What is Research??

Research is a process through which an individual or the researcher helps to search the definite or useful information from the
number of respondents to evaluate or solve the problem-related questions. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation or
technique.
In other words, some people say that research is a systematized effort to gain knowledge and it is a process of collecting, evaluating,
and interpreting information to answer questions.
Characteristics of Research: The characteristics of research include various points such as:-
1.Research should be controlled-
It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by each other (whether it is internal or
external). If the research is not controllable, then it will not be able to design a particular research report.
2. Research should be rigorous-
It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related questions which are relevant and
appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two types of sciences such as physical and social sciences. These two
sciences are also varied from each other.
3. Research should be systematic-
Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or process then it will have to evaluate
or obtained the necessary information from the market in a systematic manner. It takes various steps to do a perfect or systematic
research process and all the steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.
4. Research should be valid-
It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by yourself (i.e,  researcher himself).
If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will also be ethical in nature.
5. Research should be empirical-
This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered information collected from
observations and real-life experiences.
6. The foundation of knowledge-
Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source for providing guidelines or norms
for solving different social, business, or governmental problems. It is a variety of formal training which enables us to understand the
new developments in one’s field in an efficient way.
Importance or Objectives of the Research :
Research objectives help to identify the full purpose or attention of your research with the type of basic questions that will be noted.
Explaining your research objectives means explaining what do I need to investigate and evaluate. The importance of research is also
known as the objectives of the research. It includes various points such as:-
1. To find out the real facts-
As we know, every type of research has its own object but the basic aim of the research is always to find out or obtained the
information from the markets and societies and their number of respondents. A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact
information for our problem-related questions.
2. To achieve the new thoughts-
In this objective of the research, anybody can find new thoughts from the research. Research is the process of finding the exact
information through proper observation, optimization, and experiments.
These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the information which is very necessary for evaluating the problem task.
3. To evaluate the information-
The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an appropriate or efficient manner so that they
can easily design the research problem and solve them also.
A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and methods, statistical analysis and procedures, and
another type of tables and graphs.
4. To test a hypothesis-
In this objective of the research, the researcher does the causal relationship between the variables (it can also be said that
the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing study represents the number of actions like these terms:
(a) Making a formal statement, (b) Selecting a significance level,
(c) Deciding the distribution use (d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,
(e) Calculation of the probability, (f) Comparing the probability.
5. To design or implement the research-
After the collection of all information, the researcher prepares the structure of a research design for the company so that they can easily describe
or identify the structure of a particular research theme. The research designs can be broadcasted into two forms such as experimental designs and
non-experimental designs.
After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements them in a problem and find out the optimum factor to solve them.
6. To improve the understanding-In this objectives of the research, the researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular topic
by asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or what knowledge could be assembled from a more focused
investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings.
Motivation for Research Study
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing
research may be either one or more of the following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.
 However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more factors such
as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
Types of research
Types of research can be classified in many different ways. some major ways of classifying research include the following.
1.Descriptive versus Analytical Research 2.Applied versus Fundamental Research
3.Qualitative versus Quantitative Research 4.Conceptual versus Empirical Research
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Applied Research (Action Research) It helps to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting, demanding a
timely solution. Ex.: Research to identify social, economic or political trends. Applied Research  The Field Research  Utilizes
the principles to know the problems with best possible manner. "The main objective of applied research is focused towards
obtaining solutions of pressing practical problems faced by society, industry, or professional institution"
2. Basic Research (Fundamental, Pure) It helps to generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems
that occur in organizations can be solved. The findings of such research contribute to the building of knowledge in the various
functional areas of business. Ex: Research studies concentrating on examining the financial statements, determining likely
mergers and acquisitions, analysing the market competition.
3. "Fundamental Research is mainly concerned with generalisation and formulation of theory. Basic research is nothing but
acquiring knowledge for knowledge sake.
4. Descriptive research It includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research
is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. Ex: Frequencies of shopping, preferences of people Analytical
Research In Analytical research one has to use facts or information already available and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material. Examining the fluctuations of U. S. International Trade Balance is a descriptive research and
explaining why and how U.S. Trade Balance moved is an analytical research.
5. Quantitative Research Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in
terms of quantity. Ex: Survey that concludes that the patient has to wait for an average time of two hours in the waiting room of
a certain doctor before being treated is an example of quantitative research. Qualitative Research • Qualitative research is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular
subject is a qualitative research. • Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover underlying motives of human behavior.
6. Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to interpret existing ones. Empirical Research Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone. It
is data based research coming up with conclusions capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
7. Exploratory Research • It is an examination into a subject in an attempt to gain further insight. It is a type of research conducted
for a problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection
method and selection of subjects.
8. Analytical Research • Involves in-depth study and evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain complex
phenomenon • The researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.Subdivisions of Analytical Research • • • • Historical Research Philosophical Research Review Research synthesis
(meta analysis i.e. analysis of the review already published)
research approaches Two types of research approaches are1.Quantitative approach. 2.Qualitative approach.
Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research.
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make
predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.
Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g. text,
video, or audio).
Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

In the above subsections we have discussed that quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. On
the other hand, the term qualitative research is most often used in the social sciences. Quantitative research differs from
qualitative research in many ways. Quantitative methods are useful for describing social phenomena especially on a larger scale.
Qualitative methods allow social scientists to provide richer explanations and description on social phenomena frequently on
smaller scale.
Qualitative methods can be used in order to develop quantitative tools. But qualitative methods can be used to explore and facilitate
the interpretation of relationship between variables.
Cases are chosen based on the way they typify or do not typify certain characteristic or participate in a class. In both the researches
data analysis differs considerately. Researcher must carefully code the data in a consistent and relative way.
In the last, we can summarize that qualitative research is basically exploratory - means hypothesis generating. On the contrary,
quantitative research is more focused and aims to test hypothesis. Qualitative research speaks to content validity. But quantitative
data are of the kind that may lead to measurement or other kinds of analysis involving applied mathematics.
Definition of Research Method
Research method pertains to all those methods, which a researcher employs to undertake research process, to solve the given
problem. The techniques and procedure, that are applied during the course of studying research problem are known as the research
method. It encompasses both qualitative and quantitative method of performing research operations, such as survey, case study,
interview, questionnaire, observation, etc.
These are the approaches, which help in collecting data and conducting research, in order to achieve specific objectives such as
theory testing or development. All the instruments and behaviour, used at various levels of the research activity such as making
observations, data collection, data processing, drawing inferences, decision making, etc. are included in it. Research methods are
put into three categories:
 First Category: The methods relating to data collection are covered. Such methods are used when the existing data is not
sufficient, to reach the solution.
 Second Category: Incorporates the processes of analysing data, i.e. to identify patterns and establish a relationship between
data and unknowns.
 Third Category: Comprise of the methods which are used to check the accuracy of the results obtained.
Definition of Research Methodology
Research Methodology, as its name suggest is the study of methods, so as to solve the research problem. It is the science of learning
the way research should be performed systematically. It refers to the rigorous analysis of the methods applied in the stream of
research, to ensure that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable and credible too.
The researcher takes an overview of various steps that are chosen by him in understanding the problem at hand, along with the logic
behind the methods employed by the researcher during study. It also clarifies the reason for using a particular method or technique,
and not others, so that the results obtained can be assessed either by the researcher himself or any other party.

Let us discuss some important research methods which are used for collection of data–
1. Survey method: Survey is a very popular branch of social science research. It can be defined as “specification of procedures for
gathering information about a larger number of people by collecting information from a few of them”. (Black and champion)
2. Observation methods: It means seeing or viewing. It is not a casual but systematic viewing. It may be defined as “a systematic
viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the purpose of gathering information for the specific study”. It is a
method of scientific enquiry.
3. Case method: It is borrowed from medical sciences. Just like a patient, the case is intensively studied, so, as to diagnose and then
prescribe a remedy. According to PV Young, “a comprehensive study of a social unit, be that unit a person, a group, a social
institution, a district, (a media organization) or community, is called a case study”. It is one of the popular research methods in
social sciences.
4. Experimental method: Experimentation is the basic tool of pure and physical sciences. However, it is now also used in social
sciences. Experimentation is a research process used to observing the cause and effect relationship under controlled conditions.
5. Historical methods: When research is conducted on the basis of historical data, the researcher is said to follow the historical
approach. It is a critical investigation of events, development, experiences of the past, the careful weighing of evident of the validity
of the sources of information of the past and the interpretation of the weighed evidence.
6. Comparative method: It is also known as evolutionary or genetic methods. Though it is a popular research method used in pure
sciences, it is now also used in the social sciences as well. It is based on comparison.
Research process
1.Formulating the research problem: At the very outset the researcher must select a problem that he wants to study i.e, he must
decide the general area of interest or aspects of a subject matter that he would like to inquire into. There are two types of research
problems. One is related to states of nature and other is related to the relationships between variables. After selecting the research
problem, the formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is required and it constitutes the first step in a scientific
investigation. To formulate the research problem a researcher has to follow two steps. One, understanding the problem thoroughly
and two, rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

2. Literature review: Once the problems is formulated a brief summary of the problem should be written down. In this second
stage the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. A good library will be a great help to
the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypothesis: In the second stage the researcher must collect all the necessary information regarding the
research problem from the literature survey. After this stage, the research should state in clear terms of the working hypothesis.
Working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.

4. Preparing the research design: In this stage the researcher has to prepare a research design. It is conceptual structure within
which the research should be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates the researcher by providing the relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

5. Determining sample design: The research must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. It is a plan determined before any data are actually collected or before obtaining a sample from a given population. The
researcher can adopt any type of sample design from the following—
(i) Deliberate sampling.
(ii) Random sampling.
(iii) Systematic sampling.
(iv) Stratified sampling.
(v) Quota sampling.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling.
(vii) Multi stage sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling.

6. Collection of data: Data collection is an important stage of a research process. A researcher has to collect primary data as well
as secondary data utilizing various tools of data collection. We will discuss the methods of data collection in a separate unit in
detail.

7. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories. The application of this category is to draw
data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

8. Hypothesis testing: After analyzing the data with the help of various data analyzing techniques the researcher is in a position to
test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.

9. Generalizations and interpretations: After the hypothesis testing the researcher can come to the end and he can generalize the
investigated findings to build theory.
10. Preparation of the report: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report or the thesis on what has been done by him. In
this stage, the use of text, font, layout are some important aspects.
Research design definition
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The design allows researchers to
hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.
There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.
The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of
a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.
An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design
that produces the least margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential
elements of the research design are:
1. Accurate purpose statement
2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to
control variance.
Need for Research Design
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby making research as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a
significant impact on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the entire research.
The need for research design is as follows:
 It reduces inaccuracy;
 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
 Minimizes wastage of time;
 Helpful for collecting research materials;
 Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and efforts;
 Provides an overview to other experts;
 Guides the research in the right direction.

Advantages of research design

1. Consumes less time.
2. Ensures project time schedule.
3. Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way.
4. Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going on.
5. Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
6. Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning of the work of the research
project.
What are the features of a good Research design ?
The features of good research design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical and so on.
Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good
design. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly,
a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is
considered most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is
related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may
be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research
problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research problems
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
1. the means of obtaining information;
2. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
3. the objective of the problem to be studied;
4. the nature of the problem to be studied; and
5. the availability of time and money for the research work.
Concepts Relating To Research Design:
Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
1. Dependent And Independent Variables:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income
etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be
quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values
quantitatively even in decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can
be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms, they are also known as ‘discrete
variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes
in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the
variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. For
example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more
variables determine demand, like income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to
the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables
like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.
2. Extraneous Variables:
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known
as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
children’s school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a
dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related
to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the
extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should
always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled,
and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident.
3. Control:
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the
term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables.
The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.
4. Confounded Relationship:The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an
extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
5. Research Hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The
research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a
research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that
are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research
hypotheses.
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:
When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be
in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is
termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family
income influences the school attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two
variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable - family
income is not manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of students who pay
their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have
regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher
conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the
student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent
variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.
7. Experimental And Control Groups:
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group’. On the
other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-
mentioned example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are
exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only
the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.
8. Treatments:
Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject to. In the example considered,
the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to
examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three
types of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.
9. Experiment:
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance,
an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be
categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the
impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile,
if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the
experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
10. Experimental Unit(s):
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied. It is
worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with great caution.
What are the 4 Types of Research Designs?
Now that we know the broadly classified types of research, Quantitative and Qualitative Research can be divided into the following
4 major types of Research Designs:
1.Descriptive Research Design 2.Correlational Research Design
3.Experimental Research Design 4.Quasi-Experimental or Causal-Comparative Research Design
These four types of Research Designs are considered the most close and exact to true experiments and are preferred in terms of
accuracy, relevance as well as quality.
#Descriptive Research Design
In Descriptive Research Design, the scholar explains/describes the situation or case in depth in their research materials. This type of
research design is purely on a theoretical basis where the individual collects data, analyses, prepares and then presents it in an
understandable manner. It is the most generalised form of research design. 
#Experimental Research Design
Experimental Research Design talks about the cause and effect of the situation and their relationship with each other. It is done
under the proper observation of independent variables on the dependent variable. The independent variable is always changed or
manipulated by the researcher in order to change the discourse of the research and to gain control over the research methodology. 
#Correlational Research Design
In this type of research design, the scholar establishes a relationship between two connected variables in the research project.
Further, it also completely non-experimental in nature and the variables are dependent on each other. 
#Quasi-Experimental Research Design
A Quasi-Experimental Research Design is referred to as a true experiment because it aims to intricately build a cause and effect
relationship between an independent variable with a dependent variable. One unique aspect about this research design is it doesn’t
base itself on a random assignment but rather it assigns subjects to diverse groups on a non-random basis.

#IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included
in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs
from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must
select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
#What points should be taken into consideration by a research in developing a Sample design ?
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the
Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The population of a
city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical
one such as state, district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his
study.
Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe
(in case of finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem
before a researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum
sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of
sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of
population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population
must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while
deciding the size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must invariably
be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population parameters
which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population. There may also be
important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample
design we would accept.
#Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only
the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to
be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are
several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously,
he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
Features of good sampling
The Features of good Sampling are Stated below
1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
2. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
3. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
4. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
5. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis and the element selection technique.
On the representation basis, the sample may be probability sampling or it may be non-probability sampling.

Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods with Examples

What is sampling?
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and
estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so
that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable insights.
It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can
be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country’s population, it is
almost impossible to conduct a research study that involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from
each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her indicative feedback on the drug’s behavior.
Types of sampling: sampling methods 
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these
two methods of sampling.
1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria
and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with
this selection parameter.
2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This
sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to
have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can implement in any market
research study.
Types of probability sampling with examples:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population using a method based
on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed
process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample.
Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

1. Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is
the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of a
population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a
sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building activities, it is highly
likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of
being selected.
2. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters that
represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex,
location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can
divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of
conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
3. Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a population at
regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular
intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she numbers each
element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/
Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
4. Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into
smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then
draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income divisions will
create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000,
$41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income
groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear
fruitful results.
5. Uses of probability sampling
There are multiple uses of probability sampling:
 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a population is
negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher.
Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate representation so that the data
is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to understand the people that could make their
point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries and socio-
economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate sample. This helps to
obtain well-defined data.
 Multistage sampling is a method of obtaining a sample from a population by splitting a population into smaller and
smaller groups and taking samples of individuals from the smallest resulting groups.
For example, suppose we’re interested in estimating the average household income in the U.S. For simplicity, let’s assume there are
100 million households. This represents the entire population we’re interested in.
#Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or statistician’s
sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-
probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as the
preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more
useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:
 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall
or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it
out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s
purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are
time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages
of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events
or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
 Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher.
Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For instance,
when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The
selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” are
excluded from the sample.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to
trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using
the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this
sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather
information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people
they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set
standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities
found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
#Uses of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is used for the following:
 Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption when limited to no
prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative research, pilot studies,
or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints, and some
preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have
them take the survey or questionnaire.
#How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?
For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The effectiveness of your
sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide the best sampling method.
 Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
 Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
 Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
 Select the method that works best for the research.
#Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling methods
We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate the whole discussion, though,
the significant differences between probability sampling methods and non-probability sampling methods are as below:
Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the
Definition samples from a larger population are chosen using a researcher selects samples based on the researcher’s subjective
method based on the theory of probability. judgment rather than random selection.
Alternativel
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
y Known as
Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection
Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.
 Since there is a method for deciding the sample, the Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the population
Sample
population demographics are conclusively represented. demographics representation is almost always skewed.
Takes longer to conduct since the research design
This type of sampling method is quick since neither the sample or
Time Taken defines the selection parameters before the market
selection criteria of the sample are undefined.
research study begins.
This type of sampling is entirely unbiased and hence the This type of sampling is entirely biased and hence the results are
Results
results are unbiased too and conclusive. biased too, rendering the research speculative.
In probability sampling, there is an underlying
In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is derived after
Hypothesis hypothesis before the study begins and the objective of
conducting the research study.
this method is to prove the hypothesis.
#What is Measurement Scale in Research Methodology ?
Measurement scales in Research Methodology are used to categorize and/or quantify variables.From what has been stated above, we can write
that scales of measurement can be considered in terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales are:
1.nominal scale 2.ordinal scale
3.interval scale and 4.ratio scale.
1. Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them. The usual example of this is
the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an
ordered scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have
no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the
numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players and come up with a
meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another. The counting
of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use
mode as the measure of central tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi-square test is the most
common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked
out.
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A
nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale
wastes any information that we may have about varying degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc. In spite of all this, nominal scales are
still very useful and are widely used in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data are being classified by major sub-groups of the
population.
2. Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The ordinal scale places events in order, but
there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently
used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to
be very careful in making statement about scores based on ordinal scales. For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s
position is 40, it cannot be said that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would make no sense at all.
Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences
between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but more
precise comparisons cannot be made.
Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable) without our
being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between
ranks 5 and 6. Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of central tendency is the median. A
percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of
statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
3. Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis for making
the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an
arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation of
the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. The
Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and cannot do with it. One can say that an increase
in temperature from 30° to 40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the
temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because both numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is
set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water. The ratio of the two temperatures, 30° and 60°, means nothing because zero
is an arbitrary point.
Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of
interval. As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency,
while standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate and the
generally used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.
4. Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to
be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on
a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it
remains a concept existing only in the scientist’s mind. The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a
page of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have absolute zeros and as such all minor traffic violations and all
 typing errors can be assumed to be equal in significance. With ratio scales involved one can make statements like “Jyoti’s” typing
performance was twice as good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is
not possible in case of an interval scale.
Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples.
Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be
carried out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with this scale but not with other scales mentioned above.
Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures of central tendency and coefficients of variation may also be calculated.
Thus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most precise), relevant information is obtained
increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise description. Researchers
in physical sciences have the advantage to describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioural sciences are generally limited to
describe variables in interval scale form, a less precise type of measurement.

Scaling Meaning in Research Methodology

Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two ways
viz., (i) making a judgement about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of
that characteristic and (ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s responses assigns him a place on a scale. It may
be stated here that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.)
and the lowest point along with several intermediate points between these two extreme points. These scale-point positions are so related to each
other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the second point indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as
compared to the third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to the fourth and so on. Numbers for measuring the
distinctions of degree in the attitudes/opinions are, thus, assigned to individuals corresponding to their scale-positions. All this is better
understood when we talk about scaling technique(s). Hence the term ‘scaling’ is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine
quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts. Scaling has been defined as a “procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols)
to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.”

Classification of Scaling techniques in Research

The Classification of Scaling techniques may be broadly classified on one or more of the following bases:
a. subject orientation;
b. response form;
c. degree of subjectivity;
d. scale properties;
e. number of dimensions and
f. scale construction techniques.
We take up each of these separately.
 Subject orientation: Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent who completes it or to judge the
stimulus object which is presented to the respondent. In respect of the former, we presume that the stimuli presented are sufficiently
homogeneous so that the between stimuli variation is small as compared to the variation among respondents. In the latter approach, we
ask the respondent to judge some specific object in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume that the between-respondent
variation will be small as compared to the variation among the different stimuli presented to respondents for judging.
 Response form: Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and comparative. Categorical scales are also known as rating
scales. These scales are used when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to other objects. Under comparative scales,
which are also known as ranking scales, the respondent is asked to compare two or more objects. In this sense the respondent may state
that one object is superior to the other or that three models of pen rank in order 1, 2 and 3. The essence of ranking is, in fact, a relative
comparison of a certain property of two or more objects.
 Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we measure subjective personal preferences or simply
make non-preference judgements. In the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which solution he
would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in some aspect or
which solution will take fewer resources without reflecting any personal preference.
 Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Nominal scales
merely classify without indicating order, distance or unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude relationships of ‘more than’ or
‘less than’, but indicate no distance or unique origin. Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin. Ratio
scales possess all these features.
 Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as ‘unidimensional’ and ‘multidimensional’ scales. Under the
former we measure only one attribute of the respondent or object, whereas multidimensional scaling recognizes that an object might be
described better by using the concept of an attribute space of ‘n’ dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.
 Scale construction techniques: Following are the five main techniques by which scales can be developed.
o Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc basis. This is the most widely used approach. It is
presumed that such scales measure the concepts for which they have been designed, although there is little evidence to support
such an assumption.
o Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they
are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication.
o Item analysis approach: Under it a number of individual items are developed into a test which is given to a group of
respondents. After administering the test, the total scores are calculated for every one. Individual items are then analysed to
determine which items discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and those with low scores.
 o Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some ranking of items with ascending and descending
discriminating power. For instance, in such a scale the endorsement of an item representing an extreme position should also
result in the endorsement of all items indicating a less extreme position.
o Factor scales may be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the
relationship between items. This relationship is typically measured through factor analysis method.

Scaling Techniques
Scaling technique is a method of placing respondents in continuation of gradual change in the pre-assigned values, symbols or numbers based on
the features of a particular object as per the defined rules. All the scaling techniques are based on four pillars, i.e., order, description, distance and
origin.

Comparative Scales
For comparing two or more variables, a comparative scale is used by the respondents. Following are the different types of comparative scaling
techniques:
Paired Comparison
A paired comparison symbolizes two variables from which the respondent needs to select one. This technique is mainly used at the time of
product testing, to facilitate the consumers with a comparative analysis of the two major products in the market.
To compare more than two objects say comparing P, Q and R, one can first compare P with Q and then the superior one (i.e., one with a higher
percentage) with R.
For example, A market survey was conducted to find out consumer’s preference for the network service provider brands, A and B. The outcome
of the survey was as follows:
Brand ‘A’ = 57%
Brand ‘B’ = 43%
Thus, it is visible that the consumers prefer brand ‘A’, over brand ‘B’.
Rank Order
In rank order scaling the respondent needs to rank or arrange the given objects according to his or her preference.
For example, A soap manufacturing company conducted a rank order scaling to find out the orderly preference of the consumers. It asked the
respondents to rank the following brands in the sequence of their choice:
SOAP BRANDS RANK

Brand V 4

Brand X 2

Brand Y 1

Brand Z 3
The above scaling shows that soap ‘Y’ is the most preferred brand, followed by soap ‘X’, then soap ‘Z’ and the least preferred one is the soap
‘V’
Constant Sum
It is a scaling technique where a continual sum of units like dollars, points, chits, chips, etc. is given to the features, attributes and importance of a
particular product or service by the respondents.
For example, The respondents belonging to 3 different segments were asked to allocate 50 points to the following attributes of a cosmetic
product ‘P’:
 ATTRIBUTES SEGMENT 1 SEGMENT 2 SEGMENT 3

Finish 11 8 9

Skin Friendly 11 12 12

Fragrance 7 11 8

Packaging 9 8 10

Price 12 11 11
From the above constant sum scaling analysis, we can see that:
Segment 1 considers product ‘P’ due to its competitive price as a major factor.
But segment 2 and segment 3, prefers the product because it is skin-friendly.
Q-Sort Scaling
Q-sort scaling is a technique used for sorting the most appropriate objects out of a large number of given variables. It emphasizes on
the ranking of the given objects in a descending order to form similar piles based on specific attributes.
It is suitable in the case where the number of objects is not less than 60 and more than 140, the most appropriate of all ranging
between 60 to 90.
For example, The marketing manager of a garment manufacturing company sorts the most efficient marketing executives based on
their past performance, sales revenue generation, dedication and growth.
The Q-sort scaling was performed on 60 executives, and the marketing head creates three piles based on their efficiency as follows:

In the above diagram, the initials of the employees are used to denote their names.

Non-Comparative Scales
A non-comparative scale is used to analyse the performance of an individual product or object on different parameters. Following are some of its
most common types:
Continuous Rating Scales
It is a graphical rating scale where the respondents are free to place the object at a position of their choice. It is done by selecting and marking a
point along the vertical or horizontal line which ranges between two extreme criteria.
For example, A mattress manufacturing company used a continuous rating scale to find out the level of customer satisfaction for its new comfy
bedding. The response can be taken in the following different ways (stated as versions here):

In the above diagram, the initials of the employees are used to denote their names.

Non-Comparative Scales
A non-comparative scale is used to analyse the performance of an individual product or object on different parameters. Following are some of its
most common types:
Continuous Rating Scales
It is a graphical rating scale where the respondents are free to place the object at a position of their choice. It is done by selecting and marking a
point along the vertical or horizontal line which ranges between two extreme criteria.
For example, A mattress manufacturing company used a continuous rating scale to find out the level of customer satisfaction for its new comfy
bedding. The response can be taken in the following different ways (stated as versions here):
The above diagram shows a non-comparative analysis of one particular product, i.e. comfy bedding. Thus, making it very clear that the
customers are quite satisfied with the product and its features.
Itemized Rating Scale
Itemized scale is another essential technique under the non-comparative scales. It emphasizes on choosing a particular category among the
various given categories by the respondents. Each class is briefly defined by the researchers to facilitate such selection.
The three most commonly used itemized rating scales are as follows:
 Likert Scale: In the Likert scale, the researcher provides some statements and ask the respondents to mark their level of agreement or
disagreement over these statements by selecting any one of the options from the five given alternatives.
For example, A shoes manufacturing company adopted the Likert scale technique for its new sports shoe range named Z sports shoes.
The purpose is to know the agreement or disagreement of the respondents.
For this, the researcher asked the respondents to circle a number representing the most suitable answer according to them, in the
following representation:
 1 – Strongly Disagree
 2 – Disagree
 3 – Neither Agree Nor Disagree
 4 – Agree
 5 – Strongly Agree

STRONGLY NEITHER AGREE AGRE STRONGLY

STATEMENT DISAGREE
DISAGREE NOR DISAGREE E AGREE

Z sports shoes are very light 1 2 3 4 5

weight

Z sports shoes are extremely 1 2 3 4 5

comfortable

Z sports shoes look too trendy 1 2 3 4 5

I will definitely recommend Z 1 2 3 4 5

sports shoes to friends, family
and colleagues

The above illustration will help the company to understand what the customers think about its products. Also, whether there is any need for
improvement or not.
 Semantic Differential Scale: A bi-polar seven-point non-comparative rating scale is where the respondent can mark on any of the
seven points for each given attribute of the object as per personal choice. Thus, depicting the respondent’s attitude or perception towards
the object.

For example, A well-known brand for watches, carried out semantic differential scaling to understand the customer’s attitude towards
its product. The pictorial representation of this technique is as follows:
From the above diagram, we can analyze that the customer finds the product of superior quality; however, the brand needs to focus more on the
styling of its watches.
 Stapel Scale: A Stapel scale is that itemized rating scale which measures the response, perception or attitude of the respondents for a
particular object through a unipolar rating. The range of a Stapel scale is between -5 to +5 eliminating 0, thus confining to 10 units.

For example, A tours and travel company asked the respondent to rank their holiday package in terms of value for money and user-
friendly interface as follows:

With the help of the above scale, we can say that the company needs to improve its package in terms of value for money. However, the decisive
point is that the interface is quite user-friendly for the customers.
Conclusion
Scaling techniques provide a clear picture of the product life cycle and the market acceptability of the products offered. It facilitates product
development and benchmarking through rigorous market research.