MODULE 2: LEARNER CENTERED INSTRUCTION, LEARNING STRATEGIES,

AND CRITICAL THINKING

Table of Contents
2.1 Introduction to Module 2 …………….……………………………………………… 2

2. 2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and Metacognitive Learning …. 4

2.3 Lecture: Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture ……………………. 5

2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences ……………………………………. 42

2.3.2 Learner Profile Activity

…………………………………………………………………………………………. … 51

2.4 Reading: Managing the Learner Centered Classroom …….………………………… 52

2.4.1 Optional webinar: Student Centered Classroom Management…………………….. 59

2.4.2 Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz ……………………………………………. 60

2.5 Lecture: Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in

Second Language Teaching lecture ……………………………………………………… 61

2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching through Critical Thinking by Üstünlüoglu, 2004 ..… 98

2.4 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom ………………… 114

2.6.1 Optional discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and Culture Scenarios….. 116

2.7 Reflection: Cascading New Knowledge Survey ……………………………………… 118

Module 2 Check
……………………………………………………………………………………………. 119

© 2020 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Module 2: Learner Centered Instruction, Learning Strategies,
and Critical Thinking for the Online Professional English Network (OPEN), sponsored by the U.S. Department of State
with funding provided by the U.S. government and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
2.1 Introduction to Module 2

"Puzzle Piece" by kingmaphotos is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Welcome to Module 2: Learning-Centered

Instruction, Learning Strategies, and Critical
Thinking
Please view the introduction video. You can download the transcript here.
Video Transcript:

Welcome to Module 2 of the TESOL Methodology course! We hope you learned a lot in the first
module!

In this module, you will explore different types of learners and a variety of learning styles. We
will explore learner needs, and we will reflect on our own teaching styles in order to make
better teaching decisions. You will compose a learner profile, you will also examine different
activities that will help our students build confidence and better connections to their culture.
We will also share and discuss learner-centered strategies that can be used to assist our diverse
learners to succeed in learning English.

Additionally, we will examine how teachers can help students develop metacognitive
awareness and critical thinking skills. Lastly, we will present and compare basic interpersonal
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), and exchange
ideas on how students can acquire the latter to develop higher order thinking skills (HOTs).

3
As you begin this module, it is important to set some learning goals. Think about what you hope
to gain from this module.
• Do you want to learn more about addressing diverse learner needs and interests?
• Do you want to learn more about how you can help students develop critical thinking?

Take a minute to write or type your goals for this module.

Wonderful! We will check in at the end of the course to see whether you have made progress
on your course goals, but also feel free to share them with a friend, a colleague, or another
person taking this course.

As always, we encourage you to engage with the material as deeply as you can.

We look forward to working with you this module!

Module 2 Task List:

The module should take 4-5 hours to complete.

1. Complete the warm-up activity about Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning (15 minutes)
2. Read Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences lecture (45 minutes)
3. Watch an optional video Individual Learner Differences (15 minutes)
4. Complete the Learner Profile activity (15 minutes)
5. Read an article by Renaud, Tannenbaum & Stantial, 2007 (30 minutes)
6. Review an optional webinar on Student Centered Classroom Management (60 minutes)
7. Take the Learner-Centered Classes quiz (15 min)
8. Read Strategies-Based Instruction. Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second
Language Teaching lecture (45 minutes)
9. Read an article by Üstünlüoglu, 2004 (30 minutes)
10. Read Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom (15 minutes)
11. Participate in the optional discussion on Communicative Language Teaching and Culture
Scenarios (30 minutes)
12. Reflect on the module in Cascading New Knowledge assignment (30 minutes)

The Module 2 Packet includes all materials you need for the module. You can download
it here.
Module Requirements

• Each page of the module should be viewed and read

• All quizzes require 7 points to pass
• Discussions need to be reviewed but posting is optional
• Cascading New Knowledge Surveys should be completed at the end of each module
• Completion of the previous module is always a prerequisite for the subsequent module

3
2.2 Warm-up: Reflection on Learning Styles, Strategies, and
Metacognitive Learning

We all have different styles of teaching and learning. We have also experienced classrooms that
are focused on the teacher or focused more on the learner.
Think and Write

1. Think about your experiences in different classroom environments and answer the
following questions:

• Have you taught or participated in a class that was teacher-centered? What was it like?
• Have you taught or participated in a class that was learner-centered? What was it like?
• What is the difference between a teacher-centered and a learner-centered class?
• How would your teaching strategies differ for teacher-centered and learner-centered
instruction?

2. On a piece a piece of paper or in a word doc, write some notes on your answers to these
questions. Use this opportunity to think about what you already know.

You do not have to submit this assignment. This activity is not graded. This is a chance to
activate your prior knowledge (think about what you already know). You should spend no more
than 5-10 minutes completing this.

4
2.3 Lecture: Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences

“Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License (Links to an external
site.). It is free to use and share.

Read more about traditional and innovative roles of the teacher and the student in language
classrooms.

Introduction
Classroom environment and student roles are often guided by teacher roles. Therefore, it is
very important for a teacher to define his or her role, so learners can know what their teacher is
supposed to do.
Teacher Roles in English Language Teaching
Teachers can play many roles. In a modern classroom teachers can be facilitators who observe,
advise and direct, rather than control and dictates the leaning process. Teacher roles are
connected to the teaching methods. These roles determine the degree to which a teacher
controls a learning process. The content of lessons and how teachers and students interact also
depends on teacher roles.

5
Traditional Role of English Teachers
Traditional classrooms are teacher-centered. A teacher directs the learning process by selecting
what and how students should learn. Students are asked to memorize, repeat, and do drills..
This approach to language teaching assumes the teacher as a source of knowledge, The
learners are receivers of knowledge and they do not control what they learn and how they
learn it.
Focus on the Learner
Changes in teaching ideas overtime lead to changes in teaching methods and in roles of
teachers and learners in the classroom. In 1960s and 1970s a number of new theories helped
change how language is taught. Among these approaches are:

• Humanistic approach to language teaching. It considers learner intellectual and emotional

development to be equally important
• Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It is based on teaching real world
communication skills.

Recognizing Learner Differences and Learning Styles

Effective language teachers can engage students with multiple learning styles. It can be
challenging for one teacher to work with a variety of different learning styles. Consider how
these strategies can work to help students to be more successful with these three major
learning styles:
Visual:

• Use graphic organizers to show word and concepts relationships.

• Ask students to highlight texts and color-code their notes.
• Draw pictures of new concepts and ask students to do the same.
• Provide maps and charts to teach new material.
• Have students use different fonts, colors and sizes when/if using the computer.

Auditory:

• Discuss new topics and subjects as a group and ask students to do it with partners.
• Ask students to record lectures and their own presentations and review them afterwards.
• Have students read aloud and voice concepts and ideas to them.
• Ask students to create tunes and rhythms when learning new material.

Kinesthetic:

• Use role play to act out concepts and ideas taught in your course.

6
• Encourage students to take notes while listening to lectures or reading.
• Associate each new word with a gesture or movement.
• Have students spell new words in teams using their bodies.

New Role of English Teachers in Task Based Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching provided foundations for the task based language teaching
(TBLT). TBLT is a new approach that focuses on learning by doing. The goal is for the learners to
use language for communicative activities. The role of teachers also changes. Teachers become
facilitators of students' learning. Instead of providing the knowledge, teacher guides, motivates,
advises and monitors students' progress. Teachers now recognize learner differences and
provide students with diverse communicative activities. Teachers should also involve students
in group and collaborative work, and keep them interested and motivated to learn the
language.
Conclusion
The role of teachers in modern classrooms has changed from being a controller and an
organizer to being a guide and a facilitator. Learners can now be more in control of their
learning process. It all sounds good in theory, however, it may be quite challenging to achieve
such changes in teacher and student roles. Sometimes the learning context does not allow for
these changes (e.g., educational systems may have rules and specific curricular guidance).
Additionally, students may not be culturally ready to take on these changes. Therefore,
teachers should always consider cultural norms and expectations in addition to various teaching
approaches and strategies when planning a shift from a traditional to a modern teacher role.

Reference: (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adopted in any way, or distributed after the end of
this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public
use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.
Center for Access and Success. Tips for Educators on Accommodating Different Learning Styles.
Retrieved from the Internet. https://www.umassd.edu/dss/resources/faculty--staff/how-to-
teach-and-accommodate/how-to-accommodate-different-learning-styles/

7
 Focus on the Learner,
Learner Differences

© 2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Focus on the Learner, Learner Differences for the American English E-Teacher Program, sponsored by
the U.S. Department of State with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will discuss learner-
centered classrooms and explore some theories and
guidelines for learner-centered instruction.
We will also examine learner differences knowing which
will facilitate your students’ success in learner-centered
classrooms

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
• There has been a shift from
traditional teacher-centered
instruction to learner-centered
instruction.

• Teacher-centered instruction is
focused on the foundations of
instructivism, whereas learner- “Untitled” by Michal Jarmoluk via Pixabay is licensed undera Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.
centered instructions is built on
the principles of constructivism.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Instructivism and Constructivism
• The instructive approach assumes
teacher directed curriculum. It
teaches students how to learn. It is
teacher-centered.
• The constructive approach assumes
student based curriculum. It
encourages active learning,
participation, critical thinking, and
problem solving. It is student-
centered.
“Untitled” by Piotr Wytrazek via Pixabay is licensed
Let’s compare and contrast undera Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

instructivism and constructivism.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Instructivism and Constructivism
Instructivist (Teacher-Centered) Approach Constructivist (Learner-Centered) Approach
Teacher is an instructor Teacher is a guide and a facilitator
Teacher presents knowledge Students construct knowledge
Based on behaviorism Based on cognitivism
Students work individually Students work in groups
Instructor driven curriculum choose Student driven curriculum (students can and
Sequential instruction suggest topics)
Content-based Adaptive learning
Passive Process-based
Instructor evaluates student learning Active
Students are quiet in class Students evaluate own learning, each others
learning. Instructor also evaluates.
Students are talkative and class may be noisy.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Behaviorism
(Traditional vs. Modern Approaches)
Behaviorist approaches to learning and teaching were popular in
1950s-1960s.
Behaviorism studies observable behavior and it does not consider how
the mind works. A person learns by changing his or her behavior to
achieve a desirable outcome. Teachers use praise and feedback as
punishment and reward.
Instructors use frequent feedback and assess observable behavior.
Examples of behavioral strategies include choral practice, dictations,
and drill practice.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Cognitivism
(Traditional vs. Modern Approaches)
Cognitivism became popular in 1960s-1970s. It shifted our views on
learning and teaching from the study of behavior to the study of the
mind.
Knowledge was still believed to exist outside of the person, but
cognitivist focused on how memory works to gain knowledge and
promote learning.
According to this theory, learners actively learn by structuring their
own learning process. Examples of cognitive strategies include
problem solving, monitoring and evaluating own learning.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Learning Theory: Constructivism
(Traditional vs. Modern Approaches)
Constructivism became popular in 1980s and it created a
foundation for modern learning approaches.
According to constructivism, learners create their own knowledge
based on their experiences and interactions with the world.
Learners continuously create and refine new knowledge based on
their ongoing experiences.
Examples of constructivist strategies include critical thinking,
synthesizing, and reflection strategies.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
• The Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) is a popular teaching approach. It
is founded in the constructivist theory.
• CLT focuses on using language for
communication.
• Learners learn language by developing
skills to communicate and interact in
desired contexts (i.e., school, work, “Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

community).

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
• Communicative language teachers use
materials that focus on the language
needed to express and understand
different kinds of functions.
• Examples include asking for things,
describing people, expressing likes and
dislikes and telling time. “Untitled” by Martin Polo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

• CLT approaches are often used in

learner-centered classrooms.
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Learner-Centered Classroom
• Focuses on students' interests and goals
• Takes into account learners' skills and
strengths
• Addresses every student's needs as they
progress
• Encourages student collaboration and group
work
• Creates an active learning community “Untitled” by StockSnap via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

• Focuses on principles of constructivist theory.

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Why Learner-Centered?
• Access: Learners access information and resources to orient
themselves in the world.
• Voice: Leaners express ideas and opinions with the confidence
they need to be heard.
• Action: Learners solve problems, make decisions, and act
independently.
• A Bridge to the Future: Learners prepare to be adaptable to the
world as it changes.
(Stein, 2000)
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Why Learner-Centered?
Richard & Bohlke (2011) also describe the benefits of learner-centered teaching.
• It is sensitive to individual needs and preferences.
• It encourages construction of knowledge and meaning.
• It integrates language learning with students’ life experiences.
• It creates more student participation.
• It connects in-class and out-of-class learning.
• It invites discussion of motivations, learning preferences, and styles.
• It encourages students to take more personal responsibility for their learning.
(Page 26)

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 Teacher Roles in Learner-Centered Classrooms
Teachers have specific roles in learner-centered classrooms. They:
• Act as facilitators and guides
• Provide anytime, anywhere and on-demand support
• Encourage students drive their own learning
• Create real-world and authentic learning experiences
• Use technology to personalize learning
• Commit to professional and personal growth
(Schneider, 2016)
“Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
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Learner Roles in Learner-Centered
Classrooms
Learners have specific roles in learner-centered classrooms.
They:
• Communicate in a wide variety of ways.
• Communicate with diverse populations.
• Learn to talk and listen to each other.
• Use information to solve problems that occur in different
contexts.
• Transfer information to solve new problems.
• Use reasoning skills that require using multiple pieces of “Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
information.
Source: Doyle, T
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Learner Autonomy in Learner-Centered
Classrooms
Learner autonomy is defined as learner’s ability to be in control of their
own learning. The idea of learner autonomy supports the shift from
teacher-centered to learner-centered classrooms in foreign language
teaching.
Autonomous learners can plan their own learning because they:
• Recognize their needs, interests and abilities
• Choose what, when and how to learn based on their own needs.

Source: (Doyle, n.d.)

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Learner Autonomy in Learner-Centered
Classrooms
Autonomous learners in learner centered classrooms are:
• Motivated
• Have positive perceptions about themselves
• Have knowledge of their culture and history
• Are able to make choices to further enhance their
autonomy and motivation.
• Are life long learners.
It is important to encourage learner autonomy in learner-
centered classrooms.
(Boyadzhieva, 2016)
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Why Should we Acknowledge Learner
Differences?
Instructors need to be aware of
learner differences to facilitate
learner success and knowledge
acquisition.
Such differences include various
learning styles, personality styles,
participation styles, and other
“Untitled” by Monika via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
differences.

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Learning Differences Research
• “While many educators believe that teachers
teach the way they were taught, some refute
that claim, offering instead that teachers
often teach the way they learn”
• (Dunn & Dunn, 1979)

• Learner motivation, performance, and

achievement can increase when teachers
match their instruction with students’ diverse
learning preferences.
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

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Learning Style Types

Visual (V) - learners who learn best by seeing

and observing.
Aural/Auditory (A) - learners who learn best
when they hear.
Kinesthetic (K) – learners who learn best
when they move or do something.
Tactile (T) - learners who learn best by “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under

touching and handling objects/materials a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

(Dunn & Dunn, 1979)

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Personality Styles (Jung, 1923)
Carl Jung’s theory of psychological type gave rise to the Myers-Briggs
Inventory that indicates the following personality preferences:
• Where you focus your attention – Extraversion (E) or Introversion (I)
• The way you take in information – Sensing (S) or Intuition (N)
• How you make decisions – Thinking (T) or Feeling (F)
• How you deal with the world – Judging (J) or Perceiving (P)
According to this inventory, people can fall into 16 personality types.
Knowing your personality type can help you understand how you best
learn and interact with others.
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Classroom Participation Styles
• Phantom students: Remain almost invisible, although
they generally work steadily on tasks. They rarely
initiate conversation or ask for help.
• Isolated students: Keep to themselves and rarely
interact with others. They do not participate in pair or
group activities and do poorly in group or peer settings.
• Alienated students: React against teaching and
learning, and may be hostile and aggressive. They often “Untitled” by Thumprchgo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
have discipline problems and hinder their peers’
learning process.
Understanding these different participation styles will
guide you on how best to interact with your learners and
encourage them to learn.
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 Classroom Participation Styles
Every classroom has students with different
interaction and participation styles. Notice if your
classroom has any of these types of students.
• Task-oriented students: Complete tasks
successfully and competently. Active, cooperative
learners with minimal discipline problems.
• Social students: Complete tasks competently, but
place a higher value on personal interactions. “Untitled” by Thumprchgo via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
Talkative and outgoing, often ask teacher for
assistance if needed.
• Dependent students: Need teacher support and
guidance to complete tasks. They do well in
groups, but rely on teacher feedback and
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Reflection
Reflect on the information
contained in this presentation and
integrate it in your Learner Profile
Activity.

“Untitled” by Monika via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

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Guidelines for Learner-Centered Instruction
• Present an overview of the topic
including purpose and
objectives.
• Explain the relevance of the
topic.
• Build on what learners already
know.
• Approach material from the
learner’s point of views.
• Encourage active and discovery
and independent learning
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

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Guidelines for Learner-Centered Instruction
• Acknowledge and accommodate
student diversity (ability, age,
gender, culture, nationality).
• Encourage reflection (e.g., use of
learning journals, discussions,
etc.)
• Give timely feedback on
performance
• Constructively align objectives,
strategies and assessment
(Carlile, et. al., 2004) “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.
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 References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

• Boyadzhieva, E. (2016). Learner-centered Teaching and Learner Autonomy. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, pp. 35 – 40.
• Carlile, O., A. Jordan, and A. Stack (2004). Learning by Design: Learning Theory for the Designer of Multimedia Educational Materials.
Waterford: WIT/ BBC Online.
• Dunn, R. (2000 ). Learning styles: Theory, research, and practice . National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13 (1), 3-22.
• Dunn, R. & Dunn, (1979). Learning Styles/Teaching Styles: Can they…Should they be matched? ASCD. Retrieved
from:http://www.ascd.com/ASCD/pdf/journals/ed_lead/el_197901_dunn.pdf
• Doyle, T. (n.d.) The Changing Roles of Students in a Learner Centered Environment. Retrieved from the Internet
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/12695241/
• Humanmetrics.com. (2015). Personality test based on C. Jung and I. Briggs Myers type theory. [online] Available at:
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp
• Reid, J. M.(ed.). 1995. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
• Richards, J.C, and Bolhke, D. (2011). Developing learner-centered teaching in Creating Effective Language Lessons (pp. 25-34). Cambridge
University Press, New York, NY. Retrieved from http://prodibing.fkip.unsri.ac.id/userfiles/lesson%20planning.pdf
• Schneider, C. (2016). “7 Traits of Learner-Centered Teachers.” Retrieved fromhttp://www.gettingsmart.com/2016/04/7-traits-learner-
centered-teachers

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2.3.1 Optional Video: Individual Learner Differences

“Video Icon” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0. for use in the AE E-Teacher Program,
sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.

This is an optional but highly recommended activity. Feel free to use this graphic organizer to
guide you through this exercise. You do not need to submit the graphic organizer, but you may
want to share and discuss it with another person taking this class.
Now that you have learned about the many different types of learners, you can practice
identifying learner-centered teaching. For this optional activity, please do the following:
Watch the video, Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences. Watch
what the teacher and students do in the classroom and think about how this created a learner-
centered classroom.

Use graphic organizer and answer the questions below. This graphic organizer uses guiding
questions and scaffolding to help you (the learner) understand the video better. Record your
thoughts on the graphic organizer attached. Feel free to share your thoughts with a friend, co-
worker, or another person taking this course.

1. Watch Part 1 of the video (0:00-4:01) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

Click the link below to watch Part 1 of the video.

42
• How is the class organized?
• What activities did the students do?
• What skills did the students practice?
• How does the teacher make the class learner-centered?
• How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

2. Watch Part 2 of the video (4:01-8:48) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

• Describe different parts of the project that the teacher was describing.
• What overall teaching strategy was used?

43
• How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

3. Watch Part 3 of the video (8:48-12:52) and answer the following questions. Record your
answers on your graphic organizer.

• Describe the school’s self-access room.

• What overall teaching strategy was used?
• How does this teaching strategy connect to the English teaching practices discussed in this
module?

Alternative Assignment
If you are unable to view the video, please do the following:

1. Read the transcript for only Part 1 of the video.

2. Read what the teacher does in the classroom. What does the teacher do to create a
learner-centered classroom? How does this relate to the concepts we learned in this
module?
3. Read what the students do in the video. What activities do the students do that make this
classroom learner-centered? How does this relate to the concepts we learned in this
module?
4. Record your thoughts on the graphic organizer.

44
 Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual Learner Differences Graphic Organizer

Watch Part 1 of the Video (0:00-4:01) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) How is the class organized? 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What activities did the students do?

3.) What skills did the students practice?

4.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 2 of the Video (4:01-8:48) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) Describe different parts of the project that the 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
teacher was describing. English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

Watch Part 3 of the Video (8:48-12:52) and type the answers to the following questions below.

1.) Describe the school’s self-access room. 1.) How does this teaching strategy connect to the
English teaching practices discussed in this module?

2.) What overall teaching strategy was used?

1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Shaping the Way We Teach English: Individual
Learner Differences Graphic Organizer A for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of
State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License,
except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360

and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County


Transcript
Individual Learner Differences
Narrator: Module 11: Individual Learner Differences. Learners in one classroom are both
similar, and at the same time, different. A learner-centered approach to teaching requires
teachers to understand this duality and to be aware of the different ways in which students
learn. Some differences may be easier to see or discover such as age, gender, socioeconomic
conditions and level of education. Other differences may be more difficult to identify including
overall cognitive ability or intelligence and cognitive development in younger learners; learners
language proficiency levels and their motivation for language study; learners personality traits
along with their learning strengths styles and preferences.

Module Focus: Introduction. The focus in Module 11 is on how teachers can vary teaching
approaches and techniques to help facilitate learning for a wide variety of students. They can
vary the type of language input along with the content and the medium of delivery. They can
vary learner tasks. They can teach learning strategies. They can help students take responsibility
for their own learning and they can use group work appropriately.

Number 1: Viewing points for students using different skills, Video Segment Number 1
In this classroom, the students have chosen a popular song to work on and learn. Here they are
demonstrating the results of their work. Look for how the class is organized different activities
that the students do language and other skills that students are using and an overall learning
and teaching strategy

[The first group of students performs their song to the class.]
[The next group of students reads their story in front of the class.]

Group 1: “Today, I tell about my favorite experience. I have heard my friend talk about her
boyfriend. She passed along with him for a year.”


1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360
and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County


Group 2: “My group is talking about this song. This song is about a girl. She's four. She has fall in
love with one man but she can't tell him about her love. She is pray every night too and she
want him to her boyfriend.”

[The final group of students sings the song aloud to the rest of the class.]

Summary: This was a large class. Students worked in groups. Each group had a different activity.
One group wrote and acted out a music video. One wrote a personal story that was similar to
the story in the song one group drew a picture about the song and explained it, and one group
changed the words of the song. They were using listening, speaking, reading, writing, music,
drawing and drama skills. One strategy the teacher used was to make students aware they
were using the song to learn English vocabulary.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County



Transcript
Individual Learner Differences Part 2
Narrator: Number 2: Viewing Points- Learning stations and self-access rooms. Video
segment Number 2.
Another way to meet the needs of individual learning differences is to set up learning
stations or a self-access area or room. Some reasons for a self-access area are so that
learners can have choices and they can work at their own pace; so that learners can
have access to a variety of materials and do different tasks; so that learners can work
together on projects and activities; and so that the teacher can have more time to work
with small groups or individuals.
Female Teacher: S.E.A.R stands for Student English Access Room. So this is the room
for encourage your student to come and practice more skills of English like speaking
with listening reading and writing. This is the project from all their…all the project from
material five because I teach material five and they work in groups like this.
Normally, I cannot remember the name of the students so they put their faces on this
like this. This is the Tago Herps…yes, Tago is the name of the tree that our school
focus on these type of herbs. And this is the name of them and then we plan and then
use it to run it with the student bit by bit day by day years by years and up until now.
They can produce it very, very good.
At first they need to plan. I use 10 steps from story and then let them understand. I have
four stages of using project work teaching. The first one… I just introductory by let them
understand the project work and then I use the example project for them. The first
example for me is smoking project to let them know that smoking is not good; to let
them get the information and then they can analyze, analyze the information and then
they conclude and present it to the class.
After that, I control them to make the project of smoking. After that, they will do it by my
help. According to my help they do the project one and then after that they can do it by
themselves with the interest for project two and they develop until now. They can do it
by integrated how to do how to run the project to other subjects like Tago is for the
botany and herbs is for science. So they can they can run this and get the point for me
and then they can answer another score from another again in their subjects.


1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360
and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County

This is the name of the project and they have the brochure to present this is the present
for the brochure. They do it by themselves, but with my help with the language but it is a
lot of student. I teach about maybe 25 groups to do this. So it run out with a lot of time to
change, to develop the language. This is the transparency for them to get the
information and then present to the class.
When evaluation not only me, but they themselves, they can evaluate themselves and
their friends, too. And sometime I let the parents to come and have a look at their kids
project. After the third years, they can have a lot of examples to have a look. I just guide
them to have a look at the examples. Yes, and when they got the information they, they
present this to show that it is the real thing to do.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County



Transcript
Individual Learner Differences
Narrator: Notice the different sections or areas of this self-access room and the kinds of
resources that are available. There is a schedule to help students determine when they can use
different areas of the room.
This room can be used for independent study or for group work. A similar, but smaller self-
access area, can also be created in one corner of a classroom, or even on a cart that moves
from class to class. Teachers can gradually develop areas or carts as time and the availability of
materials allow. Workstations are another way to support individual learning differences.
Students can work together, or individually, at a station. Using workstations can give the
teacher time to work with one group, while other groups are working on something else.
Workstations can also give students the opportunity to manipulate things to help them learn,
which is a different kind of learning.
Female Teacher: I see. These two are right. Did you see that? Can you show this to everybody?
See so these…
Narrator: At one station, students put together a brain puzzle as part of learning about its parts
and their functions.
Another way to learn is to use the world outside the classroom. For this project, students
counted all the different animals they saw in their neighborhoods. Then at one of their
workstations, they combined that information into a graph.
Summary: self access centers or areas and workstations give learners choices; they allow
learners to work at their own pace; they provide access to a variety of materials and
opportunities to do different tasks; they provide materials for working together on projects and
activities; and they provide time for the teacher to work with individuals or groups.
Module Focus: Summary
The focus in Module 11 has been on individual learning differences. Teachers can vary
approaches and techniques to help facilitate learning for a wide variety of learners. When they
vary the type of language input along with the content and the medium of delivery, they vary


1 ©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-
Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the
U.S Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360
and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County

learner tasks, they teach learning strategies, when they help students take responsibility for
their own learning, and when they use group work appropriately.
See the manual for readings and more information on this and other topics related to individual
learner differences.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI

360 and delivered by University of Maryland Baltimore County

2.3.2 Activity: Learner Profile
LEARNER PROFILE ACTIVITY TEMPLATE

As we begin our focus on the learner, let’s take a look at the learners you currently have in
class. If you are not currently teaching, work with a colleague to obtain the profile data. This
data will be the foundation you build upon for your learner-centered, project-based topic.
(Note: you will type over the items in green; this is just a reminder of what is needed for each
category.)

Number of students

Age and grade level

Gender of students

Ethnicity of students

Language
All 4 skills
proficiency:

Language
How many years studying English
experience: (a)

Language
Type of curriculum, methods, and approaches used
experience: (b)

Motivation: (a) Kinds of topics interesting or motivating for your learners

Kinds of texts and activities interesting or motivating for your

Motivation: (b)
learners

Kinds of technologies interesting or motivating for your

Motivation: (c)
learners

We recommend that you use this template to develop your learner profile for all your classes.
Developing your learner profile can help you improve your teaching, plan learner-centered
activities, and support your classroom management. For this activity, please do the following:

51
1. Review the Module 2 lectures and readings and the Learner Profile Activity template above.
2. Select one of your current classes and fill in this template with your students’ information.
3. Copy/provide your responses by filling out this quiz.
4. To respond to quiz Question #10, write a paragraph on how you think a learner profile will
assist you in making your classes interactive and engaging in the future.

This activity is graded and it is worth 10 points. You will automatically receive points for
completing this quiz. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz. You will not
receive instructor feedback. This assignment must be completed online.

2.4 Readings: Managing the Learner-Centered Classroom

English teachers around the world have many different classroom cultures and class sizes.
Learner-centered teaching strategies might seem harder to manage with large classes. The
following article discusses approaches and strategies for working with and managing large
learner-centered classrooms.
Please read and reflect on this article. Consider how it might connect to your own teaching
context. You will discuss these ideas and your own connections in the Module 2 discussion.
A study guide for this article is also provided below.

Article: "Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources"

52
Renaud,S. Tannebaum, E., Stantial, P. (2007). Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with
Limited Resources. English Teaching Forum, 45(3),12-34.
https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-forum-2007-volume-45-number-
3#child-837

53
 Sus an Re n aud, Eli za be t h Ta nne nbaum, an d Phillip S t an t ial
C A N A D A A N D T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S

Student-Centered Teaching
in Large Classes with Limited
Resources
“We cannot direct the wind, but we can adjust the sails.” (Peace Corps 1992, 11)

J
osue enters his classroom where teaching in journals and books is
his secondary school students— irrelevant, even laughable.”
all 78 of them—are waiting, We began to work with Haitian pre-
squeezed together on sagging wooden service teachers at the State Teacher
benches. The small room is so crowd- Training College and with groups of
ed that Josue cannot move from the in-service teachers throughout the
narrow space left for him between country in 1998. At that time, we
the front wall—where the polished did not fully grasp the realities of
cement has been painted black to teaching English, or any subject, in a
serve as a blackboard—and the first country like Haiti. We soon realized
row of benches. His students have no that much of what we were present-
books. There is no electricity, it is hot, ing to the teachers could not possibly
and Josue has only a piece of chalk be applied in the Haitian classroom.
and his imagination to help him teach Many of our techniques did indeed
his students English. seem “irrelevant and laughable,” yet
This scenario is repeated every day we had teachers who wanted to teach
in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, but it could effectively, and they had students who
just as well be in thousands of schools wanted to learn.
in hundreds of developing countries
What is a large class?
throughout the Caribbean, Africa,
South America, and Asia. According Josue’s class of 78 students,
to Cross (1992), in some situations described above, is not at all unusual
“teachers have no copying facilities, in Haiti. A few teachers have reported
no home base, no supplies of any having classes of up to 200 students.
kind. Under such conditions, much At a recent TESOL (Teachers of Eng-
of what is written about language lish to Speakers of Other Languages)

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 conference workshop, participants were asked Challenges of large classes
how many students would make up a “large Despite these advantages, the challenges
class” in their teaching environment. The involved in teaching large classes can be
most common answer was 25. According to daunting. The ideas we present for dealing
a study cited by Ur (1996), the average per- with these challenges have been developed
ception of a large class is around 50 students; over a period of several years and are the
however, she suggests that “the exact number result of both our research of the litera-
does not really matter: what matters is how ture on teaching large classes and our work
you, the teacher see the class size in your own with Haitian English teachers. These teach-
specific situation” (302). Baker and Westrup ers brainstormed with us, conducted action
(2000) echo this thought when they say: “A research while trying out these ideas (and
large class can be any number of students, if many others, not always successful) in their
the teacher feels there are too many students classrooms, and then reported back to us on
what worked best.
for them all to make progress” (2).
The major challenges of teaching large
Our experience in Haiti has shown that
classes presented below are grouped into
there is a limit to the size of a class in which
four categories: (1) managing the classroom,
student-centered methods can be used with-
(2) using pair and group work to encourage
out creating chaos. We have observed and cooperative learning, (3) teaching with lim-
presented to classes of up to 80 students ited resources, and (4) motivating students in
where communicative activities were success- heterogeneous classes.
fully used. As one teacher pointed out, a class
1. Managing the classroom
with more than 80 students becomes a con-
gregation rather than a class, and the teacher The idea of trying to manage a classroom
must become a preacher: lecturing, writing full of noisy, often hungry, teenagers who may
notes on the board for students to copy, and or may not be interested in learning English
hoping that at least some of the students will is daunting at best. Two of the most serious
learn something. Therefore, for the purposes challenges are how to maintain discipline
of this article, we are going to define a large and how to correct large amounts of written
class as having between 50 and 80 students, work.
and we will discuss some successful tech- Maintaining discipline
niques for teachers who teach large classes Most discipline problems are the result of
with limited resources. boredom or alienation. If students are inter-
ested in the class, many discipline problems
Advantages of large classes disappear. Students who are paying attention,
Hess (2001) points out that in a large class who are involved in activities that appeal
there are always enough students for interac- to their interests and needs, do not act up
tion, and there is a rich variety of human and often help control more rambunctious
resources. The teacher is not the only peda- classmates. Some techniques that can help
maintain discipline are described below.
gogue, and since a large class is usually hetero-
• Set classroom rules. At the beginning
geneous, more proficient students can be used
of the year, ask students to work in
to help lower level ones. She also states that the
small groups to write down rules they
teacher is never bored and that professional
think are reasonable regarding class-
development occurs naturally as the teacher room behavior and the consequences
tries to find new ways of coping with the for breaking the rules. Collect and
large number of students. In addition to these write up a summary of the ideas on a
advantages, Ur (1996) explains that because large sheet of paper. In the next class,
the teacher is less able to attend to every indi- ask students to consider the rules and
vidual, the students must develop strategies make any suggestions for changes. Ask
for helping themselves and their classmates students to vote to accept the rules
through peer-teaching and collaboration, thus and make a final copy to be hung in
fostering an atmosphere of cooperation. the classroom for the year. If the rules

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 come from the students, and they con- Correcting large amounts of written work
sider them to be fair, they will be more Large classes mean lots of written work to
willing to follow them. correct, which is often too much for a teacher
• Plan a variety of activities that appeal to who has to plan lessons, teach classes, and
students with different learning styles meet with many students. Two techniques
and interests. This will usually keep can help alleviate the workload of correcting
the attention of the majority of stu- written work.
dents. Often the students themselves • Have students work in groups to pro-
are effective in maintaining discipline. duce one piece of writing for each
If many students want to hear what the group or to complete grammar exer-
teacher or their classmates are saying, cises together. This encourages com-
they will ask their neighbors to be quiet munication and also cuts down on the
and pay attention, too. number of papers the teacher must cor-
• Establish routines. Starting the class rect. Tell students that students within
with the class agenda on the board can a group will all receive the same grade
help students to focus and prepare for so that they will all take an interest in
the day’s class. Set up signals that the producing something good.
students understand—for quiet, for • For all written work, have each student
silence, and so on—using hand signals, go through the process of self-editing
a bell, or some other method. and one or two rounds of peer edit-
• So as not to waste time calling the roll, ing before turning in the paper. This
give the students a sign-in sheet to pass decreases the amount of written assess-
around at the beginning of the class. ment that the teacher needs to provide.
When it comes back to the front of the (Students need to be trained to do peer
room, draw a line under the last name. editing in a collaborative, uncritical
Any names that are written below the way. They may be resistant to the idea
line are those of late-comers. Another of peer editing at first.)
strategy is to have students make name
2. Using pair and group work to encourage
cards to display on their desks (folded
cooperative learning
so that the teacher can see them eas-
ily). Collect the name cards at the In Haiti, where the educational system
end of class. At the beginning of each is traditionally based almost solely on rote
subsequent class, as the students enter learning, and where the classroom is a highly
the room, have them take their name competitive place, convincing students of
cards. Those cards that aren’t collected the necessity of working cooperatively with
belong to students who are absent. their peers is not an easy task. The tech-
This takes care of attendance and helps niques described below suggest some ways
the teacher learn names, too. to get students to work together and remain
• Create a seating chart (and require interested.
students to sit in their assigned seats.) • Spend some time at the beginning of
This can help in learning students’ the school year talking about language
names. When the teacher knows and learning and looking at the learning
uses students’ names, they feel more process itself. If you can convince
like individuals and are less likely to act students of the necessity of using the
up. language to communicate in order to
• Give the more advanced students learn it well, they will be more will-
responsibility for helping others, as ing to try working in pairs or small
group leaders, monitors, or teaching groups.
assistants. • When you introduce pair and group
• Teach students to show their respect work for the first time, plan simple
for others by listening to what they activities for very short periods of
have to say in group work or when they time. At first, having students ask the
are reporting to the whole class. person next to them a pre-set question

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 may be enough. The time spent on an address, turn-taking, and so on. Stu-
activity and the complexity of activities dents who do not follow the rules can
can gradually be increased as students be expelled from the group and made
become used to the routines. to stand at the back of the room.
• To limit the time it takes for students • Give instructions clearly and careful-
to get into groups, have students work ly, and check comprehension before
with those next to them, or imme- the pair or group work begins. Write
diately behind them. Seats can be instructions on the board so groups can
changed weekly or monthly in order to refer to them as they progress. Model
allow students to work with different the activity with a student.
classmates.
3. Teaching with limited resources
• Set up groups in advance and have
them stay together for several class Many students in developing countries do
periods, which will avoid the time-con- not have textbooks. The only materials they
suming daily reorganization of groups. bring to class are a notebook and, sometimes,
Assign roles to group members so that a pen or pencil. The teacher usually has a
everyone in the group feels involved blackboard and chalk supplied by the school,
in some way. For each activity, roles but no access to photocopies, no electricity,
should rotate among group members, and often little access to books. Many teach-
with different students acting as the ers do not even have an English dictionary
facilitator, secretary, recorder, time or an English grammar book available. The
keeper, and so on. suggestions that follow can help overcome the
• Establish quiet signals to show students scarcity of resources.
when to start and stop activities. Stu- • Rather than always writing notes on
dents must be trained to stop working the board for students to copy, try
on a task when the teacher gives a sig- some more interesting ways of getting
nal by doing something such as raising the necessary information into their
her/his arms, ringing a bell, or holding notebooks. For example, dictate the
up a stop sign. The teacher should information using a dictogloss, which
never try to out-shout 40 pairs of stu- is a method where the students listen
dents who are all speaking at once. twice to a passage read at normal speed,
• Make one copy of handouts per group taking notes during the second read-
or pair of students. This obliges stu- ing. They then work with a partner to
dents to share and to work together, try to reconstruct the text. When a pair
and fewer copies are needed. thinks they have it, they write the pas-
• If students are using too much L1 sage on the board and the class works
during pair or group work, ask them together to make it as close to the origi-
to set a goal for L2 language use dur- nal as possible. The teacher makes final
ing activities. At the end of the pair or corrections, and the students correct
group work, ask students to evaluate if their work (Wajnryb 1990).
they met their goal or ask group mem- • Ask students to bring an item from
bers to evaluate each other. In most home to use as a talking or writing
cases, some use of the L1 in pair or point for the class. This can help
group work might be tolerated as long build community in the classroom and
as the students are on task and must encourage student responsibility and
talk about and produce something in participation in the activity.
English at the end of the activity. • To save time during class, write texts or
• Teach students rules for polite com- questions on large sheets of newsprint
munication and make it clear that or brown paper before class rather than
this is what is expected when students writing on the board. In a very large
are working together in groups. One classroom, make two or three copies
member of the group can be put in that can be posted on the side or back
charge of monitoring correct forms of wall so everyone can see.

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 • Use pictures from magazines, or learn • To ensure that students speak up loud-
to draw simple pictures to illustrate ly in class when answering questions or
vocabulary or to generate interest in making comments, the teacher should
reading, speaking, or writing activities, move away from the student who is
or as a basis for discussion. (1000+ speaking, rather than coming closer
Pictures for Teachers To Copy by Andrew to hear him or her better. In this way,
Wright is an excellent resource.) everyone should be able to hear and
• Bring realia—actual objects that remain involved.
language learners can see, hear, and • Adapt the material according to the
touch—into the classroom. A teacher language level, age, and needs of stu-
can generate a great deal of interest dents. In multi-age, multi-level classes,
when he or she pulls surprising things plan a variety of activities to appeal to
out of a bag! as many students as possible.
• Use what the students themselves say as • Develop sequential activities with sev-
input. For example, to practice chang- eral steps so that higher level students
ing direct to indirect speech, a student complete more while lower level stu-
can be asked a question, and another dents work at their own pace. When
student asked to report what was said preparing worksheets, add some option-
either orally or in writing. This can be al sections for more advanced students.
done in groups after a few examples • Use higher level students as assistant
have been given to the whole class. teachers or monitors who can help and
Or a topic can be given (for example, support the lower level students.
“Food”) and the teacher can ask a few • Prepare activities that allow students to
students to make a statement about it. show their different skills and interests.
The rest of the class then writes down • As much as possible, be available to
the sentences in a student-generated students before and after class to estab-
dictation. lish personal relationships, so that they
feel that they are individuals in the eyes
4. Motivating students in heterogeneous
of the teacher, not merely part of the
classes
herd.
In a large class, it is easy for students to • Make students aware of the goals of
feel alienated. If they feel that the teacher each learning activity. If they under-
does not know them or care whether or not stand why they are doing it, they will
they learn, they will usually put very little participate more willingly.
effort into participating actively in the learn- • Make all activities success-oriented.
ing process. Some ways to motivate students Students will participate willingly in
of different language levels and ages in a large tasks that seem achievable. When they
class are described below. have confidence in their success, they
• At the beginning of the year, include will be motivated to try.
some information about the impor- Below are descriptions of two large classes
tance of English as a world language, we observed in Haiti, where teachers were
either as a listening or a reading activ- able to lead their students towards specific
ity. Encourage students to brainstorm learning outcomes while integrating some
reasons for learning English and the student-centered activities and maintaining
advantages of being able to speak discipline and interest.
another language.
• To keep more advanced students chal- Fanfan’s class
lenged, prepare an activity resource Fanfan walks into the classroom, a tall
notebook to keep in the classroom. unassuming man of about 35 with a bright
Students who finish activities quickly welcoming smile but a presence that says he is
can work on the supplementary activi- in control. The students fill all of the approxi-
ties while waiting for the rest of the mately 100 desks of the classroom, which is
class to finish. about the size of a U.S. living room. They

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07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 16 6/27/07 9:47:18 AM

 go immediately to their assigned numbered “Moi.” Emmanuel has encouraged them to
chairs, take their seats and turn toward the use English to communicate, and not just
cracked, peeling chalkboard. There isn’t any for grammar exercises.
of the fooling around that you would expect The students observing must listen careful-
among a group of American high school ly to help disqualify any student who touches
students. These students know how lucky the wrong body part based on the command.
they are to be at a public lycee (high school) The student who wins each round gets a small
in Cap Haitian, Haiti. Only a small percent- star or heart sticker from Emmanuel’s collec-
age of teenagers attend any high school, and tion. Unlike Fanfan’s classroom, where there
these students are among the luckiest since is no possible way for the teacher to move
they have gotten one of the prize places in the around the room, Emmanuel can squeeze
public schools, which means no tuition pay- down the aisles and monitor students’ work
ment. These students are all in their next to as they take out their copybooks to work
last year and they will soon face the grueling on a group story they began the day before.
final exams that will determine if they pass Students turn to face the bench behind them
secondary school. (Only a few do.) to make groups of four. Emmanuel calls stu-
Fanfan gets the students ready to study dents by name, remembering the stories they
with a short song in English that he has have worked on before and encouraging the
taught before and that the students love to shyer ones to participate.
sing. He conducts the class, first all together, One wall of Emmanuel’s classroom is
then one half of the room, then the other half, partially open to the courtyard of the school
and then all together again. With the class so noise from other classes comes in. In the
warmed up and ready for English, he writes middle of class, the electricity goes off, but
on the board five sentences using the simple the students just continue their work in the
past, all with mistakes. The students’ task is semi-darkness of the concrete walled room.
to find the mistakes in these sentences. There As the bell rings for the class to end, the stu-
is a comfortable buzz in the room as students dents cluster around Emmanuel to say good-
work alone and together. Then Fanfan, call- bye in English as he leaves to go on to another
ing on students from throughout the room class and another English lesson.
by name, has the students tell each other
Conclusion
the correct form. Students then copy down
the sentences and Fanfan tells a story using It is obvious that, given a choice, all teach-
the simple past, followed by comprehension ers would choose to teach in a classroom that
questions and then a written assignment. The is bright and well equipped and is limited to
50 minutes pass quickly. 20 students who all have books and materials
to support their learning. That is not the situ-
Emmanuel’s class ation in many classrooms in the world today,
Emmanuel has squished himself into and it will probably not be the situation for
one of the benches already filled with five years to come. In the meantime, as we have
seventh grade students. He and the class tried to show, there are ways to make learn-
of 50 students are watching a group of six ing better, more fun, and easier for both the
students in the front of the class respond teacher and the students. We cannot direct
to commands from another student. They the wind, but we can adjust the sails!
have just finished learning body parts and
References
basic commands. Emmanuel first worked
Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000. The English
with a group in a fast paced drill of “Touch language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large
your head, arm, nose, etc.,” and now he has classes with few resources. London: Continuum.
turned over to a student the task of giving Hess, N. 2001. Teaching large multilevel classes. New
commands. Several groups and leaders get York: Cambridge University Press.
a chance to perform, and Emmanuel selects Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching English as a foreign
language to large, multilevel classes. Washington,
them as they quietly raise their hands. Some DC: Peace Corps Information Collection and
call out “Me, teacher,” a great improvement, Exchange. http://www.peacecorps.gov/library/
Emmanuel notes, from the previous cries of pdf/M0046_tefllarge.pdf.
Continued on page 34

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M | NUMBER 3 2007 17

07-0003 ETF_12_17.indd 17 6/27/07 9:47:19 AM

 Student-Centered… Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial
(Continued from page 17)

Ur, P. 1996. A course in language teaching: Practice ELIZABETH TANNENBAUM teaches

and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University methodology and applied linguistics
Press. courses in the MAT Program at the School
Wajnryb, R. 1990. Grammar dictation. Oxford: for International Training, Brattleboro,
Oxford University Press.
Vermont. She has trained teachers in the
Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for teachers to copy.
London: Nelson. United States, Asia, the South Pacific, and
Haiti.

SUSAN RENAUD was a Soros Foundation

English Teacher Trainer in Haiti for seven PHILLIP STANTIAL administered an ESL
years. She has taught English and trained program in Florida for many years. More
English teachers in the United States, recently, he has been involved in teacher
Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. She training. In addition, he has worked in
currently works as a trainer for the School Peace Corps training and administration in
for International Training TESOL Certificate Eastern Europe and Central and Southeast
Program. Asia.

ANSWERS TO THE LIGHTER SIDE

Fair Finds
16. watermelon
15. cotton candy
14. cherry pie
13. apple pie
12. squash
11. pumpkin
10. apricot
9. lettuce
8. potato
7. horse
6. corn
5. cake
4. goat
3. duck
2. cow
1. pig

34 2007 NUMBER 3 | E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

07-0003 ETF_30_34.indd 34 6/27/07 9:46:44 AM

An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in Large Classes with Limited Resources
Article by Susan Renaud, Elizabeth Tannenbaum, and Phillip Stantial

Study Guide by Yuliya Schmaltz From English Language Teaching Forum, 2007, Volume 45, Number 3

Retrieved 5 January 2018 from: https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/07-45-3-

c.pdf

Overview

English language classrooms in many developing countries often contain up to 100 students. In addition,
teachers who teach those classes have limited access to technology or teaching resources. This article
presents successful techniques used to teach English language in large classes. For the purposes of this
article, large classes are defined as having 50-80 students.

Advantages of Large Classes

Large classes provide students opportunities to interact. They enroll students of various talents and
abilities and they allow teachers to grow and develop professionally. A teacher may not be able to
attend to everyone, therefore students are more likely to collaborate and cooperate.

Challenges of Large Classrooms

Haitian teachers teaching large classes shared with authors of this article. Teachers identified that many
challenges were connected to managing the classroom. They discussed these four challenges:

1) Managing the classroom

Some challenges are connected to maintaining discipline. However, teachers noticed that if students are
interested in the course materials, they tend to stay active and engaged with their courses. They
recommended the following strategies to set and maintain classroom rules:

 Set classroom rules and ask students to comment on them and add the rules they consider
important. Students will more willingly follow the rules if they think they are fair.
 Use activities that appeal to different learning styles. They will keep the majority of students
engaged and interested.
 Establish routines such as class agendas, hand signals for quiet, change turns, and others.
 Pass sign in sheets at the start of the class or ask students to use name tents and collect them at
the end of each day.
 Create seating charts.
 Use one handout for a group of students to save resources.

©2018 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). An AE E-Teacher Study Guide for: Student-Centered Teaching in
Large Classes with Limited Resources for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S Department of State and administered
by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
  Assign group roles to facilitate effective group work.

Other challenges are connected to checking a large amount of written work. Teachers recommended to:

 Ask each group to produce one written text, instead of asking every student to write one. This
also encourages collaboration and peer-review.
 Ask students to self-edit and have two peers edit their work.

2) Using a pair and group work to encourage collaboration

Teachers suggested some of the following techniques to encourage collaboration and interest in the
subject matter:

 Discuss the language learning process and the need to use language to communicate.
 Limit the time students spend getting into groups. Establish group schedules.
 Plan groups in advance. Assign roles such as facilitator, recorder, time keeper, and others.
 Create signals to communicate when activities start and stop. That eliminates the need for a
teacher to address students or raise his or her voice.
 Establish goals for using L2 and ask students to evaluate each other.
 Give clear instructions and ask students to summarize them back.

3) Teaching with limited resources

In some cases classroom resources may be limited to notebooks, pencils, blackboards and chalk. It is
possible to work around the lack of resources by doing the following:

 Ask students to bring an important object from their home and describe it/use it as a classroom
resource.
 Cut pictures from magazines or draw small pictures for teaching new vocabulary.
 Use objects learners can touch, smell, and pass around (realia).
 Ask students to use their own dialogues to create direct and indirect speech sentences.

4) Motivating students in heterogeneous classes.

It is important to get to know your students to make them comfortable and connected. Teachers
mention the following techniques to motivate their students:

 Prepare supplemental resource activities for more advanced students to keep them occupied if
they finish assignments early.
 Adapt materials according to students’ proficiency levels. The same source material can be used
when enhanced or adapted.
 Prepare sequential activities to allow more advanced students to complete higher order steps.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
  Use more proficient students to monitor activities and discussions.
 Be available before and after class to establish connections and build relationships with
students.

Conclusion

It is not always possible to have access to educational resources, but teachers can use realia, creativity,
and their students to create supplemental teaching resources.

Reference (OER)

Peace Corps. 1992. Teaching English as a foreign language to large, multilevel classes. Washington DC:
Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED358702.pdf

References (Copyrighted)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Baker, J., and H. Westrup. 2000 The English language teacher’s handbook: How to teach large classes
with few resources. London: Continuum.

Hess, N 2001. Teaching large multilevel classes. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. 1996. A
course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge University Press.

Wajnryb, R. 1990 Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wright, A. 1994. 1000+ pictures for teachers to copy. London: Nelson.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by University of
Maryland Baltimore County
2.4.1 Optional Video: Student Centered Classroom Management

OPTIONAL:

Webinar on Student-Centered Classroom Management

Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms

Student-centered classroom management differs from teacher centered classroom management.

The overall focus of classroom management should be on encouraging good discipline and behavior to facilitate students' learning
opportunities. The following presentation discusses different classroom management techniques and it presents 5 adaptable forms that can be
used to guide activities in learner-centered classrooms. The author discusses how and when each form is best used.

Link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQ_guy2iBXk&feature=youtu.be

Reference

Thomas, C. Student-Centered Classroom Management: Addressing Classroom Issues with 5 Adaptable Forms [Webinar].

59
2.4.2 Quiz: Learner Centered Classes

Quiz Instructions

Now that you have had a chance to read and reflect on learner-centered classrooms, learner differences, and communicative classroom
management, try and match concepts with their meaning. Take the quiz to test yourself!

This quiz is graded and it is worth 10 points. You are allowed multiple attempts to complete this quiz. You must earn at least 7 points to unlock
the next page. This quiz should be completed online.

60
2.5 Lecture: Strategies-Based Instruction, Metacognition, and Critical Thinking in Second Language
Teaching

“Untitled.” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay. is licensed under under a Pixabay License . It is free to use and share.

Read more about learner styles-and strategies-based instruction below.

Introduction

In order for students learn new skills and to retain, or keep, knowledge for a long time, instructors use learning strategies in the classroom.
When students engage with the course content and use strategies to help them remember it, students can communicate better in their new
language and also become better language learners overall (Dale, 1946).

An Overview of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies (LLS) are specific actions and steps that learners use to help them remember information. They are important in
the learning process and should be explicitly taught by language teachers.

Learner strategies:

• allow learner to be self-directed

61
 • expand the role of teachers
• are problem-oriented
• involve many aspects, not just the cognitive
• can be taught
• are flexible
• are influenced by many factors

(Oxford, 1990)

Types of Learning Strategies

There are three main types of learning strategies: metacognitive strategies (learners are thinking about the process of learning), cognitive
strategies (learners create strategies for specific tasks or assignments) and socio-affective strategies (learners work together to get
knowledge). Here are specific classroom techniques to make learners aware of their learning:

Students can use Metacognitive Strategies like these:

• Identify words they don't know, or recognize where and when they don't understand.
• Tell a peer how they solved a comprehension problem
• Practice self talk by repeating a positive statement about their learning goals at the beginning of each class.
• Students record what they learned at the end of each week in a learning log to track progress.
• Students use a checklist to ensure that they meet all requirements for an assignment.
• Teacher assigns note takers for each class. The note taker can use the same graphic organizer for each class. Keep a log of class notes
that students can go back and look at.
• Teacher assigns a course “wrapper” who summarizes the material at the end of each class.

Student can use Cognitive Strategies like these:

• Categorize new vocabulary words into a graphic organizer to help remember them.
• Imagery: Drawing a picture to symbolize the new vocabulary word in a learning log.
• Repetition: Repeating a concept over and over again to help students remember.
• Music: Building a song, music video, etc. to help students remember.
• Students write synonyms (words with the same meaning) for unknown words.
• Read a paragraph several times for different purposes (main idea, details, to ask questions, etc.)
• Use formulas and patterns to solve difficult grammar and spelling patterns.
• Use rhymes or special phrases to help remember new vocabulary.
• Use different colored pens to mark their work for different criteria.

Students can use Socio-Affective Strategies like these:

• Practice a 'Round Robin' activity where they form groups, then trade papers with other groups in the class after each question to
share multiple answers.
• Ask students to be peer models and model the correct way to perform the language.

62
 • Assign certain students to teach class material to their classmates.
• In the classroom, display questions that students can ask their peers or themselves if they need help.
• Appoint student roles in the class such as leader, note-taker, time keeper, etc.

Conclusion

Learning strategies and strategies-based instruction are designed to train students how to continue their language learning beyond the
classroom. Teachers are encouraged to develop different activities that explicitly teach strategies and also take into consideration the various
styles of learners. The goal is for students to become independent learners.

Before any activity, instructors should ask themselves two questions:

1. What learning styles would be most beneficial in completing a task?

2. What learning strategies will my students need to complete this task successfully?

References (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers, Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX,
No.4 http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html (Links to an external site.)

O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.

Oxford, R. (1990a). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House.

Read more about metacognition below.

63
Introduction

Metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. According to Anderson (2002), metacognitive learners are aware of their own thinking
process and know which learning strategies to use at different stages of their leaning process. They are able to learn more effectively because
they can self-direct their own learning. English language teachers can help students become aware of their own learning processes, which will
in turn help learners become better learners. This highlights the importance of teaching students metacognitive skills, as it gives them tools for
learning and success.

Metacognition Model

Metacognition follows the sequence of thinking and reflective processes. They are:

• Preparing and planning for learning: It is important for students to be thinking ahead about their learning process with certain
learning goals in mind. Teachers can provide students with specific and achievable learning goals. Then learners can assess their
own progress against the established learning goals and objectives. Successful students are able to select learning strategies and use
metacognitive skills based on their learning situations.
• Selecting and Using Learning Strategies: When learners can identify and use learning strategies to fit a their learning - they are
metacognitively aware. Teachers should introduce learners to a variety of strategies and techniques to choose from to do complex
tasks. Students need to be trained on how to best use these strategies, and they need to be aware than no strategy will fit all their
learning needs.
• Monitoring Strategy Use: Being able to monitor which learning strategy is used is another characteristic of metacognitive learners.
They need to do periodic self-checks to see whether the strategy they selected is still the best one for the learning task. Instructors
can help students learn to monitor their strategy use by occasionally pausing and reflecting on their learning process.
• Combining Various Strategies: Metacognitive learners can combine various matacognitive skills. Such learners are able to connect,
sequence, and coordinate multiple strategies to achieve the desired learning outcome. Teacher-facilitators can make sure that
students are aware of the multiple strategies that are available to them for specific activities.
• Evaluating Strategy Use and Learning: Part of the metacognitive learning process involves being able to assess whether the learning
is happening effectively. Teachers can facilitate such self-evaluation by asking prompting questions that will help learners connect
the dots between their intended learning goals and learning outcomes. Examples of such questions include 'What am I trying to
accomplish?', What strategies am I using?', 'How well am I using them?'. and 'What else could I do?'

Conclusion

English language teachers are important in teaching metacognitve skills. They help learners learn and practice metacognitive strategies, self-
reflect, self-assess, and become better learners (Anderson, 2002).

References (OER)

Anderson, N. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in Second Language Teaching and Learning.ERIC DIGEST EDO-FL-01-10

64
Read more about Critical Thinking and Higher Order Thinking (HOT) skills below.

Introduction

Critical thinking is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating information and knowledge by using
observations, reason, experience and communication to create guiding principles for action. It engages students at higher levels of Bloom's
taxonomy's cognitive domains of learning. Cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner thinking
and language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem solving, reflective and critical thinking, analyzing, synthesizing and
critiquing to learn language effectively. Language teachers can encourage students to develop critical thinking skills by engaging them in a
variety of activities that promote such skill development (Üstünloğlü, 2004).

BICS and CALP

Using higher order thinking and critical thinking skills requires a certain type of academic language proficiency which students can only develop
through focused learning. Such academic language differs greatly from the language we use for for social and every day
communication. Cummins (1994) first defined these types of language and language acquisition as Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
(BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

65
BICS: Basic interpersonal interactions are normally context imbedded, which means they are happening in a specific setting. Interactions
requiring BICS almost always occur in informal social settings. They tend to not be cognitively demanding. A student can become proficient in
BICS in 6 months to 2 years after moving to the English speaking country.

Here are some examples of BICS learner-centered activities:

• Making an appointment with a doctor

• Communicating with a taxi driver
• Asking for directions
• Making restaurant reservations

Notice that all of these activities are happening in a particular context (i.e., they are context embedded). If necessary, the teacher can provide
pictures and illustrations to help learners with vocabulary and with practicing talking about these topics.

CALP: CALP implies academic learning. The range of academic skills one needs to develop to be cognitively proficient in academic English
includes reading, writing, speaking, and listening. These types of skills usually take from five to seven years to develop, as one requires time to
become proficient using English in specialty academic areas.

Academic language acquisition includes more than just understanding and being able to produce content and appropriate vocabulary. It
includes skills such as comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring. Academic language tasks are context reduced. Information
is often acquired through reading or presented by a teacher. As student get older the context for academic tasks becomes more and more
reduced.

Here are some examples of CALP learner-centered activities:

• Writing a book review

• Conducting a debate
• Taking notes of an academic lecture
• Reporting on a political event

Notice that all of these activities are centered around more abstract concepts and events. They are removed from the immediate context (i.e.,
the lecture may be on Ancient Greece, and it may describe events that happened long ago). Students need to have a relatively high language
proficiency to be able to engage in such activities.

Conclusion

It is very important that English language teachers distinguish between BICS and CALP and know what it takes to acquire these different sets of
skills (Cummins, 1994). It is also important to make a connection between CALP and helping learners develop critical thinking skills. CALP allows
learners to engage in Higher Order Thinking (HOT) activities and further develop their academic skills and abilities.

66
References (OER)

Üstünlüoglu, E. Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness

(Forum) https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/04-42-3-b.pdf

Reference: (Copyrighted)

This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative
Commons-licensed, and therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.

Cummins, J. (1994). The Acquisition of English as a Second Language, in Spangenberg-Urbschat, K. and Pritchard, R. (eds) Reading Instruction for
ESL Students Delaware: International Reading Association,

67
 Learning Styles and
Strategy-Based Instruction

©2019 by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). Learning Styles and Strategy-Based Instruction PPT, sponsored by the U.S Department
of State, with funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
 In this presentation we will focus on how students can
retain, or keep, new knowledge. We will also look at
strategies which work together with students’ learning
styles to improve students’ learning experiences. We will
explore how students can change their viewpoints on the
overall learning process to have more effective results.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
What are Learning Strategies?
• Language learning strategies are “specific actions, behaviors, steps,
or techniques, that students (often intentionally) use to improve
their progress in developing L2 skills” (Oxford, 1993, p. 18).
• These strategies help students retain, or remember, the new
language.
• The strategies are self-directed.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
The Importance of Learner Strategies

• Strategies help …
• develop students’
communication skills in the L2.
• students become better
language learners in general.

“Untitled” by Maklay62 via Pixabay is licensed undera Pixabay License.

It is free to use and share.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Types of Learning Strategies
• Evaluating one’s own learning style and learning needs
Metacognitive • Planning for an activity/assignment

O’Malley (1985) first Strategies •

•
Monitoring progress
Evaluating the effectiveness of tools
identified language
learning strategies and • Using resources and instructional tools
• Note-taking
their general Cognitive • Repetition
characteristics. Strategies • Using imagery
• Making inferences (guesses)
• Identifying key words

• Cooperating/sharing ideas (cooperative learning)

Socio-affective • Clarifying information
Strategies • Self-talk for motivation
• Asking questions

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Metacognitive Strategy Example- Think Aloud!
Students answer questions aloud to the class
before, during and after reading.
• What do I know about
this topic already?
• Step 1: Introduce the questions • What do I think I will
• Step 2: Students read parts of the text. learn about this topic?
• Step 3: Students answer the questions about the
Example • The most important idea
text or their knowledge of the topic aloud. Questions was…
• Step 4: Teacher facilitates discussion based on • I got confused when…
students’ answers. • This reminds me of…
• My favorite part was…
For more fun, students can choose questions
randomly from a hat!
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Cognitive Strategy Example- Review Guides
Students create their own review guides for quizzes
and tests based on what they learned.
• Draw a picture to help you
remember the most difficult
• Step 1: Introduce the topic for the quiz or test. vocabulary words
• Create example sentences for each
• Step 2: Students create a study guide independently Example vocabulary word
or in groups based on teacher’s guidelines. Review • Write your notes into
• Step 3: Students submit their study guides on test Guide • Create test questions based on the
day. Components
topic.
• Color code notes for key words,
dates, names, examples, etc.
• Develop a mind map for to show
processes.
For more fun, students can write example test
questions on their study guide and exchange them
with a partner. They can answer their partner’s test
questions for bonus points!
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Socio-affective Strategy Example-
Think, Pair, Share!
Students answer questions aloud to the
class before, during and after reading.
• Allow students to choose which
partner shares the information
• Step 1: Teachers ask students to think • Group students in a creative way
about a topic independently. (eg. group by same birthday month,
• Step 2: Students are paired with
another student.
Other same favorite food, same country,
etc.)
• Expand the share into whole class
• Step 3: Students share their ideas about
a topic with their partners.
Ideas discussions.
• Record responses in a mind map on
the board
• Have students write responses
For more fun, students can rotate anonymously if the topic is sensitive.
partners in a circle for activities with
multiple questions. This way, they will
have multiple opportunities to share.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
What is Styles and Strategy-based Instruction?
• A learner-focused teaching approach
• It combines learning styles and
learning strategies with classroom
activities.
• Students are given the opportunity to
understand not only what they learn,
but also how to learn the language
more effectively and efficiently.
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
• Learners are essentially learning how It is free to use and share.

to learn based on their learning style.

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Phases of Strategy-Based Instruction

Awareness- Personalization
Preparation Training Practice
Raising of Strategies

This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with

funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Phase 1: Preparation
• Goal: find out how much students already
know about and can use strategies
• Teachers can’t assume that students don’t
know about strategies.
• Students have most likely developed some
strategies previously.
• The thing is that they may not use them
systematically, and they may not use them “Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License.
It is free to use and share.
well.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Phase 2: Awareness-Raising
• Goal: alert learners about strategies they might never
have thought of or may have thought about but had
never used
• Teachers raise awareness about:
• what the learning process may consist of
• their learning style preferences or general approaches to
learning
• the kinds of strategies that they already use, as well as
those suggested by the teacher or classmates
• the amount of responsibility that they take for their a Pixabay License. It is free to use and
learning “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under
share.

• approaches that can be used to evaluate the students’

strategy use
• These strategies are always explicitly (directly) taught
by instructors.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Phase 3: Training
• Goal: explicitly teach how, when, and
why certain strategies can be used to
learn language
• Teachers…
• describe, model, and give examples of
possibly useful strategies.
• ask for additional examples from students
based on the students’ own learning
experiences.
• lead small-group or whole-class discussions
about strategies (why they are used; “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to
planning an approach; evaluating the use and share.

effectiveness, etc.).
• encourage their students to experiment
with a broad range of strategies.
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Phase 4: Practice
• Goal: students experiment with a broad range
of strategies
• Learners need many opportunities to try
strategies of a variety of tasks
• Teachers should create “strategy-friendly”
activities that…
• reinforce strategies that have already been dealt
with.
• allow students time to practice the strategies at the
same time they are learning the course content.
• include explicit reminders of strategies being used
while completing the task. “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay via Pixabay is licensed under
a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

• During the activity, students should…

• plan the strategies that they will use.
• pay attention to particular strategies while they are
being used.
• reflect on their use of strategies.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Phase 5: Personalization of Strategies
• Goal: students create their own versions of
strategies learned, evaluate to see how they
are using the strategies, and then think about
how to use these strategies in other situations.
• To make sure that learners continue to use the
strategies, teachers can…
• use the course material they already have and then
determine which strategies might be inserted.
• start with a set of strategies that they wish to focus “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use
and share.

on and design activities around them.

• insert strategies randomly into the lessons when
appropriate.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
In order for students to reconsider
their ways of learning and learn new
strategies to fit their learning styles,
they need to learn to think about
“Untitled” by Arek Socha via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

their thinking and understand the way they learn.

Now, let’s look at metacognition, a process that explains how students

can become aware of their thinking and learning strategies.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Metacognition – Some Quotes
“Metacognitive strategies enable learners to play an active role in the
process of learning, to manage and direct their own learning…” (Chari
et al, as cited in Rahimi & Katal, 2011)

“…developing students’ critical thinking skills is facilitated through

metacognition.” (Magno, 2010)

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Metacognition
• Metacognitive strategies help
students understand the way they
learn.
• They help students “think” about their
thinking and make their thinking
process visible to themselves and
others.
• This helps them learn problem solving
skills.
• An example might be when students
notice which words they don’t “Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
=-

understand, or when they stopped

understanding something they heard
or read.
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Metacognition
Students use metacognition when they
are aware of their own learning
strategies and mental processes.
For example:
• A student consciously uses the skills of
predicting and inferring when they
read a story.
• A student is aware of her kinesthetic
learning style and chooses to tap a
rhythm with her finger when learning
new material.
.
• A student circles unfamiliar words in “Untitled” by OpenClipart-Vectors via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share

the text and decides how to figure out

their meaning.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Primary Components of Metacognition
As teachers, we can help learners develop the following strategies:
• Preparing and planning for learning.
• Selecting and using learning strategies.
• Monitoring strategy use.
• Organizing various strategies.
• Evaluating strategy use and learning.
It is important for L2 learners to become self-directed learners in order for
them to be able to handle the language demands they will experience
outside the language classroom in real life academic, social, and professional
contexts. (Anderson, 2002)
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by FHI 360
Using Metacognitive Strategies
Successful learners know how to:

Plan and Organize

Monitor their Own Work

Self-Reflect

Direct their Own Learning

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Metacognitive Strategies
The following reading strategies involve learners taking an active role in their
own learning process.

1. Relate the text to oneself

2. Relate the text to the world
3. Think aloud to interact with the text Strategies
4. Make inferences from the text
5. Create mental images of what was read
6. Guess the meaning of new words in context
7. Identify main ideas in a text
8. Monitor text comprehension
9. Summarize and synthesizing texts
10. Predict what happens nextThis is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
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by FHI 360
Metacognitive Strategy Example
Think Aloud and Self-Reflect
Technique
• Think-aloud requires readers to
stop and reflect on what they do
and don’t understand when
listening or reading.
• Teachers model think aloud
strategies to make their own
thinking and comprehension “Untitled” by Mohamed via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

process visible.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Metacognitive Strategy Example
Teachers can model their thinking process using the Think
Aloud strategy, such as:
Teacher reads: ‘’We had to vacate the house.’’
Teacher says: “When I see the word vacate, I think of
vacation, which means to go away somewhere. So maybe
vacate means they had to go away or leave the house.”

Students are taught to respond using prompts such as:

“This reminds me of . . . ,”
“I wonder if. . . ,”
“I got stuck on the word . . .” “Untitled” by Mohamed via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

They can also reflect in writing by responding to the following

prompts:
“What I learned…”
“I would like to learn more about….”

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Ways to Teach Metacognitive Strategies
• Incorporate metacognitive strategies into lessons.
• Model and explain the usefulness of strategies, so students will agree
to the added effort that strategies require in the learning process.
• Continue training students to monitor their own use of metacognitive
strategies using lesson exit slips and self-checklists.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Critical Thinking Skills
Learners can use metacognitive
strategies to develop critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking is the ability to

think clearly and rationally about
what to do or what to believe. “Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

(Lau & Chan, 2019)

It is important to think critically to be successful in learning and in life.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
 Critical Thinking Skills
Some examples of critical thinking skills
include the following :
• Understand the logical connections between ideas
• Identify, construct and evaluate arguments
• Detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
• Solve problems systematically
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
• Identify the relevance and importance of ideas
• Reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values (Lau & Chan, 2019)

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Foundations for Critical Thinking Skills
• The Bloom’s taxonomy of learning
presents 6 levels of thinking by
which teachers can categorize
student learning experiences.
• It starts at the bottom with basic
skills like remembering facts, which
have a low level of critical thinking.
• Understanding the topic and
applying it requires more complex
thinking.
• At the top are the activities that “Bloom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use
in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.
require the most critical thinking:
creating and evaluating.
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Foundations for Critical Thinking Skills

• By providing a hierarchy of levels,

this taxonomy can assist teachers in
designing learning tasks, drafting
questions and assignments, and Insert image if Danae is able to create one.

providing feedback on student

work that increases their thinking
and problem solving skills.
• Consider the activities used in your
class. Are students using higher “Bloom’s Taxonomy” by Tiera Day for University of Maryland Baltimore County is licensed under CC BY 4.0 for use
in the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State.
order thinking skills (HOTS)?
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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Bloom’s Taxonomy

The following academic language functions fall under the levels of

Bloom’s taxonomy:
[lowest] Remembering: Recalling information, listing, describing, naming,
Understanding: Explaining ideas, summarizing, interpreting,
classifying.
Applying: Using information in another familiar situation.
Analyzing: Breaking information into parts and exploring
relationships between parts.
Evaluating: Justifying decision, critiquing, judging,
[highest] Creating: Designing, planning, producing, inventing.
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Higher Order Thinking Tasks
• Research shows that most classroom
instruction and assessment only
activates the two lower levels of
cognition, understanding and
remembering.
• To develop critical thinking and
problem solving skills, students need
to practice self-reflection and employ
metacognitive strategies at the
analysis, synthesis and evaluation “Untitled” by Junah Rosales via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.

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Higher Order Thinking (HOT)Tasks
To develop critical thinking, students need repeated
exposure to Higher Order Thinking (HOT) tasks,
assignments and assessments.
Tasks designed at the higher levels (analysis, synthesis
and evaluation) use some of the following action
verbs:
Analyzing: Analyze, examine, investigate, explain,
categorize.
Evaluating: Judge, decide, argue, debate, recommend,
criticize.
Creating: Create, invent, predict, plan, imagine, “Untitled” by Junah Rosales via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.
propose, formulate.
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HOT Strategy Example
“Untitled” by AxxLC via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Think about the type of writing prompts you create and ensure they are
written to engage students’ higher order thinking skills.
Examples:
Essay prompt written an the remembering level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to describe your last shopping trip. Provide as many details as
possible.
Essay prompt written an the analyzing level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to recommend ways to shop in your local supermarket that
would save someone time and money.
Essay prompt written an the creating level of Bloom’s taxonomy:
Write an essay to critique consumer shopping habits and suggest ways they
can improve them.
This is a program of the U.S. Department of State, with
funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
by FHI 360
Helpful Tip
When developing small group tasks or
whole group questions that elicit higher
order thinking and involve problem
solving, provide sufficient wait time.
“Untitled” by Gerd Altmann via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is free to use and share.

Language learners need time to think and

to process both the ideas and the
language.

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by FHI 360
Conclusion
• Strategies-based instruction is designed to…
• raise awareness about strategies
• train students in strategy use
• give them opportunities to practice strategy use
• encourage them to personalize these strategies for themselves.
• Metacognitive strategies help students understand the way they learn and
help students “think” about their thinking.
• Critical thinking skills allow learners to think clearly and rationally and to
better understand and function in the world around them.
• Metacognitive strategies and critical thinking skills can be taught via
strategies-based instruction.
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Reflection
How can you adjust your
everyday teaching methods to
include learning strategies and to
foster metacognition and
critical thinking skills?

“Untitled” by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay is licensed under a Pixabay License. It is

free to use and share.

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funding provided by the U.S. government, and administered
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References (Copyright)
This content is copyrighted, and cannot be adapted in any way, or distributed after the end of this course. It is not Public Domain or Creative Commons-licensed, and
therefore not for public use. Please do not save a copy for your personal use, and do not use it after the course ends.
• Cohen, A. D., & Dörnyei, Z. (2002). Focus on the language learner: Motivation, styles, and strategies. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to
applied linguistics (pp. 170-190). London: Arnold.
• Lau, J., & Chau, J. (2014-2019). What is Critical Thinking? Retrieved from: https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/critical/ct.php
• Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers, Retrieved from TESL Journal, Vol. IX, No.4
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html.
• Mango, C. (2010). The Role of Metacognitive Skills in Developing Critical Thinking. Metacognition Learning , 5, 137-156
• O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP
• Oxford, R. (1993). Language learning strategies in a nutshell: Update and ESL suggestions, TESOL Journal, 2(2), 18-22.
• Oxford, R. L. (2013). Language learning styles and strategies. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (4th ed).
Boston: Heinle & Heinle/Thompson International.
• O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition, CUP.
• Rahimi, M. & Katal, N. (2011) Metacognitive strategies awareness and success in learning English as a foreign language: an overview. Procedia -
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 2012, 73-81.

References (OER)
• Anderson, N.J. (2002). The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning, Eric Digest, April. Retrieved from:
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED463659
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2.5.1 Reading: Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking
Read this article published by American English. A study guide is provided below.

Article 1. Teaching Language through Critical Thinking and Self-Awareness

Find a study guide of the Üstünlüoglu', article below.
The cognitive approach to teaching and learning encourages the relationship between learner
thinking and language. Students need to use multiple thinking skills, such as problem-solving,
reflective thinking, analyzing, and critical thinking to learn language effectively. Critical thinking
is defined as a process of actively conceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating
information and knowledge by using observations, reason, experience and communication to
create guiding principles for action. This article presents ideas that language teachers can use to
encourage students to raise self-awareness and develop critical thinking skills.
Reading Link:
Üstünlüoglu, E. (2004). Language Teaching Through Critical Thinking and Self Awareness.English
Teaching Forum, 42(3),2-8. https://americanenglish.state.gov/resources/english-teaching-
forum-2004-volume-42-number-3 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

98
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 2

Evrim Üstünlüoğ lu
T U R K E Y

Language
Teaching
through
Critical Thinking
and Self-Awareness

I N RECENT YEARS LANGUAGE TEACHERS HAVE FOCUSED ON THE ROLE OF THE

learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. Focusing on the

learner is a natural outgrowth of a change in orientation from behaviorist to cog-

nitive theories of learning. That change has highlighted what the learner does

and how the learner processes information during the lesson rather than focus-

ing on what the teacher does.

The outgrowth of the cognitive approach has been perceived in language

teaching together with reflections about the relationship between thinking and

language. Teachers who want to promote thinking should try to observe how

students produce knowledge rather than how they merely reproduce knowledge.

Producing knowledge requires the use of a number of thinking skills such as ana-

lytical, lateral, problem solving, critical, creative, and reflective thinking (Rose

and Nicholl 1997).

2 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 12:57 PM Page 3

Although thinking skills can be learned by ence, irrational fears, acquired hostility, and
practicing, like playing tennis and swimming, inflexible ideas into the classroom so their
they require more effort than many teachers learning is limited to the surface (Paul and
realize. To emphasize thinking skills, a teacher Elder 2002; Kurland 2000).
must organize course objectives well and must Language teachers can activate critical
be aware of his or her own values, perceptions, thinking in the classroom by highlighting self-
assumptions, and judgments as well as those awareness; that is, they can help the learners
of the learners as these are closely related to have and show understanding of themselves
thinking (Heuer 1999). and their surroundings. By means of interac-
Various definitions of critical thinking exist. tive approaches and materials, teachers can
All include many of the same concepts. Scriven help students be aware of their perceptions,
and Paul (1996) define critical thinking as “the assumptions, prejudices, and values and can
intellectually disciplined process of actively and help students break old habits to construct a
skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, new point of view. It will take effort, but stu-
synthesizing, and evaluating information gath- dents will enjoy discovering themselves as they
ered from, or generated by, observation, experi- learn a language.
ence, reflection, reasoning, or communication,
as a guide to belief and action.” Perceptions
This article covers the rationale for critical We hear, see, taste, or feel stimuli by ACTIVITY 1 • ILLUSTRATIONS
thinking followed by sample activities for means of our senses. This process occurs so
developing thinking skills. Critical thinking is spontaneously that we tend to think of per-
one of the thinking skills that should be high- ception as a passive process. However, percep-
lighted in designing and improving language tion is an active rather than a passive process.
curriculum because the world we live in is get- It enables us to construct, interpret, and make
ting more complicated to understand, and conclusions about information we receive,
how we process information has become more rather than simply to record “reality.” Percep-
important than specific facts. Taking this idea tion is a process of making inferences.
into consideration, we language teachers can Through inferences we construct our own
encourage our students to go beyond surface version of reality. However, our version of
meaning and to discover the deeper meaning reality may be distorted by our past experi-
instead of merely using basic literacy skills ences, education, cultural values, and role
(Van Duzer and Florez 1999). requirements (Heuer 1999).
To help the learner become aware of his or PICTURE A
How critical thinking can be improved her own perceptions and how they may differ
in language classes from those of others, language teachers can
Critical thinking skills are not likely to use optical illusions in class. Activity 1 will
develop spontaneously. On the contrary, teach- teach students different ways of seeing and
ers must take a directive role in initiating and help them realize that people can perceive the
guiding critical thinking. Language classes are same things in different ways.
particularly appropriate for teaching critical Activity 1 PICTURE B
thinking owing to the richness of material and Begin by showing the pictures (right) one
the interactive approaches used. by one to your students and asking them what
Of the many concepts related to acquisition they see. Most of them will say that they see a
and improvement of critical thinking, self- picture of a woman (Picture A), some figures
awareness is one of the most important. (Picture B), and an old man on a boat (Picture
Through critical thinking and self-awareness, C). Be patient and wait for some students to
one can understand the relationship between perceive the pictures in a different way (verti-
thoughts and emotions. Although it is assumed cally or upside down); give them time to dis-
that they are independent, the truth is that feel- cuss their perceptions with the other students.
ings are based on some level of thought, and After a while, ask students what else they per-
thoughts generate from some level of feeling. ceive. In all likelihood, some will say they see:
Emotions play an important part in learning • The word Liar in Picture A (viewed diag-
because learners may bring learned indiffer- onally). PICTURE C

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M J U L Y 2 0 0 4 3
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 4

• The word LIFE in Picture B (seen by smiled at the little girl and rang the bell again.
focusing on the white spaces between the Still, no one answered. He waited and rang the
black spaces). bell a third time, and when there was still no
• A large bird with a man in its mouth in sign of anyone in the house, he said to the girl,
Picture C (when looking at the picture “I thought you said your mother was home.”
upside down). “She is,” the girl replied, “but I don’t live
This activity will help students appreciate here.” (Boostrom 1994, 201)
that images can be perceived differently, not After reading the joke, ask your students
only in language class but in real life as well. the following questions:
Students enjoy the lesson, and they get an • What made the deliveryman assume that
opportunity to discuss what they have seen, to the house belonged to the little girl?
learn vocabulary, and to practice structures
• Would you make the same assumption if
such as present continuous tense (e.g., “What
you were that deliveryman?
is the man in the boat doing?”).
• What would you do to ascertain that the
Assumptions house is the girl’s house or that anyone is
Assumptions are ideas that a speaker or a at home?
writer takes for granted, like axioms in math- • Have you made any wrong assumptions
ematics. Ideas that ought to be examined are lately? What were they? What was wrong
assumed to be true, so it is possible to build an with your assumptions?
argument that seems completely logical. How- Discuss with your students how difficult it
ever, if an initial premise is false, the result will
is to avoid making assumptions, and how
be wrong. By focusing on critical thinking
important it is, when thinking critically, to
skills, language teachers can help students
consider the assumptions we make. Only by
identify their assumptions, consider whether
doing so can we determine if an idea makes
those assumptions are justifiable, and under-
sense. Teachers can use the “AFAN” formula
stand how they shape students’ point of view.
(Rose and Nicholl 1997) to help students ana-
Since associating personal interest with collec-
tive interest (assuming that what is good for lyze their assumptions. AFAN stands for:
you is good for everyone) is a common trend, A=assumptions, F=For, A=Against, N=Now
clarifying assumptions is one of the basic steps what? Each of the letters raises certain ques-
of critical thinking (Heuer 1999). tions:
There are many techniques for revealing • A (Assumptions): What have I assumed?
assumptions. One is to have students read a What have I taken for granted? Do I
story and then explain their assumptions and need more information? What are the
give their rationale for those assumptions. The facts?
teacher must be careful not to label responses • F (For): What is the evidence for my
as right or wrong, or students will be reluctant opinion? Is it good evidence? Is it a fact
to speak. The following joke can help make or belief? What are the reasons for my
students aware of their assumptions. belief?
ACTIVITY 2 • A (Against): What are the alternatives to
One hot summer afternoon, a deliveryman my point of view? Can I see this another
drove up to a house, got out of his truck, and way? What if my starting assumption is
started up the walk when he noticed a little wrong?
girl sitting on the steps. “Is your mother
• N (Now what?): This is a question posed
home?” he asked her. The little girl nodded
to lead to a better assessment of the argu-
and said, “Yes.” So the deliveryman went back
ment, one that may produce a better
to his truck, slid out a large carton containing
final decision.
a mattress and box spring, and carried the
heavy carton up the steps to the front door. The AFAN formula can be easily applied
Red-faced and sweating, he pushed the door- to most assumptions. Try the AFAN questions
bell and waited. No one came to the door. He with the deliveryman joke above.

4 J U L Y 2 0 0 4 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M
04-0219 ETF_02_07a 6/23/04 11:19 AM Page 5

Prejudices • My friends are valuable to me because,

A major obstacle to critical thinking is preju- through them, I can share my happiness,
dice. Everyone has some prejudices because we unhappiness, and other important matters.
all have ideas about what is true, false, right, or • Money is valuable to me because it
wrong. Our prejudices related to patriotism, enables me to live comfortably.
race, religion, class, ethnicity, or gender affect the • Education is important to me because it
way we think. To be a critical thinker does not excites me and makes me a more inter-
mean that one has no opinions; rather, it means esting person.
that one is alert to ideas that may change his or • My career is valuable to me because peo-
her opinions. We language teachers should be ple respect me for what I do.
alert to data, information, and evidence used in
our classes to question our prejudices (Boostrom Ask your students to state what they value
1994). Activity 3 provides a way to do this. in order of importance. Make sure they give
their reasons. This activity will help make stu-
ACTIVITY 3
dents aware of their values and why they have
This activity can be structured or less for-
certain ones. The exercise also gives them
mal, depending on the level of the students.
practice in speaking and listening to English.
To make students aware of their prejudices,
give them concepts or certain words to con- Breaking habits
sider or open-ended sentences to complete.
Habits can be quite useful, especially habits
For example, ask your students what feelings,
that we repeat regularly, such as when we eat
ideas, or opinions occur to them when they
our meals and how we go to school each day.
hear the following words or phrases:
Without habits we could spend much of our
School or School is a place where I time deciding what to do next. On the other
_____. hand, when we need to think imaginatively or
Women or Women should _____. critically, we have to break habits. A good
Teachers or Teachers are always _____. thinker does not get stuck in a rut. Good
Marriage or Marriage is never _____. thinkers are imaginative; when one method
Education or Education is _____. does not work, they try a new one. Instead of
seeing things only one way, they see many pos-
Students can be made aware of their preju- sibilities. When good thinkers make plans,
dices and those of their classmates by dis- they are also willing to break them to follow a
cussing their responses. better idea. They create “versions” instead of
only one way (Boostrom 1994, 123).
Values
To practice creating new thought patterns,
Critical thinkers are thinkers who are aware have your students do the following activities.
of the values on which they base their judg- They may help students break habits of nega-
ments. Learners should be shown ways to iden- tive thinking.
tify their values because how students judge
ACTIVITY 5
what is said or written may depend on whether
they share the values of the speaker or author. Ask students to keep an appreciation jour-
nal in which they write about everything they
ACTIVITY 4 appreciate about themselves, their lessons, or
Have students write or discuss their five even their teachers. If they look puzzled, direct
most important values, and have them rank them by giving them the following sentences
those values from most important to least to complete:
important. First, act as a model for your stu-
dents by stating what you value. Here are • I like English lessons because _____.
examples of some things you might say: • I appreciate my family because _____.
• I value family, friends, money, educa- • I love the way my friend speaks with me
tion, and career. because _____.
• Family is most valuable to me because • I enjoy school because _____.
my family has supported me throughout It could be an interesting experience to find
my life. at least one positive sentence even from stu-

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dents who say they hate school or learning a • Form A: You believe that human beings
foreign language. are fundamentally bad and brutal, have
ACTIVITY 6 animal-like instincts, and always look
Shifting perspective is another way to break for pleasure. The best way to control
habitual negative thinking. The following human beings is to threaten and punish
activity requires students to use language that them.
describes what they want. For example, instead • Form B: You believe that human beings
of saying “I don’t want to be sick anymore,” are fundamentally good and can realize
they can say “I want to be healthy.” (Note that their potential if they are not prevented
the former focuses on sickness, while the latter from doing so. There is no need to con-
focuses on health.) Likewise, “I don’t want to trol human beings. The only thing to do
fail in English class” may be changed to “I want is to show them love and understanding.
to succeed in English class.” • Form C: You believe that human beings
Ask your students to write or say as many are neither good nor bad. Society and
sentences as they can that shift their negative the environment they live in determine
opinions to positive ones. Also ask them to whether they will be good or bad. The
state why they want to transform negative way to control human beings is to per-
habits into positive ones. As a follow-up activ- suade and reward them.
ity, discuss the benefits that students receive
3. Each group of students is a jury that will
from positive thinking.
decide on a punishment for a suspect who
A new point of view is 25 years old, has lost his wife and his job,
and has sole responsibility for the care of
We think that the way we see things is
his 10-year-old son. Explain that the sus-
exactly the way things are because of the influ-
pect was caught stealing food that costs
ence of egocentricity. Egocentricity is the
$40. Each group must judge the man’s
inability or unwillingness to consider other
actions and decide his punishment accord-
points of view. It results in a refusal to accept
ing to the philosophy assigned to them
new ideas, views, or facts. Trying to see a new
(even if they do not believe that philoso-
point of view—or at least being open to seeing
phy). They should not show their form to
something differently—is an important strate-
other groups.
gy for critical thinking (Boostrom 1994, 39).
Considering a variety of possible view- 4. Give the students 10 to 15 minutes for dis-
points or perspectives, remaining open to cussion. Then ask each group leader to pre-
alternative interpretations, accepting a new sent the group’s verdict to the entire class.
explanation, coming to a conclusion, and cre- 5. After each group gives its verdict, ask the
ating a new point of view are goals that can be group members how they felt having to
achieved in language classes to activate critical support a view they don’t believe in or lis-
thinking. Carefully chosen activities will help ten to a point of view they don’t share.
students identify their points of view, seek 6. End the activity by asking the students
other points of view and identify strengths and which philosophy actually appeals to them
weaknesses of those points of view, and strive and why.
to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of
view (Paul and Elder 2002). Activity 7 can be Evaluation
used to practice a new point of view. Evaluation is an important element of criti-
ACTIVITY 7 cal thinking. Critical thinkers use evaluation to:
1. Divide your class into 3 groups (If your class • become aware of their values and to
is large, you can have more than 3 groups.) understand why they are values.
2. Give each group Form A, Form B, or Form • consider different points of view.
C, each of which represents a philosophy. • recognize the difference between evi-
Instruct the group members to communi- dence and interpretation when exploring
cate with each other as if they believe in the assumptions.
philosophy represented on their form. • check the limits of their knowledge.

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• distinguish between prejudice and fact. weakens their independence. They ask why
Because evaluation is an important part of they need the foreign companies and what
critical thinking, teachers should focus their benefits come from foreign markets. They
assessment efforts on important learning have been selling diverse forest products in
goals, not just those that are easily measurable. their own local markets for years and have
Evaluation should be related to valid, reliable, been conserving the forest at the same time.
useful information (Gersten 1996). Native people have been asking for protection
During the process of evaluation, the num- of the rain forest and preservation of their tra-
ber of questions to ask is limitless, but you can ditional lifestyle (adapted from Corry 1993).
select questions according to the level of Make sure that all students understand the
thinking you want your students to follow. reading, including key vocabulary. As a follow
Thorpe (1992) categorizes questions into four up activity, ask such questions as the following:
types: summary and definition, analysis, Analysis Questions:
hypothesis, and evaluation. To promote criti- • Why have native people been losing their
cal thinking, teachers should ask their students land?
analysis, hypothesis, and evaluative questions
• What are the reasons for companies to
instead of summary and definition questions.
invest in the rain forests?
In reading lessons especially, teachers have the
opportunity to apply these categories. Activity • What are the reasons for some native
8 describes some possibilities. peoples to be cautious?
• What is the main concern related to the
ACTIVITY 8
foreign companies that have invested in
Read the following narrative to your stu-
rain forests?
dents:
Hypothesis Questions:
Rain Forests
• What would happen if the foreign com-
In the rain forests of the tropics, native panies hadn’t invested in rain forests?
peoples have been losing their land rapidly to
• What will happen if foreign companies
development. Companies that invest in the
continue to invest in rain forests?
rain forest have been taking over large areas of
land for logging, agriculture, cattle raising, Evaluation Questions:
and mining. When the forest disappears, so • Is it logical or illogical for native people
does the indigenous way of life. to work for foreign bosses?
Foreign investment has been increasing the • Do the foreign companies make the for-
demand for forest products, but it hasn’t est and native ways of life disappear?
brought the land itself back under native con- • What is your solution to the conflict?
trol. Corporations from industrialized nations • What are the advantages or disadvan-
have been inviting tribes to participate in the tages for native people working for for-
rain forest harvest, to gather nuts or copaiba eign companies?
oil. This cooperation with outside companies The questions above motivate students to
has been changing the native culture. More think critically more than summary and defi-
native people have been working for foreign nition questions, such as:
bosses and have been selling products to for-
• Who has been losing the land rapidly to
eign markets, rather than to traditional local
development?
markets. Companies that have been advertis-
ing rain forest products have been selling • What are the big foreign companies
products such as hair conditioner and skin doing on large areas of land in the rain
creams. Consumers are eager to support prod- forests?
ucts that can benefit native people without • Who is concerned about the investment
harming the forest, and they are happy to hear of foreign companies in rain forests?
that some profits return to the rain forest Classroom climate contributes to critical
countries. thinking. In an open and democratic class-
However, some native peoples are cautious. room, students feel free to express their opin-
They feel that reliance on foreign markets ions and feel confident doing so. In such class-
➪ 15

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EFL teacher may wish to adapt and use some or write (and discovers that /c/ can also have
all of them in the manner of the first 36 lessons. the sound /s/), but is not a problem now.
However, it is Bloomfield and Barnhart’s two 2. q and x should not be used in initial
preparatory steps and first 36 lessons that lessons—q because it occurs in connection
address the basic obstacles faced by speakers of with an unusual value of the letter u (for w),
non-Romanized languages when learning to and x because it represents two phonemes
read English. (ks or gz).
3. It is curious that rhyme is a common lin-
Conclusion
guistic feature in readers for children but is
Over 100 years ago, Henry Sweet (1899, only rarely used in EFL readers. Bloomfield
35), the leading British philologist of his day, and Barnhart’s use of rhyme helps EFL
wrote that, “…the greatest help in learning an learners master and distinguish English
alphabet is to establish definite associations phonemic values, a particularly difficult
between the symbol and its sound.” His claim
task for adult learners.
has never been seriously challenged, and
Bloomfield and Barnhart’s text, still in print References
after 43 years, establishes those definite associa- Bloomfield, L. and C. L. Barnhart. 1961. Let’s read:
tions—associations which happen to be the A linguistic approach. Detroit: Wayne State Uni-
major obstacle faced by learners whose L1 is a versity Press.
non-Romanized language. With the minor Sweet, H. 1899. The practical study of languages.
modifications suggested above, teachers can use London: Oxford University Press.
Bloomfield and Barnhart’s two preparatory Ur, P. 1996. A course in language teaching. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
steps and first 36 lessons to successfully teach
reading to these learners.
SCOTT ALKIRE has taught English as a For-
Notes eign Language for the Open Society Fund
1. In these examples, c and k both designate in the Czech Republic and Bosnia-Herze-
the same English phoneme [k]. This will be govina. He is currently researching polyglots
a difficulty later, when the student learns to in Central Europe.

L a n g u a g e Te a c h i n g … | Üstünlüoğlu
continued from page 7

activate and develop critical thinking in their Kurland, D. 2000. How the language really works:
students, language teachers need to set up The fundamentals of critical reading and writ-
ing. http://www.critical-reading.com/
tasks and activities and adjust their teaching
Paul, R. and L. Elder. 2002. The elements of criti-
programs and materials to promote such cal thinking. http://www.criticalthinking.org/
thinking. Teaching language through critical university/helps.html
thinking enables learners to recognize a wide Rose, C. and M. J. Nicholl. 1997. Accelerated learn-
range of subjective analyses, to develop self- ing for the 21st century. New York: Dell Publishing.
awareness, and to see linkages and complexi- Scriven, M. and R. Paul. 1996. Defining critical
thinking: A draft statement for the National
ties they might otherwise miss. Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking.
http://www.criticalthinking.org/university/
References univclass/Defining.html
Boostrom, R. 1994. Developing creative and critical Thorpe, J. 1992. Methods of inquiry programme.
thinking. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Text- Toronto: Ryerson Polytechnic Institute.
book Company. Van Duzer, C. and M. C. Florez. 1999. Critical lit-
Corry, S. 1993. The rain forest harvest: Who reaps eracy for adult English language learners. Wash-
the benefits? The Ecologist, 23 (4):48–153. ington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy
Gersten, R. 1996. The double demands of teaching Education. ERIC Digest EDOLE9907.
English language learners. Educational Leader-
ship, 53 (5):18–22. EVRIM ÜSTÜNLÜOĞLU is an assistant profes-
Heuer, J. R. 1999. Psychology of intelligence analy- sor at the Faculty of Education, Educational
sis. CIA: Center for Study of Intelligence. http: Sciences Department at Balikesir University,
//www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/index.html Turkey.

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2.6 Culture Spotlight: Critical Thinking Skills in American Classroom

CULTURE SPOTLIGHT

Critical Thinking Skills in American Classrooms

Overview
There has been a continuous emphasis on teaching critical thinking (i.e., higher order thinking
skills - HOTs) in U.S. classrooms. Critical thinking standards and objectives are now part of state
and national curricula. U.S. teachers are specifically focusing on teaching critical thinking
strategies across disciplines. As part of this overall emphasis, English language (ESL/ESOL)
teachers play an important role in helping students develop critical thinking through exposure
to extensive English language practice.
Directions: Read this section about learner-centered practices that encourage critical thinking.
This section also contains examples of actual strategies English teachers can use to encourage
higher order thinking skills. There is an optional discussion board following this reading where
you can on HOT skills and strategies you use as part of your classroom.
Way to Encourage Critical Thinking Skills
The general shift to learner-centered American classrooms promotes acquisition of critical
thinking skills in the following ways:

• Teachers act as facilitators and engage in problem solving with students, instead of offering
solutions that students can use.
• Teachers emphasize the importance of 'how' over 'what'. In other words, they emphasize
the importance of knowing how to get the right answers or how to construct a response
based on own knowledge and experience over knowing the right answer.
• Students are not expected to memorize facts, but they are encouraged to think about how
they can connect to big ideas and apply their existing knowledge to new situations.
• Teachers emphasize that mistakes are a normal part of the learning process. We can learn
from our mistakes if we have the right attitude.

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• We distinguish between feedback and grades. Feedback provides constructive suggestions
on how the work can be improved; grades assign a specific value for the work done.
• Class participation is expected and it is often a part of the course grade.
• Final projects are often group centered to allow learners an opportunity to engage and
display their knowledge and apply their skills collectively.
• Assignments often require research and problem solving.
• Tasks and assignments that require HOTs often presume no right answer, but they
encourage students to justify their responses.

Examples of Teaching Strategies that Encourage Critical Thinking Skills

Here are some specific examples of teaching strategies that encourage critical thinking skill
development:

• Start lessons and activities with a question: Phrase the questions to elicit open ended
responses that encourage students to draw on their experiences, make inferences, and
connect to prior knowledge.
• Brainstorm prior to teaching new material: Ask students to think about what they are
about to learn before they engage with an activity. Ask many questions; allow students to
explore and connect ideas.
• Compare and contrast: Allow students an opportunity to examine the topic closely and
consider its components by comparing it with other topics. Students can compare and
contrast everything they learn about (i.e., today’s topic and yesterday’s topic, main
character they are reading about to another character, objects they interact with to other
objects at school or at home).
• Classify and categorize: Students will practice understanding and applying rules while
engaging in classifying activities. You can ask them to sort objects, words, and definitions
into different categories based on common characteristics. Students think and reason whith
themselves while classifying.
• Make connections: Students can be continuously making connections between what they
read and learn about and real life situations. They practice critical thinking by identifying
patterns between objects, concepts, and events.
• Assign group work: Team work promotes discussion, debates, negotiations and healthy
arguments. Learners will practice these critical thinking skills while collaborating with each
other on common projects.
• Use role playing: Role playing requires students to step into someone else's shoes and
consider different points of view. They may need to assume opinions and perspectives they
disagree with, and, therefore, they will be asked to consider those. This can help learners be
creative and analytical.

How might you include strategies like this in your classroom?

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2.6.1 Optional Discussion: Communicative Language Teaching and
Cultural Scenarios

Communicative Language Teaching and Culture

Think about your own educational and cultural context. Consider communicative language
teaching and task-based learning, as well as the cultural behaviors and norms that are expected
in your teaching and learning content. Read the following scenarios from different perspectives,
and consider how you would respond.

Communicative Language Teaching Scenarios

Scenario 1: The teacher
Natalya has been asked to teach English to a class of intermediate students. She would like
students to speak a lot in class, so she designed a lot of communicative activities. One of the
activities was a debate. When she started the activity, the students just quietly sat in their seats
and no one wanted to talk. Why might this happen? What could she do?

Scenario 2: The student

Oscar uses a lot of communicative activities in his classroom. He regularly puts students in pairs
and groups to practice. A student and his parents came to see him after class to complain that
the students were not getting direct instruction from the teacher, and were spending time
talking to their friends in class. The parents want to know why other students are "teaching"
their children instead of the teacher. What might Oscar say to the parents to explain his
approach?

Scenario 3: The administrator

Asma started using role play and interviews in her classroom and they were a huge success.
Students love working with each other and participating in the authentic activities. Because you
have a large class, these activities can be noisy at times. One day the director of her school
walked into her classroom because he heard a lot of noise. Most of the other classes were very
quiet. The director asked her to come to see them and explain why her classroom was so chaotic
and loud. What can Asma say to support her approaches to language teaching?
Directions:

1. Choose at least one scenario to write about. (You may choose more if you wish.)

116
2. Write a brief (150-250 word) reflection on the challenge that arises in the scenario and
what advice you might give to the teacher. Include any cultural norms that are important to
consider in your own teaching context.
3. Read at least one of your colleague's posts and respond with a question, suggestion, or
meaningful comment.
OPTIONAL: Read and respond to as many peers as you like.

This discussion is not graded. However, please see this self-assessment rubric for scoring on
how well you address each part of the assignment. This assignment should be complete online.

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2.7 Cascading New Knowledge

Strategy for Teaching Diverse Learners

Now that you are familiar with learner-centered instruction, learner differences and critical
thinking, it is time to reflect on the module! Some of the questions in this graded survey
are open-ended, meaning that they require a full answer, drawing on your own knowledge or
feelings. You are encouraged to draft your answers somewhere else, so that you can save them
and revisit your thoughts later. Then, you can copy/paste or type in your responses to the
survey. This will give you a chance to take some time to reflect on the answers.Remember, the
purpose of this survey is for you reflect on your own. You will NOT receive instructor feedback
on this activity.

This survey is graded. It contains five questions and you can earn a maximum of 10 points. You
are allowed multiple attempts to complete this activity. You will not be given instructor
feedback for this activity. This activity should be completed online.

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Module 2 Check

Please answer one question to verify that you have completed all activities in Module 2. You
must choose "yes" in order to move on in the course. This quiz will count as 1 point toward
your grade. This activity should be completed online.

119