GROUP MEMBERS (BATCH 3C2)

 ARYAN KUSHWAHA
(2018UCE1149)

 SOMESH CHOUDHARY
(2018UCE1138)

 VIVEK KUMAR
(2018UCE1121)

 AYUSH VERMA
(2018UCE1128)

 KIRTI KUMAR
(2018UCE1124)

 AYUSH GOYAL

SOIL (2018UCE1139)

MECHANICS
LABORATORY
5 Semester
 MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY(INDEX)

CEP 309

S.NO. EXPERIMENTAL NAME PAGE NO.

1 Water content determination 8-10

2 Specific gravity test 11-13

3 Sieve analysis 14-20

4 Hydrometer analysis 21-26

5 Atterberg limits determination 27-38

6 Permeability tests 39-47

7 Compaction test 48-52

8 Core-cutter and sand replacement 53-59

methods for in-situ density
determination.

9 Determination shear strength 60-68

parameters using Direct shear test

10 Determination shear strength 69-72

parameters using Unconfined
compression

11 Consolidation characteristics of 73-78

soils using Consolidometer/ Odeo
meter

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Vision, Mission and Quality Policy of the Institute

Vision Statement:
To create a centre for imparting technical education of international standards and conduct research
at the cutting edge of technology to meet the current and future challenges of technological
development.

Mission Statement:
To create technical manpower for meeting the current and future demands of industry: To
recognize education and research in close interaction with industry with emphasis on the
development of leadership qualities in the young men and women entering the portals of the
Institute with sensitivity to social development and eye for opportunities for growth in the
international perspective.

Key Objective:
MNIT shall strive to impart knowledge in such a manner as to achieve total satisfaction of students,
parents, employers, and the society.

Institute Motto:
योग: कमसु कौशलम

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Vision and Mission of the Department

Vision:
To serve the nation by providing high quality engineering education that enables students to get a
profession that can improve the civil infrastructure and social welfare.

Mission:
To create enabling environment for excellent teaching, learning and research in order to produce
leading entrepreneurs and innovators in the field of civil engineering for sustainable development.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs) for UG Programme

To prepare students to get employment, profession and/or to pursue Post graduation

PEO 1 and research in civil engineering discipline in particular and allied engineering
disciplines in general.

To provide students a solid foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering

PEO 2 fundamentals required to formulate, analyse and solve civil engineering related
problems.

To prepare the students to acquire the knowledge in breadth in order to solve

mathematical problems related to analysis and design of various systems pertaining
PEO 3
to Civil Engineering Infrastructure in order to utilize their skills to prepare cost
estimates and activities related to Civil Engineering projects.

To inculcate ethical practices in students and to establish understanding of

PEO 4
professionalism, safety, sustainability, their duties and contribution to the society.

To provide students with academic environment that makes them aware of excellence
PEO 5 and to enable them to understand the significance of life-long learning in global
perspective.

Programme Outcomes (POs) for UG Programme

A graduate should able to give Technical & Engineering solution for Civil Engineering
PO1
problems using knowledge of science, mathematics etc.

The Civil Engineering Graduate should able to use operation research and applied
PO2
mathematics in finding solution and analysis of Engineering problems.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Passing out Civil Engineer should able to design building structure, Roads, sewage and
PO3 water supply network and other component of infrastructure system considering
environmental, safety and social aspects.

A Civil Engineer should able to use latest research technological tool and analyse large
PO4
engineering data for providing solution of engineering problems.

A Graduate should able to use latest technology, software like GIS, Stadd etc. to solve
PO5
complex engineering activities.

The engineer should inculcate the knowledge regarding social, health, legal and cultural
PO6
issues required for professional engineering skills.

The engineer should able to provide environmental friendly and sustainable Infrastructure
PO7
development.

A graduate engineer during his course of study should inbuilt social ethics and
PO8
professionalism and should apply them in his carrier.

A graduate should in heritage leadership qualities whenever working in a group while

PO9
handling multi disciplining engineering projects.

A graduate engineer should able to compile Detailed Project Report and give technical
PO10
presentations acquiring good communication skills during course of study.

Graduate should able to handle Civil Engineering Projects involving multidisciplinary

PO11
aspects/ streams including its financial cost estimation etc.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Graduate should have aptitude for learning new innovative technologies in civil
PO12
Engineering.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

COURSE OUTCOMES

CEP 309: SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY

CO1 Students would be able to identify and determine the basic engineering properties of soil.
CO2 Learned the procedure for experimental investigations required for classification of the
soils.
CO3 Learned experimental methods of measurement of compaction, permeability and
strength characteristics of soils.

CEP 328: GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

CO1 Understand and estimate different soil engineering properties like shear strength, swelling
pressure, free swell.
CO2 Determine allowable bearing pressure, unconfined compressive strength and other
properties of rocks.
CO3 Demonstrate the experimental determination of soluble salts and sulphates.

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 MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

1. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF A SOIL SAMPLE

OBJECTIVE: To determine the water content of a given soil sample (Oven Drying Method)

THEORY:
A soil is an aggregate of soil particles having a porous structure. The pores may have water and/
or air. The pores are also known as voids. If voids are fully filled with water. The soil is called
saturated soil and if voids have only air, the soil is called dry.
Water content is defined as the ratio of the mass/weight of water to the mass/weight of soil solids.
Where, W = water content
Ww = Weight/ mass of water
Ws = Weight/ mass of soil solids (mass of oven dry soil)
The mass of water used in the above expression is the mass of free pore water only. Hence for
water content determination the soil samples are dried to the temperature at which only pore water
is evaporated. This temperature was standardized 105o C to 110o C. Soils having gypsum are dried
at 60o C to 80o C.
The quantity of soil sample needed for the determination of water content depends on the gradation
and the maximum size of particles. Following quantities are recommended.
Soil Max. quantity used (gm)
Coarse gravel 1000 to 2000
Fine gravel 300 to 500
Coarse sand 200
Medium sand 50
Fine sand 25
Silt and clays 10 to 25

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Containers (non-corrodible, air-tight)
2. Balance (accuracy 0.04 percent of the weight of the soil taken for test)

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

3. Oven (interior of non-corroding material, thermostatically controlled)

4. Desiccators
5. Tongs (one pair)

PROCEDURE
1. Clean, dry and weigh the container with lid.
2. Take the required quantity of the soil specimen in the container and weigh with lid.
3. Maintain the temperature of the oven between 105 o C to 110o C for normal soils and 60o C
to 80o C for soils having loosely bound hydration water or/and organic matter.
4. Dry the sample in the oven till its mass becomes constant. In normal conditions the sample
is kept in the oven for not more than 24 hrs.
5. After drying remove the container from the oven, replace the lid and cool in the desiccator.
6. Weigh the dry soil in the container with lid.

PRECAUTIONS
1. The soil specimen should be loosely placed in the container.
2. Overheating should be avoided.
3. Dry soil sample should not be left in open before weighing.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

DETERMINATION 1 2 3
NUMBER
WEIGHT OF 32.66 28.42 30.36
CONTAINER(W1)
WEIGHT OF 6.87 60.29 66.58
CONTAINER +WET
SOIL(W2)
WEIGHT OF 59.19 55.66 61.24
CONTAINER+ DRY

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

SOIL
WEIGHT OF 4.68 4.63 5.34
MOISTURE(W2-W3)
WEIGHT OF DRY 26.53 27.24 30.88
SOIL (W3-W1)
WATER 17.64 16.99 17.29
CONTENT(%)

The water content is calculated as follows:

Where W1 = mass of container with lid

W2 = mass of container with lid + wet soil
W3 = mass of container with lid + dry soil

RESULT:
Average water content =17.31%

APPLICATIONS:
Water content plays an important role in understanding the behavior of fine grained soils .It is the
water content which changes the soils from liquid state to plastic and solid states. Its value controls
the shear strength and compressibility of soils. Compaction of soils in the field is also controlled
by the quantity of water present. Density of soils are directly influenced by its value and are used
in calculating the Stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soils-foundation system,earth pressure
behind the retaining walls and pressure due to overburden.
The knowledge of determining the water content is helpful in many of the laboratory tests such as
Atterberg’s limits, shear strength compaction and consolidation.

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 MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

2. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE: To determine the specific gravity of soil fraction passing 4.75 mm I.S sieve by
Pycnometer.

THEORY: The knowledge of specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void
ratio, degree of saturation etc. Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of the soil to
the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at that temperature both weights taken in air.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Pycnometer
2. Balance to weigh the materials (accuracy 10 gm).
3. Wash bottle with distilled water.
4. Alcohol and ether.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean and dry the pycnometer
a. Wash the pycnometer with water and allow it to drain.
b. Wash it with alcohol and drain it to remove water.
c. Wash it with ether, to remove alcohol and drain ether.
2. Weigh the pycnometer (W1)
3. Take about 200 gm of oven-dried soil sample which is cooled in a desiccator. Transfer it
to the pycnometer. Find the weight of the pycnometer and soil (W2).
4. Put 10ml of distilled water in the pycnometer to allow the soil to soak completely. Leave
it for about 2 hrs.
5. Again, fill the pycnometer completely with distilled water put the stopper and keep the
pycnometer under constant temperature water baths.
6. Take the pycnometer outside and wipe it clean and dry it. Now determine the weight of the
pycnometer and the contents (W3).

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

7. Now empty the pycnometer and thoroughly clean it. Fill the pycnometer with only distilled
water and weigh it. Let it be W4.

8. Repeat the same process for 2 to 3 times, to take the average reading of it.

OBSERVATION TABLE
S. No.
1 Weight of pycnometer (g), W1 666
2 Weight of pycnometer + dry soil (g), W2 767
3 Weight of pycnometer + dry soil + water at 1539
temperature To C (g), W3
4 Weight of pycnometer + water at temperature To C (g), 1478
W4
5 Specific gravity G at To C 2.525

CALCULATIONS
Specific Gravity = 2.525

RESULT
Specific Gravity of given soil = 2.525

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

APPLICATIONS

Specific gravity of soil grains is important property and is used in calculating void ratio, porosity,
degree of saturation if density and water content are known. Its value helps up to some extent in
identification and classification of soils. It gives an idea about the suitability of the soil as a
construction material, higher value of specific gravity gives more strength for roads and
foundations. It is used in computing the soil particle size by means of hydrometer analysis the soil
particle size by means of hydrometer analysis. It is also used in estimating the critical hydraulic
gradient in soil when a sand boiling condition is being studied and in zero air-void calculations in
the compaction theory of soils.

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 MALAVIYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JAIPUR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

3. PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFICATION USING SIEVE ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVE: To conduct sieve analysis of soil to classify the given coarse-grained soil using
I.S. 460-1962.

THEORY: The grain size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained from
grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine
suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc.

Soils having particles larger than 0.075 mm size are termed as coarse-grained soils. In these soils
more than 50 % of the total material by mass is larger than 75-micron. Coarse grained soil may
have boulder, cobble, gravel and sand. Coarse grained soils may have rounded to angular bulky,
hard, rock particles with the following sizes:

Boulder-more than 300 mm diameter.

Cobble- smaller than 300 mm and larger than 80 mm diameter.

Gravel (G) - smaller than 80 mm and larger than 4.75 mm.

Coarse gravel-20 mm to 4.75 mm

Sand (S)-smaller than 4.75 mm and larger than 0.075 mm

Coarse: 4.75 mm to 2 mm

Medium: 2.0 mm to 425-micron

Fine: 425-micron to 75-micron

Name of the soil is given depending upon the maximum percentage of the above components.

Soils having less than 5 % particles of size smaller than 0.075 mm are designed by the symbols:

GW: Well graded gravel

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

GP-Poorly graded gravel

SW: Well graded sand

SP-Poorly graded sand

Soils having greater than 12 % of particles of size smaller than 0.075 mm are designed by the
following symbols:

GM or GC: Silty gravel or clayey sand

SM or SC: Silty sand or clayey sand

Dual symbols are used for the soils having 75-micron passing between 5 to 12 %.

Dry sieve analysis is performed for cohesion less soils if fines are less than 5 %.

Wet sieve analysis is done if fines are more than 5 % and of cohesive in nature.

Gravel and sand may be either poorly graded (uniformly graded) or well graded depending upon
the value of coefficient of curvature and uniformly coefficient.

Coefficient of curvature may be estimated as:

Where,
D60 = diameter at 60% finer
D30 = diameter at 30% finer
D10 = diameter at 10% finer

It should lie between 1 and 4 for well graded gravels and between 1 and 6 for well graded sands.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Uniformity coefficient

Its value should be more than 4 for well-graded gravels and more than 6 for well graded sands.
(I.S:1498-1970).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. The sieves for soil tests: 4.75 mm to 75 microns

2. lid and pan
3. tray
4. Weighing Balance
5. Sieve Shaker
6. Brush.
7. Balances (one of accuracy = 1.0 gm. Other of accuracy = 0.1 gm)
8. Oven
9. Desiccator
10. Water

PROCEDURE:

1. Take suitable quantity of oven-dry soil. (Approx. 500 gm)

2.
a) If soil seems to have more than 5% of cohesive soils, the soil taken in step(1) is
spread out in the large tray or bucket and covered with water. Two grams of sodium
hexametaphosphate per liter of water used is then to be added to the soil. The mix
is thoroughly stirred and left for soaking.

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

b) The soaked soil specimen is washed on 75-micron I.S. sieve until the water passing
sieve is clean.
c) The fraction retained on sieve is tipped without loss of material in a tray, dried in
the oven at 105o C to 110o C and weighted.
d) Loss in mass will give percentage passing 75-micron sieve.

Sieving for coarser than 4.75 mm size.

3. Clean the set of sieve and pan with brush

Sieve the soil first through I.S. sieves of first set i.e. 80 mm,40 mm,10 mm
4. Weigh the material retained on each sieve to 1.0 gm.
5. Clean the sieve and pan with brush and weigh to 0.1 gm
6. Sieve the soil through 2nd set of sieves i.e., 2mm, 850 μ, 425μ,150μ and 75 μ using a
mechanical shaker for 10 minutes.
7. Weigh to 0.1 gm each sieve and pan with soil retained on them. The sum of the retained
soil mass is checked against the original mass of soiltaken

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

1. All observations are entered in prescribed observation tables. Most of the calculations are
done in the observation tables itself. In table (below) the cumulative mass of soil fraction
retained on each sieve is calculated. The cumulative percentages of the soil fraction
retained on each sieve is calculated on the basis of the total weight of the sample taken for
this analysis. Percentage finer is calculated by subtracting the percentage retained from
100.
2. In observation tablethe cumulative mass of soil fraction retained on each sieve is
calculated. the cumulative percentage of soil fraction retained on each sieve is calculated
on the basis of the mass of the sample passing 4.75 mm I.S. sieve the combined gradation
on the basis of the total soil sample taken for analysis is then calculated.

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

3. Diameter (mm) is taken on log scale and percent finer on ordinary scale for plotting the
grain size distribution curve. Use recommended graph paper.
4. Read the diameter corresponding to 60 %, 30 % and 10 % finer. Calculate coefficient of
curvature and uniformity coefficient.
5. Read also the percentage of each soil from the graph paper.

OBSERVATION TABLE
I.S sieve Weight Percentage on Cumulative % % finer
number or size Retained in each sieve retained on each
in mm each sieve (gm) sieve
(1) (2) (3) 100 - (3)
4.75 0 0 0 100
2.00 49.5 49.5 4.95 95.05
1.00 406 455.5 45.55 54.45
0.60 145 600.5 60.05 39.95
0.425 187.5 788 78.8 21.2
0.15 121 909 90.9 9.1
0.075 49.5 958.5 95.85 4.15
Pan 41.5 1000 100 0

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

PRECAUTIONS
1. While drying the temperature of the oven should not be more than 105 o C because higher
temperature may cause some permanent change in the 75-micron materials.
2. During shaking, sample soil should not be allowed to come out.
3. In wet analysis, all cohesive soil adhering to large size particles should be removed by
water.
4. For plotting, per cent finer should be determined with respect to the total soil taken for
initial analysis.

APPLICATIONS
The percentage of different sizes of soil particles coarser than 75-micron is determined. Coarse
grained soils are classified mainly by sieve analysis. The grain size distribution curve gives an idea
regarding the gradation of the soil therefore it is possible to identify whether a soil is well graded
or poorly graded. In mechanical soil stabilization, the main principle is to mix a few selected soils

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

in such a proportion that a desired grain size distribution is obtained for the design mix. Hence for
proportioning the selected soils, the grain size distribution of each soil is to be first known.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 4.
DEMONSTRATION OF HYDROMETER ANALYSIS OF SOIL

OBJECTIVE: To conduct hydrometer analysis of soil to classify the given fine-grained soil using
IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985.

THEORY: Hydrometer analysis is a widely used method of obtaining an estimate of the

distribution of soil particle sizes from the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve to around 0.01 mm. The data
are presented on a semi log plot of percent finer vs. particle diameters and may be combined with
the data from a sieve analysis of the material retained (+) on the No.200 sieve. The principal value
of the hydrometer analysis appears to be to obtain the clay fraction (generally accepted as the
percent finer than 0.002 mm). The hydrometer analysis may also have value in identifying particle
sizes < 0.02 mm in frost susceptibility checks for pavement subgrades. This test is done when
more than 20% pass through No.200 sieve and 90% or more passes the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.

The hydrometer analysis is based on Stokes’ Law, which gives the relationship among the velocity
of fall of spheres in a fluid, the diameter of the sphere, the specific weights of the sphere and of
the fluid, and the fluid viscosity. In equation form this relationship is

where,

v = velocity of fall of the spheres (cm/s)

Gs = specific gravity of the sphere
Gf = specific gravity of fluid (varies with temperature)

 = absolute, or dynamic viscosity of the fluid (g /(cm.sec))

D = diameter of the sphere (cm)

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Solving the equation for D and using the specific gravity of water Gw, we obtain

where 0.002 mm <D< 0.2 mm

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Hydrometer (152 H model preferable)
2. Quantity (about 2.5 L per test) of distilled water
3. Sedimentation cylinder (1000 mL cylinder) also termed a hydrometer jar
4. Graduated 1000 mL cylinder for control jar
5. Soil-dispersion device (malt mixer or air-jet dispersion)
6. Dispersion agent (NaPO3 or Na2 SiO3)
7. Hydrometer jar bath (optional, for temperature control)
8. Thermometer

CORRECTIONS TO HYDROMETER READINGS

CORRECTIONS (INDIVIDUAL):

Meniscus Correction (Cm): Since the suspension is opaque, the readings will be taken at the top
of the meniscus while the actual should be from the bottom of the meniscus. It is constant for a
hydrometer (Always positive).

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Temperature Correction (Ct): If the temperature is less than 27o C, the correction is negative and
vice-versa. Temperature should be measured from starting till end of the tests at regular intervals
and are averaged. Then it is compared with the standard temperature (27 o C).

Dispersion Agent Correction (Cd): Addition of calgon always increases the specific gravity of
the specimen. Hence, this correction is always negative.

ALTERNATIVE CORRECTIONS (COMBINED): Composite Correction for Dispersion

Agent and Temperature, (Ct – Cd): Insert the hydrometer in the comparison cylinder containing
dispersant solution in distilled water with the same concentration as used for making the soil
suspension. The Composite correction (Ct – Cd) is negative of the hydrometer reading
corresponding to the top meniscus. It has to be taken every 30 minutes throughout the test.

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the control jar by adding 125 ml of 4 % sodium metaphosphate (NaPO3) solution
and sufficient distilled water to produce 1000 ml. (This solution can be made by mixing
40 g of dry chemical with enough water to make 1000 ml). Put the hydrometer into the
control cylinder and record zero and meniscus correction; then record the temperature by
putting the thermometer in it.
2. Weigh out exactly 50 g of soil passing the No. 200 sieve. Mix the soil with 125 ml of 4 %
sodium metaphosphate (NaPO3) solution. Allow the soil mixture to stand about 12 hrs.
3. At the end of the soaking period, transfer the mixture to a dispersion (or malt mixer) cup
and add tap water until the cup is about two-thirds full. Mix for 1 minute. After mixing,
carefully transfer all the contents of the dispersion cup to the sedimentation cylinder. Rinse
any soil in the dispersion cup by using a plastic squeeze bottle or adding stabilized water
and pour this into the sedimentation cylinder. Now add distilled water to fill the cylinder
to the 1000 ml mark.
4. Cap the sedimentation cylinder with a No. 12 rubber stopper and carefully agitate for about
1 min. Agitation is defined as turning the cylinder upside down and back 60 turns for a
period of 1 min. An upside down and back movement is 2 turns.

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

5. Put the sedimentation cylinder beside the control cylinder and start the stopwatch
immediately. This is cumulative time t = 0. Insert the hydrometer into the sedimentation
cylinder.
6. Take hydrometer readings at cumulative times t = 0.25 min., 0.5min., 1 min. and 2 min.
Always read the upper level of meniscus. Remove and place the hydrometer in the control
jar.
7. Continue taking hydrometer and temperature readings at approximate elapsed times of 8,
15, 30 and 60 min. and then 2, 4, 8, 24 and 48 hr. For each reading, insert the hydrometer
into the sedimentation cylinder about 30 sec before reading is due. After the reading is
taken, remove the hydrometer and put it back into the control cylinder.

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

1. Sample No. = 1 5.Weight of soil for sieve analysis(W)=300gm

2. Soil specific gravity (Gs) = 2.65 6.Weight passing from .075mm(Wf)=100gm
3. Weight of oven dried soil (Ws) =100gm
4. Hydrometer No.= 1

Particle %
Elapse Hydrome L, L/T (L size
R’H / = R= R’H Percent Finer
d time ter Effecti in cm
‘T’ (in Reading
(RH + + (Ct –
ve
K
andT √L/T D=K√ Finer on the
Cm) Cd) L/T (in N' % total
min) (RH) Depth in min)
mm) wt. N
0.0125
30 sec 5 5.5 3.5 15.757 31.514 5.61 70.63 4.018 1.32
9
0.0125
1 min 6 6.5 4.5 15.434 15.434 3.92 49.47 6.424 2.11
9
0.0125
2 min 6.5 7 5 15.274 7.637 2.76 34.74 7.221 2.38
9
0.0125
4 min 6 6.5 4.5 15.437 3.86 1.96 24.67 6.424 2.11
9
0.0125
8 min 5.5 6 4 15.417 1.927 1.39 17.50 5.621 1.85
9
0.0125
15 min 3.5 4 2 16.217 1.081 1.04 13.09 2.409 0.79
9
0.0125
30 min 3.5 4 2 16.217 0.540 0.79 9.90 2.409 0.79
9

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0.0125
1 hr. 3.5 4 2 16.217 0.270 0.52 6.54 2.409 0.79
9
0.0125
2 hr. 3.5 4 2 16.217 0.012 0.11 1.38 2.409 .079
9

where, Gs = specific gravity of soil

Ws = Dry Wt. of soil sample

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5.(a) DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTIC LIMIT

OBJECTIVE: Determination of Consistency Limits – Liquid Limit, plastic limit

THEORY: Liquid limit is the water content at which soil passes from zero strength to an infinitesimal strength, hence the true value of
liquid limit cannot be determined. For determination purpose liquid limit is that water content at which a part of soil, cut by a groove of
standard dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 1.25 cm under an impact of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit apparatus. The
soil at the liquid limit has some strength which is about2.7 kN/m2. At this water content soil just passes from liquid state to plastic state.
The moisture content at which soil has the smallest plasticity is called as the plastic limit. Just after the plastic limit the soil displays the
properties of a semi- solid. For determination purpose, the plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a soil will just begin to
crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter. The difference in moisture content or interval between the liquid and plastic
limits is termed the plasticity index. Knowing the liquid limit and plasticity index soil may be classified with the help of plasticity chart
according to Indian standard on soil classification (IS 1498-1970).

In the plasticity chart following symbols are used:

CL = Clay of low compressibility
CL = Clay of low medium compressibility
CH = Clay of high compressibility

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ML = Silt of low compressibility

MI = Silt of medium compressibility
MH = Silt of high compressibility
OL = Organic soil of low compressibility
OI = Organic soil of medium compressibility
OH = Organic soil of high compressibility

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Cassagrande’s liquid limit device
2. A.S.T.M. and B.S. grooving tool (Cassagrande type)
3. Glass plate 20 × 15 cm
4. 425-micron I.S. sieve
5. 3mm diameter rod.
6. Spatula
7. Basin (300 cc capacity)
8. Balance (0.01 gm sensitivity)
9. Water content tins or crucibles
10. Drying oven

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11. Distilled water

12. Measuring cylinder
13. Desiccator

PROCEDURE

(a)Liquid Limit

1. Adjust the cup of the liquid limit apparatus with the help of grooving tool gauge and the adjustment plate to give a drop of exactly
1 cm on the point of contact on base.
2. Take about 120gm of an air-dried sample passing 425-micron sieve.
3. Mix it thoroughly with some distilled water to from a uniform paste.
4. Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device, smooth the surface with spatula to a maximum depth of 1 cm.
Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.
5. Turn the handle at a rate of 2 revolutions per second and count blows until two parts of the soil sample come into contact at the
bottom of the groove along a distance of 10mm.
6. Transfer about 15gm of the soil forming the edges of the groove that flowed together to a water content tin and determine the
water content by oven drying.

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7. Transfer the remaining soil in the cup to the main soil sample in the basin and mix thoroughly after adding a small amount of
water.
8. Repeat steps 4, 5 and 6. Obtain at least four sets of readings in the range of 10 to 40 blows.

(b)Plastic Limit

1. Take about 30 gm of air dried sample passing 425-micron sieve.

2. Mix thoroughly with distilled water on the glass plate until it is plastic enough to be shaped into a small ball.
3. Take about 10 gm of the plastic soil mass and roll it between the hand and the glass plate to from the soil mass into a thread. If
diameter of thread becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it shows that water added in the soil is more than its plastic limit;
hence the soil is kneaded further and rolled into thread again.
4. Repeat this rolling and remolding process until the thread starts just crumpling at a diameter of 3 mm.
5. If crumpling starts before 3mm diameter thread in step 3, it shows the water added in step 2 is less than the plastic limit of the
soil, hence some more water should be added and mixed to a uniform mass and rolled again, until the thread starts just crumpling
at a diameterof 3 mm.
6. Collect the pieces of crumbled soil thread at 3mm diameter in an air tight container and determine moisture content.
7. Repeat this procedure twice more with fresh samples of 10 gm each.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Soil used for liquid and plastic limit determinations should not be oven dried prior to testing.

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2. In liquid limit test, the groove should be closed by a flow of the soil and not by slippage between the soil and the cup.
3. After mixing distilled water to the soil sample, sufficient time should be given to permeate the water throughout the soil mass.
4. Wet soil taken in the container for moisture content determination should not be left open in the air even for some time, the
containers with soil samples should either be placed in desiccator or immediately be weighed,
5. For each test, cup and grooving tool, should be clean.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

(a)Liquid Limit (L.L.)

1. Use Table 1 for recording the number of blows and calculating the moisture contents.
2. Use semi log graph paper, take number of blows on semi log scale (x-axis and water contents on ordinary scale (y-axis). Plot all
the points and draw a straight line (flow curve) passing through these points.
3. Read the water content at 25 blows which is the value of liquid limit.

(b) Plastic limits (P.L.)

Use table 2 for calculating the plastic limit.

(c) Flow Index (F.I.)

1. Extend the flow curve at both ends so as to intersect the ordinates corresponding to 10 and 100 blows.

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2. Read the water contents at 10 and 100 blows Difference of these two these two water contents is equal to flow index

The flow index may be calculated from the Eq.

w1 = water content in % at N1 Blows

w2 = water content in % at N2 Blows

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

TABLE 1: Observations to Calculation Liquid Limit

S. No. Determination No. 1 2 3

1 No. of blows 14 17 32
2 Container No. D A-5 G
3 Mass of container + wet soil (gm) 106.5 104.5 103
4 Mass of container + dry soil (gm) 97 93.5 93.5
5 Mass of water (3) - (4) (gm) 9.5 11 9.5

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6 Mass of container (gm) 67 58 60.5

7 Mass of dry soil (4) – (6) 30 35.5 33
8 Water content (5)/(7) × 100 (%) 31.66 30.98 28.78

TABLE 2: Observations to Calculation Plastic Limit

S. No. Determination No. Reading

1 Container No. 2
2 Mass of container + wet soil (gm) 81
3 Mass of container + dry soil (gm) 75
4 Mass of water (2) - (3) (gm) 6
5 Mass of container (gm) 50
6 Mass of dry soil (3) – (5) 25
7 Water content (4)/(6) × 100 (%) 24
Average plastic limit: 24%

RESULT

Liquid Limit (L.L.) = 29.64%

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Plastic Limit (P.L.) = 24%

Plasticity Index (L.L. – P.L.) = 5.64

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5. (b)DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT

OBJECTIVE: Determination of shrinkage limit.

THEORY: The water content at which a reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in
volume of the soil mass but an increasing water will increase the volume. It is the minimum water
content at which a soil is still in saturated condition. It is the state which acts as boundary between
semi solid state and plastic state. As the soil loses moisture, either in its natural environment, or
by artificial means in laboratory it changes from liquid state to plastic state to semi-solid state and
then to solid state. The volume is also reduced by the decrease in water content. But, at a particular
limit the moisture reduction causes no further volume change. A shrinkage limit test gives a
quantitative indication of how much moisture can change before any significant volume change
and also indication of change in volume. The shrinkage limit is useful in areas where soils undergo
large volume changes when going through wet and dry cycles (e.g. earth dams).

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Evaporating Dish of Porcelain

2. Spatula and Straight Edge
3. Balance-Sensitive to 0.01 g minimum
4. Shrinkage Dish - Circular, porcelain or non-corroding metal dish
5. Glass cup. 50-55 mm in diameter and 25 mm in height
6. Glass plates - Two, 75×75 mm one plate of plain glass and the other prongs
7. Thermostatically controlled Oven
8. Wash bottle containing distilled water
9. Graduate-Glass, with capacity of 25 ml and Mercury

PROCEDURE:
Preparation of soil paste

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1. Take about 100 gm of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing
through 425 μm Sieve. Place about 30 gm of the above soil sample in the evaporating dish
and thoroughly mixed with distilled water and make a creamy paste. (Use water content
slightly higher than the liquid limit.) Filling the shrinkage dish.
2. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of Vaseline to prevent the soil
sticking to the dish
3. Fill the dish in three layers by placing approximately 1/3rd of the amount of wet soil with
the help of spatula. Tap the dish gently on a firm base until the soil flows over the edges
and no apparent air bubbles exist. Repeat this process for 2 nd and 3rd layers also till the dish
is completely filled with the wet soil. Strike off the excess soil and make the top of the dish
smooth. Wipe off all the soil adhering to the outside of the dish.
4. Weigh immediately the dish with wet soil and record the weight.
5. Air- dry the wet soil cake for 6 to 8 hrs, until the color of the pat turns from dark to light.
Then oven-dry the cake at 105o C to 110o C say about 12 to 16 hrs.
6. Remove the dried disk of the soil from oven. Cool it in a desiccator. Then obtain the weight
of the dish with dry sample.
7. Determine the weight of the empty dish and record.
8. Determine the volume of shrinkage dish which is evidently equal to volume of the wet soil
as follows: Place the shrinkage dish in an evaporating dish and fill the dish with mercury
till it overflows slightly. Press it with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess
mercury. Pour the mercury from the shrinkage dish into a measuring jar and find the
shrinkage dish volume directly. Record this volume as the volume of wet soil pat.

Volume of the Dry Soil Pat

9. Determine the volume of dry soil pat by removing the pat from the shrinkage dish and
immersing it in the glass cup full of mercury in the following manner.
● Place the glass cup in a larger one and fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
Remove the excess mercury by covering the cup with glass plate with prongs and
pressing it. See that no air bubbles are entrapped. Wipe out the outside of the glass cup

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to remove the adhering mercury. Then, place it in another larger dish, which is, clean
and empty carefully.
● Place the dry soil pat on the mercury. Submerge the pat which is floating with the
pronged glass plate which is again made flush with top of the cup. The mercury spills
over into the larger plate. Pour the mercury that is displaced by the soil pat into the
measuring jar and find the volume of the soil pat directly.

Observation table
S. No. Determination No. 1 2
1 Weight of container in gm, (W1) 7.56 7.67
2 Weight of container + wet soil pat in gm, W2 78.12 78.16
3 Weight of container + dry soil pat in gm, W3 57.30 56.35
4 Weight of oven dry soil pat, W0 in gm = (W3-W1) 49.74 48.68
5 Weight of water in gm = (W2 - W3) 20.82 21.81
6 Water content (%), w = (W2 - W3)/ (W3 - W1) ×100 41.85 44.80
7 Volume of wet soil pat (V), in cm 38.94 39.16
8 Volume of dry soil pat (V d) in cm3 = (Wm)/ (Gm) 23.24 23.20
By mercury displacement method
a. Weight of displaced mercury in gm (Wm)
b. Specific gravity of the mercury (Gm)
9 Shrinkage limit (WS) = [W - {(V – V d) x /W0}]×100 10.29 12.01

AVERAGE SHRINKAGE LIMIT=11.15%

APPLICATION
The values of liquid limit and plastic limit are directly used for classifying the fine grained cohesive
soils according to Indian Standard on soil classification. Once the soil is classified, it helps a lot in
understanding the behavior of soil and selecting the maintenance of the structures made up or/ and
resting on soils. The values of these limits are also used in calculating the flow index, toughness

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index and relative plasticity index which are useful in giving an idea about the plasticity,
cohesiveness, compressibility, shear strength, permeability, consistency and state of cohesive
soils. Atterberg’s (1911) shows the correlations between the plasticity index, soil type, degree of
plasticity and degree of cohesiveness.

Plasticity index Soil Type Degree of plasticity Degree of cohesiveness

0 Sand Non-plastic Non-cohesive
<7 Silt Low-plastic Partly-cohesive
1 – 17 Silt clay Medium-plastic Cohesive
> 17 Clay High-plastic Cohesive

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6.(a) DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY OF COARSE-GRAINED SOIL

OBJECTIVE: To determine coefficient of permeability of given soil sample at desired density

by a constant head method.

THEORY: The property of the soils which permits water (fluids) to percolate through its
continuously connected voids is called its permeability .Depending upon the value of Reynolds
number. The flow of water through soils may be ‘laminar’ or ‘turbulent’. In laminar flow, a particle
of water starting from a given position follows a definite path without crisscrossing the path of
other particles. In turbulent flow the particles do not follow any definite path but have random,
twisting and crisscrossing path.
Constant head method is more suited to coarse grained soils as the quantity of seepage in case of
relatively impervious soils is less.
For laminar and steady flow, according to Darcy’s law the rate of flow of water is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient in uniform and homogeneous soils.

i.e.

where v = discharge velocity of water

v = k.i
If q = discharge of water per unit time
q = k. i .A
if i = l
k=v
where i = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability
A = cross sectional area of the soil for discharge q.

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In soil mechanics, the coefficient of permeability, k expresses the degree of permeability. It has
the velocity dimensions. Factors affecting coefficient of permeability can be studied by the
equation

Where k = coefficient of permeability

C = constant
ds = average diameter of soil grains
γw = unit weight of water
η = viscosity of the water
e = void ratio of the soil
Viscosity and unit weight of water depend upon temperature, hence the coefficient of permeability
is effected by the climatic conditions also. Constant ‘C’ depends upon arrangement and shape of
grains and voids thus the soil in-situ often as smaller permeability in vertical direction as compared
to the horizontal due to horizontally stratified structure.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Permeameter mould of non-corrodible material having a capacity of 1000 ml, with an

internal diameter of 100 ± 0.1 mm and internal effective height of mm.

2. The mould shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and removable extension counter.
3. Compacting equipment: 50 mm diameter circular face, weight 2.76 kg and height of fall
310 mm as specified in I.S 2720 part VII 1965.
4. Drainage bade: A bade with a porous disc, 12 mm thick which has the permeability 10
times the expected permeability of soil.
5. Drainage cap: A porous disc of 12 mm thick having a fitting for connection to water inlet
or outlet.
6. Constant head tank: A suitable water reservoir capable of supplying water to the
permeameter under constant head.

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7. Graduated glass cylinder to receive the discharge.

8. Stop watch to note the time.
9. A meter scale to measure the head differences and length of specimen.

PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN FOR TESTING

A. UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE

1. Note down the sample number, bore hole number and its depth at which the sample was
taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extraction frame, and push the plunger to get a
cylindrical form sample not longer than 35 mm in diameter and having height equal to that
of mould.
4. The specimen shall be placed centrally over the porous disc to the drainage base.
5. The angular space shall be filled with an impervious material such as cement slurry or wax,
to provide sealing between the soil specimen and the mould against leakage from the sides.
6. The drainage cap shall then be fixed over the top of the mould.
7. Now the specimen is ready for the test.

B. DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE

1. A 2.5 kg sample shall be taken from a thoroughly mixed air dried or oven dried material.
2. The initial moisture content of the 2.5 kg sample shall be determined. Then the soil shall
be placed in the air tight container.
3. Add required quantity of water to get the desired moisture content.
4. Mix the soil thoroughly.
5. Weigh the empty permeameter mould.
6. After greasing the inside slightly, clamp it between the compaction base plate and
extension collar.

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7. Place the assembly on a solid base and fill it with sample and compact it.
8. After completion of a compaction the collar and excess soil are removed.
9. Find the weight of mould with sample.
10. Place the mould with sample in the permeameter, with drainage base and cap having discs
that are properly saturated.

TEST PROCEDURE
1. For the constant head arrangement, the specimen shall be connected through the top inlet
to the constant head reservoir.
2. Open the bottom outlet.
3. Establish steady flow of water.
4. The quantity of flow for a convenient time interval may be collected.
5. Repeat three times for the same interval.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

Test h1(cm) h2(cm) h=h1- t(sec) q(cm3/s) k(cm/s)
h2(cm)
01 27 25 2 56 1.7857 .00406

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The flow is very low at the beginning, gradually increases and then stands constant. Constant head
permeability test is suitable for cohesionless soils. For cohesive soils falling head method is
suitable.

Coefficient of permeability for a constant head test is given by

=.00406 cm/s

Where, k = coefficient of permeability

A = cross sectional area of the soil for discharge q
H = constant head causing flow.
L = Length of specimen.

RESULT: permeability of coarse grained soil =.00406 cm/s

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6(b). DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOIL

OBJECTIVE: To determine coefficient of permeability of given soil sample at desired density

by a falling head method.

THEORY: The rate of flow under laminar flow conditions through a unit cross sectional area of
porous medium under unit hydraulic gradient is defined as coefficient of permeability.
Permeability is useful in solving problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through
earthen dams, stability of earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage,
settlement etc.
The falling head method of determining permeability is used for soil with low discharge, whereas
the constant head permeability test is used for coarse-grained soils with a reasonable discharge in
a given time. For very fine-grained soil, capillarity permeability test is recommended.

PREPARATION OF THE SPECIMEN:

The preparation of the specimen for this test is important. There are two types of specimen, the
undisturbed soil sampleand the disturbed or made up soil sample.
A. Undisturbed soil specimen
1. Note down-sample no., borehole no., depth at which sample is taken.
2. Remove the protective cover (wax) from the sampling tube.
3. Place the sampling tube in the sample extract or and push the plunger to get a cylindrical
shaped specimen not larger than95 mm diameter and height equal to that of the mould.
4. This specimen is placed centrally over the porous stone of base plate.
5. Porous stone is also placed at the top of the sample
6. The specimen is now ready for test.
B. Remolded specimen
The disturbed specimen can be prepared by static compaction or by dynamic compaction.
Preparation of Dynamically Compacted Disturbed sample:

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1. Take 2500 gm of representative soil and mix it with water to get O.M.C, if necessary.
2. Assemble the permeameter for dynamic compaction. Grease the inside of the mould and
place it upside down on thedynamic compaction base. Weigh the assembly correct to a gm
(w). Put the collar to the other end.
3. Now, compact the wet soil in 3 layers with 25 blows to each layer with a 2.6 kg dynamic
tool. Remove the collar andthen trim off the excess. Weigh the mould assembly with the
soil.
4. Place the filter paper or fine wire mesh on the top of the soil specimen and fix the perforated
base plate on it.
5. Turn the assembly upside down and remove the compaction plate. Insert the sealing gasket
and place the top perforatedplate on the top of soil specimen. And fix the top cap.

Now, the specimen is ready for test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Permeameter with its accessories
2. Standard soil specimen
3. Deaired water
4. Balance to weigh up to 1 gm
5. I.S sieves 4.75 mm and 2 mm
6. Mixing pan
7. Stop watch
8. Measuring jar
9. Meter scale
10. Thermometer
11. Container for water
12. Trimming knife

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PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the soil specimen as specified.
2. Saturate the specimen preferably by using Deaired water.
3. Assemble the Permeameter (The Permeameter is made of non-corrodible material with a

capacity of 1000 ml, with an internal diameter of mm and effective height of

mm) in the bottom tank and fill the tank with water.

4. Inlet nozzle of the mould is connected to the stand pipe. Allow the water to flow until
steady flow is obtained.
5. Note down the time interval‘t’ for a fall of head in the stand pipe ‘h’.
6. Repeat step 5 three times to determine‘t’ for the same head.

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GENERAL REMARKS:
1. During test there should be no volume change in the soil, there should be no compressible
air present in the voids of soil i.e. soil should be completely saturated. The flow should be
laminar and in a steady state condition.
2. Coefficient of permeability is used to assess drainage characteristics of soil, to predict rate
of settlement founded on soil bed.
3. Magnitudes of permeability:
High permeability: k> 10-1 cm/sec

Medium permeability: k ≈ 10-1 cm/sec

Low permeability: k< 10-1 cm/sec

4. General values of permeability for different types of soils are given below:
a. Gravel: > 1 cm/sec
b. Sand: 1 to 10-3 cm/sec
c. Silt: 10-3 to 10-6 cm/sec
d. Clay: less than 10-6 cm/sec
e. Fly Ash: 1× 10-4 to 5× 10-4 cm/sec

APPLICATIONS
Water flowing through soil exerts considerable seepage forces which has direct effect on the safety
of hydraulic structures. The rate of settlement of compressible clay layer under load depends on
its permeability. The quantity of stored water escaping through and beneath an earthen dam
depends on the permeability of the embankment and the foundations respectively. The rate of
drainage of where through well and excavated foundation pits depend on the coefficient of
permeability of the soils. Shear strength of soils also depends indirectly on its permeability;
because dissipation of pore pressure is controlled by its permeability.

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7. DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT AND MAXIMUM DRY

DENSITY

OBJECTIVE: To determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of a soil
by Proctor test.

THEORY: Compaction is the process of densification of soil mass by reducing air voids. This
process should not be confused with consolidation which is also a process of densification of soil
mass but continuously acting static load over a long period.The degree of compaction of a soil is
measured in terms of its dry density. The degree of compaction mainly depends upon its water
content, compaction energy and type of soil. For a given compaction energy every soil attains the
maximum dry density at a particular water content. In the dry side, water acts as a lubricant and
helps in the closer packing of soil grains. In the wet side, water starts to occupy the space of soil
grains and hinders in the closer packing of grains.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Cylindrical mould (capacity 1000 cc, internal diameter 100 mm, effective height 127.3
mm)Cylindrical mould (capacity 2250 cc, internal diameter 150 mm, effective height
127.30 mm).
2. Rammer for light compaction (face diameter 50 mm mass of 2.6 kg free drop 310 mm) or
Rammer for heavy compaction (face diameter 50 mm mass of 4.89 kg free drop 450 mm).
3. Mould accessories (detachable base plate removable collar)
4. I.S. seives (20 mm, 4.75 mm).
5. Balance (capacity 10 kg, sensitivity 1 gm).
6. Balance (capacity 200 kg, sensitivity 0.01 gm)
7. Drying oven (temperature 100o C to 110o C)
8. Desiccator

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9. Drying crucibles
10. Graduated jars
11. Straight edge
12. Large mixing pan
13. Spatula
14. Scoop

PROCEDURE
1. Take about 20 kg for 100 cc mould or 45 kg for 2250 cc mould of air dried and mixed soil.
2. Sieve this through 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves.
3. Calculate the percentage retained on 20 mm and 4.75 mm sieves and passing from 4.75
mm sieve. Do not use the soil retained on 20 mm sieve.
4. Use a mould of 10 cm diameter if percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve is less than 20 or
use a mould of 15 cm diameter if percentage retained on 4.75 mm sieve more than 20.
5. Mix the soil retained on 4.75 mm sieve and passing from 4.75 mm sieve thoroughly in the
proportion obtained in step3.
6. Take about 2.5 kg of the soil for 1000 cc mould or take about 2.8 kg or the soil for 1000 cc
mould or 6.5 kg for 2250 cc mould for heavy compaction.
7. Add water to it bring its water content to about 4 % in coarse grained soils and 8 % in fine
grained soils.
8. Clean, dry and grease lightly the mould and base plate. Weigh the mould with base plate.
9. Fit the collar and place the mould on a solid base.
10. For light compaction, compact wet soil in three equal layers by the rammer of mass 2.6 kg
and free fall 31 cm with 25 evenly distributed blows in each layer for 10 cm diameter mould
and 56 blows for 15 cm diameter mould. Alternatively, for heavy compaction compact the
soils using the rammer of mass 4.89 kg and free fall 45 cm in five layers. Each layer being
given 25 blows for 10 cm diameter mould and 56 blows for 15 cm diameter mould.
11. Remove the collar and trim off the soil flush with the top of the mould. In removing the
collar rotate it to break the bond between it and the soil before lifting it off the mould.

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12. Clean the outside of the mould and base plate, weigh the mould with soil and base plate.
13. Remove the soil from the mould and obtain a representative soil sample from the bottom
middle and top for water content determination.
14. Weigh the drying crucible with samples and put samples and put in the drying oven at
temperature 105o C to 110o C or 24 hrs.
15. Repeat the above procedure with 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22 % of water contents on coarse grained
fresh soil samples and 11, 14, 17, 20, 23 and 26 % of water contents of fine grained fresh
soil samples approximately.
16. Next day first weigh the crucibles with dry soil samples and then the empty crucibles.

PRECAUTIONS
2. Adequate period is allowed for mixing the water with soil before compaction.
3. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer.
4. The amount of soil used be just sufficient to fill the mould i.e. at the last layer the surface
of the soil should be slightly (5 mm) above the top rim of the mould.
5. Mould should be placed on a solid foundation during compaction.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

1. Enter all observations in table 1 and calculate the wet density.
2. Calculate the dry density by using the equation

where γ = Bulk density (g/cc), γd = dry density (g/cc) and w = water content
3. Plot the water content on x-axis and dry density on y-axis draw the smooth curve, called
the compaction curve.
4. Calculate the dry density at 100% saturation.
5. Plot the 100% saturation or Zero Air Voids curve on the same graph.
6. Read the point of maximum density from compaction curve.
7. Calculate the degree of saturation at optimum moisture content.

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APPLICATION
Compaction of soils increases their density, shear strength bearing capacity but reduces their void
ratio, porosity, permeability and settlements. The results of this test are useful in the stability of
field problems like earthen dams, embankments, roads and airfields. In such constructions, the
soils are compacted. The water content at which the soils are compacted in water content at which
the soils are compacted in the field is controlled by the value of optimum moisture content
determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test. The compaction energy to be given by the
field compaction energy to be given by the field compaction unit is also controlled by the
maximum dry density determined in the laboratory. In other words, the laboratory compaction
specification for field compaction of soils.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Test No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mass of empty mouldM1 gm 5134 5134 5134 5134 5134 5134 5134
Volume of mould, cm3 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
Mass of mould + 6851 6911 6944.5 7002 7035 7052 7010.5
sample,M2,gm
Mass of wet soil, M,gm 1717 1777 1810.5 1868 1901 1918 1876.5
Wet unit weight, γ g/cm3 1.717 1.777 1.8105 1.868 1.901 1.918 1.8765
Water content, w% 8.44 10.64 12.09 14.55 16.05 18.3 20.26
Dry unit weight, γd, gm/cm3 1.583 1.606 1.615 1.631 1.638 1.621 1.560

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8. DETERMINATION OF DRY DENSITY OF SOIL (CORE CUTTER METHOD )

OBJECTIVE: To determine dry density of soil by the core cutter method and sand replacement
method as per IS-2720-Part-29.

THEORY:
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil

where, γ = mass density of soil

W = total mass of soil
V = total volume of soil
Here mass and volume of soil comprise the whole soil mass. Voids in soil may be filled with both
water and air or only air or only water, consequently the soil may be wet or dry. If soils are found
below water table submerged density is also estimated.
The density can be expressed in g/cm3, or t/m3 or kg/m3. For calculating the submerged density,
the density of water is taken as 1 g/cm3 = 1 t/m3.
Dry density of the soil is calculated by using equation

where, γ = wet density of soil

w = water content of soil
Density of soil may be determined by core cutter test, sand replacement method and gamma ray
method.

(a) CORE CUTTER METHOD

A cylindrical core cutter is a seamless steel tube. For determination of the dry density of the soil,
the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with the soil. The cutter filled with the soil
is lifted up. The mass of the soil in the cutter is determined.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the height (h) and internal diameter (d) of the core cutter and apply grease to the
inside of the core cutter
2. Weigh the empty core cutter (W1)
3. Clean and level the place where density is to be determined.
4. Drive the core cutter, with a steel dolly on its top, into the soil to its full depth with the help
of a steel rammer.
5. Excavate the soil around the cutter with a crow bar and gently lift the cutter without
disturbing the soil in it.
6. Trim the top and bottom surfaces of the sample and clean the outside surface of the cutter.
7. Weigh the core cutter with soil (W2)
8. Remove the soil from the core cutter, using a sample ejector and take representative soil
sample from it to determine the moisture content.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. cylindrical core cutter (height = 12.74 cm diameter 10 cm)
2. Steel rammer
3. Steel dolly (2.5 cm high and 10 cm internal diameter)
4. Balance (accuracy 0.01gm)
5. Steel rule
6. Spade of pickaxe
7. Straight edge
8. Knife
9. Water content crucibles
10. Desiccator
11. Oven
12. Tongs

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PRECAUTIONS
1. Steel dolly should be placed on the top of the cutter before ramming it down.
2. Core cutter should not be used in gravels and boulders.
3. Before lifting the cutter, soil should be removed round the cutter, tominimize the
disturbances.
4. while lifting the cutter, no soil should drop down,
5. During pressing and lifting the cutter care should be taken that some soil isprojected at both
the ends of the cutter.
6. Values should be reported to second place of decimal.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

1. Calculate wet density of soil

where, W2 = mass of cutter + soil

W1= mass of cutter only
V = volume of cutter
2. Calculate the water content (w) of soil using oven drying method.
3. Calculate dry density using Eq.

S. No. Particulars
1 Volume of Core cutter (Vc), cm3 1000
2 Weight of Core cutter (Wc), g 900
3 Weight of Core-cutter + wet soil (Ws), g 2487
4 Weight of wet soil (Ws- Wc), g 1587
5 1.59
Bulk Density, , g/cm3

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6 Water content, w 17.98%

7 1.35
Dry density, , g/cm3

(b) SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Sand pouring cylinder
2. Trowel or bent spoon
3. Cylindrical calibrating container
4. Metal tray with hole (30 cm square with 10 cm hole in the center)
5. Sand (clean oven dried, passing 600-micron sieve)
6. Balance (accuracy 0.01gm)
7. Water content crucibles
8. Oven
9. Desiccator
10. Tongs
11. Glass plate (about 45 cm square)
12. Metal tray (about 30 cm square)
13. Scraper tool
14. Measuring jar

PROCEDURE
Calibration of Apparatus
1. Measure the internal volume of the calibrating container from the volume of thewater to
fill the container
2. Fill the pouring cylinder with sand within about 1.0 cm of the top and weight it.
3. Place the pouring cylinder concentrically on the top the calibrating container.

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4. Open the shutter to allow the sand to run out and fill calibrating
5. When there is no father movement of sand to run out and fill the calibrating cylinder.
6. Remove the pouring cylinder and weight it to the nearest gram.
7. Place the pouring cylinder on a plane surface such as the glass plate
8. Open the shutter and allow the sand to run out when there is no movement of sand in the
cylinder, close the shutter.
9. Weigh the pouring cylinder with remaining sand.

Measurement of Soil Density

1. Clean and level the ground where the field density is required.
2. Fill the pouring cylinder with dry sand within about 1.0 cm of the top and weigh it.
3. Place the metal tray with the central hole over the portion of soil to be tested.
4. Excavate the soil approximately 10 cm diameter and 15 cm deep with bent spoon. The hole
in the tray will guide the diameter of the hole to be made in the soil.
5. Collect the excavated soil in the metal tray weight it to the nearest gram.
6. Determine moisture content of the excavated soil.
7. Place the pouring cylinder over the hole so that base of the cylinder over concentrically.
8. Open the shutter and allow the sand to run out into the hole. When there is no movement
of sand, the shutter is closed.
9. Remove the cylinder and weight it.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION

S. No. Particulars READINGS
1 Bulk density of standard Sand (gm/cc) 1.551
2 Weight of Sand pouring apparatus + sand 7407
before Experiment (gm)
3 Weight of sand pouring apparatus + sand after 5718
Experiment (gm)
4 Weight of sand drained out (gm) 1689

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5 Weight of sand occupying cone (gm) 415

6 Weight of sand occupying cavity (gm) 1274
7 Volume of cavity (cm3) 821.40
8 Weight of soil scooped out from the cavity 1298
(gm)
9 Wet density of soil (gm/cc) 1.58
10 Watercontent (w) of soil 8.04%
11 Dry density (gm/cc) 1.46
Water content present
Container No. C2
Weight of container + Wet Soil (g) 146
Weight of container + Dry soil (g) 139
Weight of container (g) 52
Weight of water (g) 7
Weight of dry soil (g) 87
Water Content in percent, w 8.04%

RESULTS
● Average water content of the Soil Layer =13.01 percent
● Average Dry Density of the Soil Layer =1.405 gm/cc

PRECAUTION
1. If for any reason it is necessary to excavate the holes to depth other than 15 cm the
calibrating cylinder should be replaced by one the depth which is the same as the hole to
be excavated.
2. Care should be taken in excavating the hole so that it is not enlarged by levering the dibber
against the side of the hole, as this will result in lower density being recorded.
3. No loose material should be left in the hole.

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4. Initial height of sand in the pouring cylinder should be kept same during calibration and
density determinations.
5. There should be no vibrations during this test.
6. Since dry density of soils varies from point to point, it is necessary to repeat the test at
several points, it is necessary to repeat the test at several points and to average the result.

APPLICATIONS
Density is used in calculating the stress in the stress in the soil due to its overburden pressure. It is
needed in estimating the bearing capacity of soil foundation system, settlement of footings, earth
pressures behind the retaining walls, dams, embankments. Stability of natural slopes, dams,
embankments and cutis checked with the help of deity of these soils. It is the density of controls
the field of soils. It is the density which control the field compaction of soil. Permeability of soils
depends upon its density. Relative density of cohesion less soils is determined by knowing the dry
density of that soil in natural, loosest and densest states. Void ratio, porosity and degree of
saturation need the help of density of soils.

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EXPERIMENT 9.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST

OBJECTIVE: To determine shear strength parameters (c and ϕ) of soil using direct shear test.

THEORY:
The concept of direct shear is simple and mostly recommended for granular soils, sometimes on
soils containing some cohesive soil content. The cohesive soils have issues regarding controlling
the strain rates to drained or undrained loading. In granular soils, loading can always assumed to
be drained. A schematic diagram of shear box shows that soil sample is placed in a square box
which is split into upper and lower halves. Lower section is fixed and upper section is pushed or
pulled horizontally relative to other section; thus, forcing the soil sample to shear/fail along the
horizontal plane separating two halves. Under a specific Normal force, the Shear force is increased
from zero until the sample is fully sheared. The relationship of Normal stress and Shear stress at
failure gives the failure envelope of the soil and provide the shear strength parameters (cohesion
and internal friction angle).

In direct shear test, square/rectangular specimens are used unlike most of the other shear strength
tests. Cylindrical (Circular) specimens are used in most of the shear strength tests such as Triaxial,
UC test etc. Both shapes of specimen have their own pros and cons. In square/rectangular

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specimen, it is easy to calculate the magnitude of qualitative shear stress along the surface, whereas
in circular section, we get uniformity of shear stress in the specimen.

When soil sample is subjected to horizontal load, stresses are also produced at the vertical
boundaries. However, vertical sides are normally greased in direct shear setup to prevent any shear
stress at these boundaries during normal stress application stage and this lubrication presumably
carries over to the shearing stage at given normal stress. Hence, no shear stress can exist at both
vertical and horizontal surface, and consequently the shearing stresses must also be non-uniform
on the horizontal faces.

In direct shear test, strain responsible for shear resistance is different from displacement between
the two halves divide by specimen thickness because most of the distortion occurs in a thin zone
of unknown thickness. Therefore, it is not easy to calculate other than qualitative stress-strain data
from the test.

Since only normal and stress stresses can be calculated through this test, it is difficult to draw Mohr
circle giving state of stresses. However, by drawing a perpendicular to failure envelope at a
particular normal stress, a semi-circle can be plotted. Its center will be point on normal stress
axis(x-axis) cut by perpendicular line which represents the radius of semi-circle.
The porous stone is not needed for tests on dry soils, but it is very essential for tests on moist or
saturated soils. Mostly, shear strength of soil is measured under Wet condition (moist sample) in
direct shear test.

Change in volume is directly proportional to change in thickness of soil sample since cross-
sectional area remains constant. Dense soils usually show contraction initially, and then dilate
(expand in volume); however, loose soils show only contractive (decrease in volume) response; as
shown below.

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Strain controlled direct shear machine consists of shear box, soil container, loading unit, proving
ring, dial gauge to measure shear deformation and volume changes. A two-piece square shear
box is one type of soil container used. A proving ring is used to indicate the shear load taken by
the soil initiated in the shearing plane.

1. Direct shear box apparatus, and Loading frame (motor attached)

2. Dial gauge for vertical deformation measurement
3. Dial gauge for horizontal deformation measurement
4. Proving ring for Shear force measurement. Loads are kept in loading frame for application
of Normal stress
5. Components of shear box with porous stone, filter paper etc.

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PROCEDURE(IS 2720 Part 13):

1. Check the inner dimension of the soil container, and put the parts of the soil container
together.
2. Calculate the volume of the container. Weigh the container.
3. Place the soil in smooth layers (approximately 10 mm thick). If a dense sample is desired
tamp the soil.
4. Weigh the soil container, and find the weight of soil. Calculate the density of soil.
5. Plane the top surface of soil, and put the upper grating stone and loading block on top of
soil.
6. Measure the thickness of soil specimen.
7. Apply the desired normal load and Remove the shear pin.
8. Attach the dial gauge which measures the change of volume. LC (least count) of dial gauge
needs to be noted down.
9. Record the initial reading of the dial gauge and calibration values.
10. Check all adjustments to see that there is no connection between two parts except
sand/soil.
11. Start the motor. Take the reading of the shear force and volume change till failure. Proving
ring is used to measure the shear force. PRC (proving ring constant) needs to be noted
down.
12. Add 5 kg normal stress 0.5 kg/cm2 and continue the experiment till failure.
13. Record carefully all the readings. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the experiment.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

Size of the sample = 6*6*6cm3
Area of the sample (Cross Sectional) =36 cm2
Volume of the sample = 72cc
Weight of the sample (gm) = 50
In-situ Density of the sample (gm/cc) = 1.35
In-situ water content (%) = 20

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Least count of dial gauge (Horizontal) = .01

Least count of dial gauge (Vertical) = .01
Proving ring constant = .462
Normal stress = (Applied Normal Load × Lever Ratio) / Cross sectional Area of sample

Test 1: Applied Normal Stress = 0.5 kg/cm2

Time 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 120

(min)
Vertica .03 .04 .05 .08 .1 .12 .14 .15 .16 .18 .21 .23 .24 .25 .25 .26
l Dial
reading

Horizontal dial reading 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270

Proving ring reading 2 7 20 26 38 50 58 63 68
Shear stress (kg/cm2) .218 .372 .513 .616 .642 .68 .744 .809 .873
Horizontal dial reading 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510 540
Proving ring reading 71 73 85 87 89 90 90 91 92
Shear stress (kg/cm2) .911 .937 1.09 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.16 1.17 1.18
Horizontal dial reading 570 600 600 620 640 660 680 700 720
Proving ring reading 92 92 - - - - - - -
Shear stress (kg/cm2) 1.18 1.18 - - - - - - -

Repeat the test for Applied Normal Stress = 1.0 kg/cm2 and 1.5 kg/cm2

Calculations:

1. Shear stress (τ) on the horizontal failure plane are calculated as τ = S/A; Where S is shear
force. A is the cross-sectional area of the sample, which decreases slightly with the
horizontal deformations.

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2. Corrected area (Acorr) needs to be calculated for calculating the shear stress at failure. Acorr =
A0 (1-δ), where δ is horizontal displacement due to shear force applied on specimen. A0 is
the initial area of the soil specimen.
3. i. Shear Stress = (Proving ring reading × Proving ring constant)/Acorr
ii. Horizontal displacement = Horizontal dial gauge reading × Least count of horizontal
dial gauge.
iii. Vertical displacement = Vertical dial gauge reading × Least count of vertical dial gauge
4. Shear stress at failure needs to be calculated for all three tests performed at three different
normal stresses to plot the failure envelope.

Graphs:

1. Shear stress Vs Horizontal displacement relationship for tests performed at Normal Stress
of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg/cm2
2. Shear stress Vs Normal stress (Failure envelope).

Shear stress data at failure for tests at Normal Stress of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg/cm 2

Test Normal Stress Shear stress at failure

(Kg/cm2) (Kg/cm2)
Direct shear test 1 0.5 0.37
Direct shear test 2 1.0 0.55
Direct shear test 3 1.5 0.77

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Normal Strss Vs Shear Strain

0.9
0.77
0.8
0.7
0.55
Shear Strain

0.6
0.5
0.37
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Normal Stress

All three tests were performed at deformation rate =0.25mm/min

Shear strength parameters of soil

Cohesion (c) = __14__kPa
Internal friction angle (Φ) = ___23o

GENERAL REMARKS

1. In the shear box test, the specimen is not failing along its weakest plane but along a
predetermined or induced failure plane, i.e. horizontal plane separating the two halves of
the shear box. This is the main drawback of this test. Moreover, during loading, the state
of stress cannot be evaluated. It can be evaluated only at failure condition, i.e. Mohr's circle
can be drawn at the failure condition only. Also, failure is progressive.

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2. Direct shear test is simple and faster to operate. As thinner specimens are used in shear
box, they facilitate drainage of pore water from a saturated sample in less time. This test is
also useful to study friction between two materials - one material in lower half of box and
another material in the upper half of box.
3. The angle of shearing resistance of sands depends on state of compaction, coarseness of
grains, particle shape and roughness of grain surface and grading. It varies between 28 o
(uniformly graded sands with round grains in very loose state) to 46o (well graded sand
with angular grains in dense state).
4. The volume change in sandy soil is a complex phenomenon depending on gradation,
particle shape, state and type of packing, orientation of principal planes, principal stress
ratio, stress history, magnitude of minor principal stress, type of apparatus, test procedure,
method of preparing specimen etc. In general, loose sands contract and dense sands expand
in volume on shearing. There is a void ratio at which either expansion contraction in
volume takes place. This void ratio is called critical void ratio. Expansion or contraction
can be inferred from the movement of vertical dial gauge during shearing.
5. The friction between sand particles is due to sliding and rolling friction and interlocking
action.
6. The ultimate values of shear parameter for both loose sand and dense sand approximately
attain the same value so, if angle of friction value is calculated at ultimate stage, slight
disturbance in density during sampling and preparation of test specimens will not have
much effect.

LIMITATIONS
1. It is difficult to control the drainage conditions.
2. Lateral pressures and stresses on planes other than the plane of shear is not known.
3. Pore water pressure cannot be measured.
4. The shear failure plane is predefined which might not be weakest one.
5. Shear stress distribution on the failure plane is non-uniform.
6. The contact area between the soil and in the two halves of the box decreases as the test
proceeds.

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7. Field conditions cannot be simulated.

APPLICATION:

The value internal friction angle and cohesion of the soil are required for design of many
engineering problems such as foundations, retaining walls, bridges, sheet piling. Direct shear test
can predict these parameters quickly.

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10. UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

OBJECTIVE: To determine the unconfined compression test of soil.

THEORY:
The unconfined compression test is by far the most popular method of soil shear testing because it
is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method is used
primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The unconfined
compression test is in appropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the materials would fall
apart without some land of lateral confinement. In the unconfined compression test, we assume
that no pore water is lost from the sample during set-up or during the shearing process. A saturated
sample will thus remain saturated during the test with no change in the sample volume, water
content, or void ratio. More significantly, the sample is held together by an effective confining
stress that results from negative pore water pressures (generated by menisci forming between
particles on the sample surface). Pore pressures are not measured in an unconfined compression
test; consequently, the effective stress is unknown. Hence, the undrained shear strength measured
in an unconfined test is expressed in terms of the total stress

APPARATUS REQUIRED\
1. Loading frame of capacity of 2 t, with constant rate of movement. What is the least count of
the dial gauge attached to the provingring!
2. Proving ring of 0.01 kg sensitivity for soft soils; 0.05 kg for stiff soils
3. Soil trimmer
4. Frictionless end plates of 75 mm diameter (Perspex plate with silicon grease coating).
5. . Evaporating dish (Aluminum container).
6. Soil sample of 75 mm length.
7. Dial gauge (0.01 mm accuracy)
8. Balance of capacity 200 g and sensitivity to weigh 0.01g.

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

9. Oven, thermostatically controlled with interior of non-corroding material to maintain the

temperature at the desired level. What is the range of the temperature used for drying the soil!
10. Sample extractor and split sampler.
11. . Dial gauge (sensitivity 0.01mm).

PROCEDURE

1.The sample is prepared in the same way as for a triaxial test. Its natural water content and dry
density are determined prior to the testing. The length (Lo) and diameter (do) are also measured.
2. Set the sample on the pedestal of the equipment and complete all the necessary adjustments
for applying on axial loads.
3. Apply the axial load at a strain of about 0.5 to 2 % per minute and continue the load till the
sample fails OR the deformation reaches 20 % of axial strain.
4. Sketch the failure pattern and measure the angle of failure if possible.
5. Take a small sample of soil from the failure zone for water content determination.

CALCULATIONS

a) .The axial strain, ϵ% =(∆L/Lo)×100 Where, ∆L = change in length of specimen.

b) Lo = Initial length of specimen.
c) .Corrected area A, A = Ao/(1-ϵ) Where, Ao = initial sectional area op the specimen.
d) . Compressive stress, (which is the principal stress) is σ1= P/A where P = axial load. A plot of
σ versus Ԏ gives the maximum stress, which is the unconfined compressive strength of the soil
specimen

Observations:

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DATA SHEET FOR SAMPLE 1

Strain dial Axial Strain Corrected Proving ring Axial Load Stress
reading % area, A(cm2 reading P(kg) σ=P/A
) (PR) (kg/cm2 )

0 0 11.35 0 0 0

100 1.28 11.49 1 1 0.09

200 2.65 11.65 2 2 0.17

300 3.89 11.80 3 3 0.25

400 5.19 11.97 5 5 0.41

500 6.49 12.13 7 7 0.57

Result:

Average unconfined compressive stress qu= .298 kg/cm2

Undrained cohesive strength= .149 kg/cm2

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Conclusion:

Unconfined compressive strength ,qu= 298kg/cm2

Shear strength, S =qu/2 = .149kg/cm2

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 11.

DEMONSTRATION OF CONSOLIDATION TEST (IS 2720-PART-15-1986) Reaffirmed-

2002

OBJECTIVE: To determine the settlement due to primary consolidation.

THEORY: When a compressive load is applied to soil mass, a decrease in its volume takes place,
the decrease in volume of soil mass under stress is known as compression and the property of soil
mass pertaining to its tendency to decrease in volume under pressure is known as compressibility.
In a saturated soil mass having its void filled with incompressible water, decrease in volume or
compression can take place when water is expelled out of the voids. Such a compression resulting
from a long time static load and the consequent escape of pore water is termed as consolidation.
Then the load is applied on the saturated soil mass, the entire load is carried by pore water in the
beginning. As the water begins escaping from the voids, the hydrostatic pressure in water gets
gradually dissipated and the load is shifted to the soil particles which increases effective stress on
them, as a result the soil mass decrease in volume. The rate of escape of water depends on the
permeability of the soil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Consolidometer consisting essentially;

a) A ring of diameter = 60 mm and height = 20 mm
b) Two porous stones
c) Guide ring
d) Outer ring
e) Water jacket with base
f) Pressure pad.

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2. Loading device consisting of frame, lever system, loading yoke dial gauge fixing device
and weights.
3. Dial gauge (accuracy of 0.01 mm)
4. Thermostatically controlled oven
5. Stopwatch, sample extractor
6. Balance
7. Soil trimming tools
8. Spatula
9. Filter papers
10. Sample containers.

SAMPLE PREPARATION:

1. Undisturbed Sample: From the sample tube, eject the sample into the consolidation ring.
The sample should project about one cm from outer ring. Trim the sample smooth and flush
with top and bottom of the ring by using wire saw. Clean the ring from outside and keep it
ready for weighing.
2. Remolded sample:
a) Choose the density and water content at which sample has to be compacted from the
moisture-density curve, and calculate the quantity of soil and water required to mix
and compact.
b) Compact the specimen in compaction mould in three layers using the standard
rammers.
c) Eject the specimen from the mould using the sample extractor.

PROCEDURE:

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1. Saturate two porous stones either by boiling in distilled water about 15 minute or by
keeping them submerged in the distilled water for 4 to 8 hrs. Fittings of the Consolidometer
which is to be enclosed shall be moistened.
2. Assemble the Consolidometer, with the soil specimen and porous stones at top and bottom
of specimen, and providing a filter paper between the soil specimen and porous stone.
3. Position the pressure pad centrally on the top porous stone. Mount the mould assembly on
the loading frame, and center it such that the load applied is axial. Make sure that the porous
stone and pressure pad are not touching the walls of mould on their sides.
4. Position the dial gauge to measure the vertical compression of the specimen. The dial gauge
holder should be set so that the dial gauge is in the beginning of its releases run, and also
allowing sufficient margin for the swelling of the soil, if any.
5. Fill the mould with water and apply an initial load to the assembly. The magnitude of this
load should be chosen by trial, such that there is no swelling. It should be not less than 50
g/cm2 for ordinary soils and 25 g/cm2 for very soft soils. The load should be allowed to
stand until there is no change in dial gauge readings for two consecutive hrs or for a
maximum of 24 hrs.
6. Note the final dial reading under the initial load. Apply first load of intensity 0.1 kg/cm 2
(Approx.) and start the stop watch simultaneously. Record the dial gauge readings at
various time intervals. The dial gauge readings are taken until 90 % consolidation is
reached. Primary consolidation is gradually reached within 24 hrs.
7. At the end of the period, specified above take the dial reading and time reading. Double
the load intensity and take the dial readings at various time intervals. Repeat this procedure
for successive load increments. The usual loading intensity is as follows (Approx.): 0.1,
0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8 kg/cm2.
8. After the last loading is completed, reduce the load to 1/4 of the value of the last load and
allow it to stand for 24 hrs. Reduce the load further in steps of 1/4 the previous intensity
till an intensity of 0.1 kg/cm2 is reached. Take the final reading of the dial gauge.

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9. Reduce the load to the initial load, keep it for 24 hrs and note the final readings of the dial
gauge.
10. Quickly dismantle the specimen assembly and remove the excess water on the soil
specimen in oven, note its dry weight.

CALCULATIONS:

1. Height of solids (HS) is calculated from the equation \

2. Void ratio: Voids ratio at the end of various pressures are calculated from equation

3. Coefficient of consolidation: The Coefficient of consolidation at each pressure increment

is calculated by using the following equations:

In the log fitting method, a plot is made between dial readings and logarithmic of time, and
the time corresponding to 50 % consolidation is determined. In the square root fitting
method, a plot is made between dial readings and square root of time, and the time
corresponding to 90 % consolidation is determined. The values of Cv are recorded in Table
.

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4. Compression Index: To determine the compression index, a plot of voids ratio (e) Vs log
(t) is made. The virgin compression curve would be a straight line and the slope of this line
would give the compression index Cc.
5. Coefficient of compressibility: It is calculated as follows

= Change in void ratio

= Change in vertical stress

6. Coefficient of permeability: It is calculated as follows

GRAPHS:

1. Dial reading vs log of time or

2. Dial reading vs square root of time.
3. Voids ratio vs log σ’ (average pressure for the increment).

GENERAL REMARKS:

1. While preparing the specimen, attempts has to be made to have the soil strata orientated in
the same direction in the consolidation apparatus.
2. During trimming care should be taken in handling the soil specimen with least pressure.
3. Smaller increments of sequential loading have to be adopted for soft soils.

APPLICATIONS:

The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation.

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1. Rate of consolidation under normal load.

2. Degree of consolidation at any time.
3. Pressure-void ratio relationship.
4. Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
5. Compression index.

The above information can be used to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of structures
founded on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress histor y of soil.

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