash error
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Space for Graph Paper (Dn)2 vs (n)

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 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Write names of at least five companies in the world that produce camera lenses.

2. Where and how the phenomenon of interference is employed while manufacturing camera lenses?

Signature of Faculty & Date

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2. Diffraction Grating – Grating element and number of lines
Aim: To determine grating element of diffraction grating
Apparatus: He-Ne laser, diffraction grating, optical bench, screen, etc.
Formula: d sinθ =nλ
Where, d - grating element, θ - Angle of diffraction,
n - Order of diffraction, λ - Wavelength of light
Diagram:

Definitions:
Diffraction: If an obstacle is placed in the path of light, the light bends around the corners/edges of
that obstacle and light waves spreads waves into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle
Diffraction grating: A diffraction grating consists of a large number of parallel, very closely spaced
equidistant slits and is used to separate light of different wavelengths with high resolution
Grating element: If “a” is the width of the ruling (slit) and “b” is the opaque space, then if a=b i.e. the
spacing on grating are equidistant. The distance between the two slits is d=(a+b) which is known as
grating element or grating period

Procedure:
1. He-Ne laser is mounted on its saddle.
2. A plane transmission grating is mounted in between the laser and the screen.
3. When the laser is switched on, a diffraction pattern is observed on the screen.
4. The position of screen and grating is adjusted till fine spots of diffraction are observed on the
screen.
5. The separation between central maxima and first order maxima (x1) is noted on either side of
central maxima.
6. Similarly, the separation between central maxima and second order maxima (x2) is noted on
either side of central maxima.
7. The mean of position can be calculated.

Observations:
1. Wavelength of He-Ne laser = λ = 6328 A0= 6.328 x 10-5 cm
2. Distance between grating and screen = D = ______ cm

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 Order x (cm) Mean x D θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 − 1 (
LHS RHS (cm) (cm)
n=1 X1 = X1=

n=2 X2 = X2=

Calculations:

Equation for grating: 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑚λ

(a) From first order, n=1

𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = λ
λ
Thus, grating element = 𝑑 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
=
Number of lines per cm on the grating = N = 1/d = ______________ lines / cm

(b) From first order, n=1

𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 2λ
2λ
Thus, grating element = 𝑑 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
=
Number of lines per cm on the grating = N = 1/d = ______________ lines / cm

Average of (a) and (b)

d = ______________ cm-1

N = ______________ lines / cm

Result:

a. The grating element is found to be ______________ cm-1

b. The number of lines / cm on the grating are found to be ______________ lines / cm

Precautions:
1. Laser should fall normally over the diffraction grating
2. Diffraction pattern should be clear and distinct
3. Direct observing towards He-Ne laser must be avoided

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 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. State at least three daily life examples where diffraction phenomena are used.

2. Will the diffraction pattern observed on a CD and a DVD be the same or different? Why?

Signature of Faculty & Date

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3. Malu’s law – Verification of law of Malu’s
Aim: To verify cosine square law of Malus
Apparatus: Photo-voltaic cell, source of light, polaroids, ammeter, etc
Formula: Iፀ = I0 cos2ፀ
Where, Iፀ - is intensity of light that emerges from the analyzer,
I0 - intensity of the plane polarized light incident on the analyzer
θ - angle between planes of transmission of polarizer & analyzer
Diagram:

Theory:
Theory: In 1809, Etienne Louis Malus experimentally discovered a relation which indicates that the
intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer depends upon the angle between the plane of
transmission of Analyzer and Polarizer.
If, I = intensity of light that emerges from the analyzer,
Im = Intensity of the plane polarized light incident on the analyzer
θ = angle between planes of transmission of polarizer & analyzer

From this law, For maximum intensity (I=Im), θ = 0

For minimum intensity (I=0), θ = 90°

This relation is called Malus' Law. It states that the intensity of the polarized light transmitted
through the analyzer varies as the square of the angle between the plane of transmission of the
analyzer & the plane of polarize

Procedure:
1. The experimental arrangement is made as shown. In this arrangement the source S, convex
lens (L), Polaroid P, should be at the same height.
2. Allow the light from the source, to be incident on Polaroid.
3. Polaroid is a combination of Polarizer and analyzer. So incident unpolarized light becomes
plane polarized due to polarizer. It is then an incident on analyzer.

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 4. For any position of polariser P, rotate analyzer A to get maximum deflection in the
micrometer. This position of analyzer corresponds to θ = 0°.
5. Rotate analyzer in steps of 10°, 20°… 90° and note corresponding current.
6. Note the current for θ = 90°. Ideally, this current should be zero. Any non-zero value is
considered as offset current Ioff when θ = 90°.
7. Plot a graph of I versus cos2θ

Observation table:
Offset current Ioff (for θ = 900) =________ μA
Angle between analyzer Steady Current I = Iθ - Ioff
Sr. cos θ cos2 θ
& polarizer θ (in Degrees) Iθ = (μA) (μA)
0 0
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50
6 60
7 70
8 80
9 90

Conclusion: Linear graph shows that current I is directly proportional to cos2θ. Current I is directly
proportional to intensity of the light transmitted by analyzer. Hence intensity is directly proportional
to cos2θ, which proves Malus’ law.

Precautions:
1. Position of the polarizer should not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Avoid incidence of stray light on polarizer and analyzer

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Space for Graph Paper I vs cos2θ

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 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. How is the polarization phenomenon used in recording and projecting 3D movies?

2. State at least three daily life examples where polarization is employed.

Signature of Faculty & Date

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4. Laser – Determination of diameter of a thin wire
Aim: To determine diameter of a thin wire using laser
Apparatus: He-Ne laser setup, a thin wire, optical bench, screen, etc.
Formula: Diameter of thin wire = d = (λ x D) / X
Where, λ - Wavelength of light
D - Distance between wire and screen
X = Distance between first maxima on LHS and first maxima on RHS
Diagram:

Theory:
Diffraction: If an obstacle is placed in the path of light, the light bends around the corners/edges of
that obstacle and light waves spreads waves into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle
Procedure:
1. He-Ne laser is mounted on its saddle. A thin wire is placed between the laser and the screen
with the help of a mount.
2. The laser is switched on. Fine adjustments are to be done till a well observed diffraction
pattern is viewed on the screen.
3. The separation between first maxima on LHS and RHS is measured using a scale from the
opposite side of the screen (X).
4. The distance between thin wire and the screen is measured from the optical bench (D)
5. The diameter of the wire is calculated from the formula.

Observations and calculations:

Distance between first Distance between thin Wavelength of He-Ne Diameter of the wire
maxima on either side “X” wire and screen “D” Laser d = (λ x D) / X

6.382 x 10-5 cm

Result:
The diameter of the given wire is found to be _____________
Precautions:
1. Direct observing towards He-Ne laser must be avoided
2. The thin wire should be straight without bends
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 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Write at least three applications of lasers in the field of Information Technology along with the type
of laser used .

2. Write at least three applications of lasers in Mechanical Industry along with types of laser used.

3. Write at least three applications of lasers in Civil Engineering along with types of laser used.

Signature of Faculty & Date

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5. Determination of bandgap energy semiconductor
Aim: To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor.

Apparatus: Mini oven with heater, thermometer, diode, micro ammeter, sand etc.

Circuit diagram:

Formula: Eg = 2Kβ joule

Where K - Boltzmann constant = 1.37x10-23 J
β - slope of graph ln RT Vs 1/T
Eg – Band gap

Theory:

Valance band:
The energy band occupied by valence electrons is
called the valence band.
In the solids, valence electrons are not bound to
any particular atom therefore, the valence band
arises from the splitting of the valence energy
levels common to the entire crystal. The valence
electrons are available for conduction in the
valence band.
Conduction band
The band of allowed energy levels higher to the valence band will be vacant at absolute zero. At
other than absolute zero, electrons are excited to this upper band. The excited atoms are said to be
free and are responsible for electrical conduction in the solid. The energy band consisting of the free
electrons that are capable of electrical conduction is called conduction band. The conduction band is
also common to the entire crystal.
Forbidden energy gap / band gap
Valence band and conduction band are separated by a forbidden energy band of a few electron volts
wide. The energy difference between the top edges of valence band the bottom edge of the
conduction band is called the bandgap. It is also known as energy gap.

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Procedure:
1. Put white sand powder in the oven and insert the diode and thermometer.
2. Connect the circuit as shown with the diode in reverse biased condition.
3. A current will flow. This is reverse saturation current.
4. Heat the oven till 75 degree Celsius and allow it to cool.
5. Record the temperature and the current flowing through the diode while cooling in the
intervals of 5 degree Celsius.
6. Complete the observation table.
7. Plot the graph of natural logarithm ln I Vs 1/T
8. Find the slope β and hence Eg
9. Express the band gap in eV
10. Comment on the result obtained.
11. Also see the nature of change in semiconductor resistance with increase in temperature by
plotting the graph of R Vs T

Observation Table:
1. The cell voltage =

Sr. T (0C) I (μA) T = t +273 K 1/T (/ K) RT = V/I (Ω) ln (I)

1 75
2 ..
3 ..
4 ..
5 ..
6 ..
7 30

Slope of plot
1. ln I Vs 1/T = - (Eg/K) = _____________ where k is Boltzmann constant (k = 1.37 x 10–23 J-sec)

2. Hence Eg = - slope X K = - ____________ x (1.37 x 10-23) Joules = ____________ eV

Slope of the graph = ______________

Result: The band gap of given semiconductor is ________ eV

Precautions:
1. Do not raise the temperature of oven beyond 750

24
Space for Graph (ln I vs 1/T)

25
Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Write the names of at least ten companies in the world that prepare semiconductors.

2. Write names of at least three brands of microprocessors used in computers along with density of
transistors used.

Signature of Faculty & Date

26
6. Solar Cell – IV characteristics and determination of fill factor, efficiency
Aim: To study the IV characteristics of solar cell and determine its fill factor and efficiency
Apparatus: Solar cell IV characteristic kit, a bulb for illumination, DC power supply, digital multi
meters, etc.

Theory
1. Solar cells convert solar energy into electrical energy by principle of photovoltaic effect.
2. A thin layer of p-type semiconductor material is doped over an n-type substrate forming a
P-N junction. The thickness of the p-layer is very small. Electrical contacts are made over the
top and bottom sides.
3. To enhance the transmission of light into the material, an anti-reflection coating is given over
the p-type layer.
4. When sunlight falls on the upper p-region, it generates electron-hole pairs in both P and N
regions. As the thickness of the p-layer is small, these electrons and holes immediately reach
the junction with a less probability of recombination.
5. At junction electron-hole pairs face a barrier potential. The barrier potential attracts
electrons from p-region into n-region and holes from n-region into p-region. This leads to an
increase in the number of holes in p-region and electrons in the region.
6. The accumulation of charges on the two sides of the junction produces a voltage or EMF
known as photo EMF. It is known as the open circuit voltage and is proportional to the
intensity of the incident light as well as size of the illuminated area.
7. If an external circuit is connected across the solar cell terminals, a current flows through the
circuit.
8. For example, under peak sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV cell with a surface area
of 160 cm2 will produce about 2 watts peak power. If the sunlight intensity were 40 percent
of peak, this cell would produce about 0.8 watts.
9. Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in
an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building block of PV
systems.
10. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired,
field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting
of any number of PV modules and panels.

Parameters of solar cell:

● Short circuit current Isc:
This is a non zero current flowing through the solar cell when RL = 0. This condition is
equivalent to short circuit status or no load.

● Open circuit voltage Voc:

This is the voltage across the solar cell when the circuit is open i.e. RL = infinite. No current
flows through the circuit.

● Fill Factor = Experimental maximum Power / Theoretical maximum Power = VmIm / VocIsc

● Efficiency = Experimental maximum power / Input Power = VocIsc / Pin

27
Procedure
1. Adjust the lamp intensity to a moderate level and keep it constant.
2. Keep the load across the solar cell to a minimum value i.e. RL 🡪 0 and note down the current
through the solar cell. This current is known as short circuit current i.e. Isc
3. Vary the load across the solar cell such that the voltage across the solar cell changes in steps
and note down the current
4. When load across the solar cell is maximum, voltage across it is maximum and is known as
open circuit voltage i.e. Voc
5. Plot a graph between voltage and current.
6. Calculate the fill factor
7. Calculate incident power. Hence calculate efficiency of solar cell.
Observations and calculations:
1. Wattage of the bulb = ________ watt
2. Surface area of solar cell = ______ cm x ________ cm = _________ cm2
3. Distance between solar cell and centre of the bulb (R) = ________ cm
4. Incident power = Pin = (Wattage of bulb X surface are of solar cell) / 4πR2 = ________ watt
5. Current corresponding to Short circuit current (Isc) = ________
6. Voltage corresponding to Open circuit voltage (Voc) = __________
7. Current corresponding to maximum power (Im) = ________
8. Voltage corresponding to maximum power (Vm) = __________
9. Fill Factor = VmIm / VocIsc = _________
10. Efficiency = VocIsc / Pin= __________

Observation Table:

Sr. No. V (V) I (μA)

Result
1. Current corresponding to Short circuit current (Isc) = ________
2. Voltage corresponding to Open circuit voltage (Voc) = __________
3. Current corresponding to maximum power (Im) = ________
4. Voltage corresponding to maximum power (Vm) = __________
5. Fill Factor = VmIm / VocIsc = _________
6. Efficiency = VocIsc / Pin= __________

Precautions:

1. Variation of stray light onto solar cell should be avoided

28
Space for Graph (I vs V)

29
 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Search and write types of materials of solar cells used in satellites and solar power plants.

2. Write at least three different types of materials used to manufacture solar cell along with their
efficiency.

Signature of Faculty & Date

30
7. Hall Effect – Determination of density of charge carriers

Aim: To find Hall Coefficient of give semiconductor

Apparatus: Gauss & Tesla meter NV621, Measurement unit NV622, Constant current power supply
NV623, Electromagnet, Hall Probe, InAs probe.

𝑉𝐻𝑡
Formula: The Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐵𝐼

Theory:
Hall effect

If electric current flows through a conductor kept in

a magnetic field, the field exerts force in the
direction perpendicular to both electric current and
magnetic field. This force tends to push the charge
carriers on one side of the conductor. The buildup
of charges at the sides of the conductor produces a
measurable voltage known as Hall voltage VH

The presence of this voltage when the current carrying conductor is kept in the magnetic field is
known as Hall effect after E.H. Hall who discovered it in 1879.

Like conductors, Hall Effect is observed in semiconductors. The effect has several applications. E.g.
1. Determination of charge carrier density in the given semiconductor
2. To determine whether the given semiconductor is n-type or p-type by identifying the type of
charge carriers
3. Determination of mobility of charge carriers

Procedure:
Part A – Measuring the magnetic field of the electromagnet
1. Align electromagnet in North-South direction
2. Keep the InAs sensor in between the poles of the electromagnet
3. Through constant current meter, pass current of 0.5 A through the electromagnet
4. Using Gauss and Tesla meter measure the magnetic field produced by the electromagnet
5. Vary the current in electromagnet to 1 A, 1.5 A and 2 A and note down the magnetic fields
for various values of the current

Part B - To determine Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

1. Keep the current through electromagnet to 1 A. This ensures application of steady magnetic
fields.
2. Hall Effect probe crystal is kept in between the electromagnet
3. Pass current of 0.5 mA through the Hall probe and measure Hall voltage (VH)
4. Change the values of current through the Hall probe to 1 mA, 1.5 mA and 2 mA and measure
the corresponding Hall voltage.
5. Using the formula for Hall coefficient, calculate the Hall coefficient

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Observations:
Measuring the magnetic field of the electromagnet

Sr. Current in Electromagnet (A) Magnetic Field (wb/m2)

1 1
2 2

Calculations
1. Thickness of the semiconductor wafer = t = ____________mm.
2. Current in electromagnet = I = 1 A
3. Magnetic field corresponding to 1A = B = _______ wb/m2

Sr. Current I (mA) Hall voltage Charge carrier density Average (n)
(𝑉𝐻) n = BI / VH x t x e
1 1 mA
2 2 mA

Result:
The charge carrier density in given semiconductor is found to be __________

Precautions:
1. The electromagnet should be aligned North-South direction
2. InAs sensor probe for measuring the magnetic field should be kept in such a way that
magnetic field should incident normally on its surface
3. Hall probe should be kept in such a way that magnetic field should incident normally on its
surface
4. Distance between the poles of electromagnet should not be changed during the experiment

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 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Search and write at least three applications of Hall effect sensors in different gadgets?

2. Which Hall effect sensor is used in your mobile? Measure the magnetic field surrounding you using
your mobile and write its value.

Signature of Faculty & Date

33
34
8. Ultrasonic Interferometer – Determining velocity and compressibility
Aim: To determine the velocity (speed) of ultrasonic waves in water and compressibility of water
Apparatus: Ultrasonic interferometer and distilled water
Formula: Speed of ultrasonic waves = v = fλ, Compressibility of water = β = 1/ρv2
Where f - frequency of ultrasonic waves given out by piezo-electric crystal
ρ = density of water = 996.458 kg /cubic meter
λ- wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
Theory:
1. Ultrasonic waves are the sound waves having frequency
higher than the range audible to humans (20 kHz).
2. The principle used in the measurement of velocity (ν) is
based on the accurate determination of the wavelength
(λ) in the medium.
3. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency (f) are produced by a
quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the cell. These waves
are reflected by a movable metallic plate kept parallel to
the quartz crystal.
4. If the separation between these two plates is exactly a
whole multiple of the sound wavelength, standing waves
are formed in the medium. This acoustic resonance gives
rise to generation of charges on quartz crystal and the
anode current becomes maximum.
5. If the distance is now increased or decreased, and the
variation is exactly one-half wavelength (λ/2), or multiple
of it, anode current becomes maximum.
6. From the knowledge of wavelength (λ) the velocity (v) can
be obtained by the relation: Velocity = Wavelength x
Frequency v = λ x f

Procedure:
1. Pour distilled in a water column.
2. When power is on, the current meter indicates certain current after some time. This
indicates that the waves are set up.
3. Adjust current to the middle of the current meter. Note down initial position of micrometer.
4. Move the micrometer screw slowly so that the reflector plate is moved in an upward
direction.
5. Needle of current meter vibrates between minimum & maximum.
6. Note down position of micrometer after the needle has touched maxima/minima.

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Observations:
1. Frequency of the crystal: 2MHz
2. Density of water = 996.458 kg/m3
3. Least count of the micrometer = ______ mm

Observation table

Micrometer reading Difference between Current Average

Sr. corresponding to maxima consecutive maxima or corresponding to (λ/4)
and minima (in mm) minima (λ/4) (in mm) maxima or minima (I) (in mm)
1 N1 =
2 N2 = N2 - N1 =
3 N3 = N3 - N2 =
4 N4 = N4 - N3 =
5 N5 = N5 - N4 =
6 N6 = N6 - N5 =
7 N7 = N7 - N6 =
8 N8 = N8 - N7 =
9 N9 = N9 - N8 =
10 N10 = N10 - N9 =

Thus, wavelength of ultrasonic waves = λ = ______ mm = _________ cm

Calculations and result:

Plot a graph between position of reflector and current
(a) Wavelength by calculations, λc = _______ cm
(b) Wavelength by graph, λg = _______ cm
(c) Average wavelength, λ = (λc+λg)/2 = _______ cm

Result:
1. Velocity of the ultrasonic wave = v = f x λ = _______________ m/s

1
2. Compressibility of water = β = 2 = _________= _________ N/m2
ρ𝑣

Precautions:

1. Micrometer screw should be moved very slowly and steadily in one direction
2. Movement of micrometer screw in opposite direction should be avoided

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Space for Graph: Position of reflector vs current

37
 Questions: Write answers in brief

1. Search and write the values of speed of ultrasonic waves in at least three different media - air, iron ,
aluminium, etc.

2. How can this setup of ultrasonic waves be used for detecting flaws in the metal block?

Signature of Faculty & Date

38