Research Methodology - Class Notes

UNIT -1
Introduction: The word research is composed of two syllables “Re” and “Search”.
“Re” is the prefix meaning ‘Again or over again or a new’ and “Search” is the latter
meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’. Together they form, a
careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge
undertaken to establish principles / policies.
Meaning of Research: Research can be defined as
1. Search for knowledge
2. Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant answers on any taken up
specific topic.
3. Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4. Research is a movement from the unknown to the known.
5. It is the voyage of discovery
Clifford Woody - Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define
research as "the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing, to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice“.

Bulmer- Research is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid

knowledgeabout the social world.
Thus research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method for
finding solution to a problem.
Objectives of Research: The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by
applyingscientific procedures. In other words, the main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and has not yet been discovered. Although every research study
has its own specific objectives, the research objectives may be broadly grouped as
follows:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory
or formulative research studies)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(descriptive research studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (diagnostic research studies)
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing
researchstudies)

Motivation in Research: The intention of doing research may be one or more of the
following:
1. Get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
2. Face the challenges in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problemsinitiates research
3. Intellectual joy of doing some creative work
4. Service to society
5. Get respect.
Factors like directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desireto understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the
like may as well motivate people to carry research.
Types of Research:
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types.
The main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails
at the time of study.The term ‘ex post facto research‘ is quite often used for descriptive
research studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing
feature of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here.
He/she has to only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
attempts to examine phenomena, such as the consumers‘ preferences, frequency of
purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability of the researchers to control the variables,
ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by them to discover the causes of the
selected problem. The methods of research adopted in conducting descriptive research
are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and comparative methods.
Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available
facts or information, and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.
Descriptive is fact finding to describe the state of affairs
Analytical Research is using already available information and analyse to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
2. Applied Vs Fundamental Research
An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
industry, a business organization, or the society is known as applied research.
Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting
a concrete social or business problem

Fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a theory. In

other words, ―Gathering knowledge for knowledge‘s sake is termed pure or basic
research (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or
concerning some natural phenomenonare instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise,
studies focusing on human behaviour also fall under the category of fundamental
research.
Applied aims at finding a solution to the problem faced by the society/ organisation.
Fundamental Research is concerned with generalization and formulation of a
theory
3. Quantitative Vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in
terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available
statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which
includes correlation, regressions and time series analysis etc
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the
aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of
qualitative research is Motivation Research‘, which investigates into the reasons for
certain human behavior. The main aim of this type of research is discovering the
underlying motives and desires of in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed
in such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association
tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative researchis particularly significant
in the context of behavioral sciences, which aim at discovering the underlying motives
of human behaviour.
Quantitative research is based on quantitative measurements of some
characteristicsQualitative research is concerned with qualitative phemomenon
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for
reinterpreting the existing ones.
Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation or
experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based,
which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or
observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in
which it is important to first collect the facts and theirsources, and actively take steps to
stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of research, the researcher
first formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or
disprove the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which
according to him/her would manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired
information.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
The results obtained by using the experimental or empirical studies are considered to be
the mostpowerful evidences for a given hypothesis.
Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas
Empirical research is data based research which relies on observation or
experience.
5. Some other types of research
 one-time research or longitudinal research- depends upon the time of doing
research
 field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research-
depends upon theenvironment in which research is carried on.
 clinical or diagnostic research- in-depth approaches or case study method
may beemployed to analyse the basic causal relations
 Exploratory research- consist of substantial structure and specific
hypotheses to beverified
 Historical Research- sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are
utilized to studypast events or ideas.
Research Approaches: The above description of the types of research shows that there
are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach.
Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into
Inferential research - inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sampleof population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine
its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics
Experimental research- characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables
Simulation research- Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits
an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled
conditions
Qualitative approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in
the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are
used.
Significance of Research:
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes the
development oflogical habits of thinking.
 Research provides the basis for all government policies in our economic

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problemsof business and industry
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and inseeking answers to various social problems.
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerismor a way to attain a high position in the social structure
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creativework
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new
theories.
Research Methods versus Methodology:
Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or techniques thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research operations.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study
the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behindthem

Research Method Research methodology

Research methods refers to all those Research methodology is a way to

methods/techniques that are used for systematically solve the research
conduction of research. Research problem.
methods or techniques
The scope of research methodology is
wider thanthat of research methods
It involves conduction of Techniques that can be used to conduct
experiments, tests,surveys etc theexperiments, tests etc

Aims at finding a solution to the Aims at employment of correct

researchproblem procedure to findthe solution

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
Research and Scientific Method:
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have
already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the
researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the
repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and general
situations.”

The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may
vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific
method.
Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science)
and thatmethod is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences
consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind
whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the
Scientific Method and is a man of science.”
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The
ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
The scientific method is, based on the following basic postulates:
1. It relies on empirical evidence
2. It utilizes relevant concepts
3. It is committed to only objective considerations
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate
and correctstatements about population objects
5. It results into probabilistic predictions
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in
testing theconclusions through replication
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific
theories
Scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method
free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a
phenomenon capableof being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and a method that implies internalconsistency
Importance of Knowing How Research is Done:
The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
 The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers
and enablesthem to do research properly. It helps them to develop disciplined thinking
or a ‘bent of mind‘ to objectively observe the field
 The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize
the researchfindings with confidence;
 The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools
that help him/her to make the observations objectively and
 The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate
research and make rational decisions.

Research Process:
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
researchand the desired sequencing of these steps. The following Figure well illustrates a
research process.

The various steps in a research process are as follows:

 formulating the research problem
 extensive literature survey
 developing the hypothesis
 preparing the research design
 determining sample design
 collecting the data
 execution of the project
 analysis of data
 hypothesis testing
 generalisations and interpretation
 preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

(1) Formulating a Research problem: In research process, the first step a researcher
does is formulate a problem and define it properly. Research forms a circle. It starts
with a problem and ends with a solution to the problem.
A research problem is anything that a researcher finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a
difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not
working well as it was expected (Creswell, 2009)
A problem statement consists of four parts:
 the ideal
 the reality or real situation
 the consequences or impacts,
 what the study wants to address or the aim of the study.
(2) Extensive Literature Survey: abstracting and indexing Journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc.
(3) Development of Working Hypothesis: A tentative assumption made to test its
logical or empirical consequences. The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area and keep him on right track
Steps to develop a working hypothesis:
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives inseeking a solution
 Examination of data and records,
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
 Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems
 Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on
a limitedscale with interested parties and individuals.
(4) Prepare the Research Design: state the conceptual structure within which
Research will beconducted
Several research designs- Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing.
Experimental design can be either informal or formal

(5) Determining Sample Design:Census Survey, Sample Survey Types of Sampling

 Deliberate sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Quota sampling
 Cluster sampling and area sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
 Sequential sampling

(6) Data Collection:

 Observation
 Personal Interview
 Telephone Interview
 Questionaires
 Schedules

(7) Execution of the Project: In a systematic manner and time

(8) Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw
data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
(9) Hypothesis Testing: Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for testing the hypotheis. The hypotheses may be tested
through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of
research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
(10) Generalization and Interpretations: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, researcher may arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact,
the real value ofresearch lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basisof some theory. It is known as interpretation.
(11) Report or thesis writing:
(a) layout
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
• Preliminary pages
• Main text
• End matter
(b) concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as
‘it seems,’‘there may be’, and the like.
(c) Charts and illustrations should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
(d) various constraints experienced in conducting research operations must be
mentioned.
Criteria of Good Research: Whatever may be the types of research works and studies,
one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific
method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following
criteria.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
anotherresearcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity
of what has already been attained. 3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yieldresults that areas objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimatetheir effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and
the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the
data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps
to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules.
Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole
whereas deduction is the process ofreasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for
external validity to researchresults.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.Some of the important problems are as follows:
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great
impediment for researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers.
Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of
the work, which goes in the name ofresearch is not methodologically sound. Research to
many researchers and even to their guides, ismostly a scissor and paste job without any
insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, viz., the research
results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of
research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects,
researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such, efforts
should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on
the other side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remains
untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be
made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic
researches. There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry
interaction program so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to
be researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the
material suppliedby them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often
reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy
seems to be sacrosanct to business organizations in the country so much so that it proves
an impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the
confidence that thein formation/data obtained from a businessunit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This
problem can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list
of subjects on which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention
should be given toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of
applied science which are of immediate concern to theindustries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a
code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays
in the completion ofresearch studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that
efficient secretarial assistanceis made available to researchers and that too well in time.
University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of
the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports,
etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. This problem is
felt more in libraries which are away in places from Delhi and/or the state capitals. Thus
efforts should be made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental
publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government andother agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the
problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because
of differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems
relating tothe process of data collection and related things

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
UNIT 2
Defining the Research Problem:
Research Problem:
The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the
research problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to
make it amenableor susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an
unanswered question that a researcher might encounter in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation, which he/shewould like to answer or find a solution to.
A research problem is generally said to exist if the following conditions emerge
(Kothari, 1988):
i. There should be an individual or an organization, say X, to whom the Problem can be
attributed. The individual or the organization is situated in an environment Y, which is
governed by certain uncontrolled variables Z
ii. There should be at least two courses of action to be pursued, say A1 and A2. These
courses of action are defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For
example, the number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of
action.
iii. There should be at least two alternative possible outcomes of the said courses of
action, say B1and B2. Of them, one alternative should be preferable to the other. That is,
at least one outcome should be what the researcher wants, which becomes an objective.
iv. The courses of possible action available must offer a chance to the researcher to
achieve the objective, but not the equal chance. Therefore, if P(Bj / X, A, Y) 10
represents the probability of the occurrence of an outcome Bj when X selects Aj in Y,
then P(B1 / X, A1,Y) ≠ P (B1 / X, A2, Y). Putting it in simple words, it means that the
choices must not have equal efficiencies for the desired outcome.
Above all these conditions, the individual or organization may be said to have arrived at
the research problem only if X does not know what course of action to be taken is the
best. In other words, X should have a doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a
group of persons can be said to have a problem if they have more than one desired
outcome. They should have two or morealternative courses of action, which have some
but not equal efficiency. This is required for probing the desired objectives, such that
they have doubts about the best course of action to be taken. Thus, the components of a
research problem may be summarized as:
a) There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.
b) There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who
wants nothing cannot have a problem.
c) There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the researcher wants to
pursue. This implies that there should be more than one alternative means available to
the researcher. This is because if the researcher has no choice of alternative means,
he/she would not have a problem.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
d) There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of
alternative means. This implies that research should answer the question relating to the
relative efficiency or suitability of the possible alternatives.
Selecting the Problem:
Criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.
 Personal Inclination.
 Resources Availability.
 Relative Importance.
 Researcher Knowledge
 Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection.
 Time-lines of the Problem.
 Urgency.
Personal Inclination: The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personalinclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he
would select thatproblem for his research work
Resources Availability: During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources
available. If these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available
to the selection place,then the selection of the problem is easy.
Data Availability: If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem
would be selected.
Urgency: Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent
problem must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
Feasibility: Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research
problem. The researcher qualification, training and experience should match the
problem.
Area Culture: The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is
also responsible for the selection of research problem.
Necessity of Defining the Problem: A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.
This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant
and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. Whattechniques are to be used
for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who
can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research
problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance.
Technique Involved in Defining a Problem:
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally
one afterthe other:
(i) statement of the problem in a general way
(ii) understanding the nature of the problem
(iii) surveying the available literature
(iv) developing the ideas through discussions and
(v) rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

Reviewing the literature:

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an

overview ofcurrent knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and
gaps in the existing research.
Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications (such as books and
journal articles), critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are
five key steps:
 Search for relevant literature
 Evaluate sources
 Identify themes, debates and gaps
 Outline the structure
 Write your literature review
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and
criticallyevaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Reviewing the literature: -Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with
the available body of knowledge in your area of interest.
Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable
contribution to every operational step. -Reviewing literature can be time-consuming,
daunting and frustrating, butis also rewarding. Its functions are:

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem - The process of reviewing the
literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to
conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to
understand the relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge
in the area

b. Improve your methodology - A literature review tells you if others have used
procedures and methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them.
Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing
valid answer to your research questions

c. Broaden your knowledge- It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in
which youintend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in
your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand how
the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d. Contextualise your findings- How do answers to your research questions compare

with what others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the
existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For
you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It
is important to place your findingsin the context of what is already known in your field
of enquiry.
Procedure for reviewing the literature:
i) search for existing literature in your area of study- To effectively search for
literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have in mind at least some
idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set
parameters for your search. -Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources
are:

1. books- BOOKS comprise a central part of any bibliography. Advantage-material

published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other
research to form a coherentbody of knowledge. Disadvantage-material is not completely
up to date, as it can take a few yearsbetween the completion of a work and publication in
the form of a book. Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate
these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if
contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading list.

2. journals -Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though
there is a gapof two to three years between the completion of a research project and the
publication in a journal. As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for
identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done as follows: -locate the
hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study; - use the internet - look at
the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles.
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more
detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to
seeif there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is
of relevanceto you, read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or
prepare a summary andrecord it for reference for later use.

ii) review the literature selected- After identifying books and articles as useful, the
next step is to start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are
associated. If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with,
use separate sheets of paper for each article or book. Once you develop a rough
framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that framework,
16
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read further,
go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far
developed. You may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically with particular
reference to the following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed

beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adoptedand the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations. Ascertain
the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.

iii) develop a theoretical framework- As you have limited time it is important to set
parametersby reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes pertinent to your
research topic. As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a
number of aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use
these aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go
through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have
developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information: - universal; -
more specifi c( i.e. local trends or specific program) In writing about such information
you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing down to the specific.

iv) develop a conceptual framework.

Writing up the literature reviewed: In order to comply with the first function of
literature review
i.e. to provide theoretical background to your study: -List the main themes that have
emerged while reading literature. -Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings
should be precise, descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.
-Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in
question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify
gaps and issues. In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e.
contextualising the findings of your study- requires you to very systematically compare
your findings with those made by others. Quote from these studies to show how your
findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findingsin the context of what
others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about yourfindings i.e.
after analysis of your data.

Research Design:
Meaning of Research Design: The most important step after defining the research
problem is preparing the design of the research project, which is popularly known as the
research design. A research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where,
how much, by what means etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research study. A
research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a

17
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. In fact, research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data (Selltizetal, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the researcher
is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the
final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study2.The purpose of the study
3.The location where the study would be conducted4.The nature of data required
5.From where the required data can be collected 6.What time period the study would
cover 7.The type of sample design that would be used
8.The techniques of data collection that would be used 9.The methods of data analysis
that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared

In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be
divided into thefollowing (Kothari 1988):
a) The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selectedstudy b) The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made
c) The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, andhow the information and data gathered are to be analyzed and
d) The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in thesampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out

Features of a Good Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:
i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required
for theResearchproblem
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis
which wouldbe adopted and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in
conducting the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any
research

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design:

1. Dependent and independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a

variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight,
income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable 17 in the strictest sense of the term.
However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or
absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values
quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But all
variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are
called ‗non-continuous variables. In statistical terms, they are also known as discrete
variables. For example, age is a continuous variable, whereas the number of children is
a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend upon the changes in
other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the

18
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
variablesthat cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent
or explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price,
then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if
more variables determine demand, like income and price of the substitute commodity,
then demand also depends upon them in addition to the price of original commodity. In
other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent
variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.

2. Extraneous variables: The independent variables which are not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous
variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is
a relationship between children‘s school performance and their self-confidence, in
which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In
this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it
is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken bythe researcher, it would
be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s)
on the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error‘. Therefore, a
research study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the
influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident. Control, One of the most
important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous
variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control‘is used when a researcher designs the study in
such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’
is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

3. Confounded relationship: The relationship between the dependent and independent

variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent
variable is not free from itseffects.

4. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by

adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis
is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent
variable. Generally, a researchhypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable
and one independent variable. Whereas,the relationships that are assumed but not to be
tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not
classified as research hypotheses.

5. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing research: When the

objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis testing
research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or nonexperimental
design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as
experimental hypothesis-testing research‘, whereas the research in which the
independent Variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non- experimental hypothesis-
testing research‘.

6. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in

an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group‘. On the other

19
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an
‘experimental group‘. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as
control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are
exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental
groups‘. A research design may include only the experimental group or both the
experimental and control groups together.

7. Treatments: Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental

and controlgroups are subject to.
8. Experiment: Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be
conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further,
Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely, ’absolute
experiment‘ and ’comparative experiment‘. If a researcher wishes to determine the
impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is
known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the
impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the
experiment isknown as a comparative experiment.

9. Experimental unit(s): Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots,

characteristics or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied.

Different Research Designs:

Types of research design: There are different types of research designs.
(1) Exploratory research design
(2) Descriptive and diagnostic research design
(3) Hypothesis-testing research design.

1. Exploratory research design: The Exploratory Research Design is known as

formulative research design. The main objective of using such a research design is to
formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for
developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose of such
studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore,
sucharesearchdesignsuitableforsuchastudyshouldbeflexibleenoughto provide
opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem understudy. The inbuilt
flexibility in research design is required as the initial research problem would be
transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data.

2. Descriptive and diagnostic research design: A Descriptive Research Design is

concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.
Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which a
variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study
analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic
research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with specific predictions or

20
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
with the narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual, groupor situation,
are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research
design falls under this category. As a research design, both the descriptive and
diagnostic studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped together.
However, the procedure to be used and the research design need to plan carefully. The
research design must also make appropriate provision for protection against bias and
thus maximize reliability, with due regard to thecompletion of the research study in an
economical manner. The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible
3. Hypothesis-Testing research design: Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are
those in whichthe researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or
more variables. These studies require procedures that would not only decrease bias and
enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally,
experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such
studies, it often refers to the designof experiments.

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs : Professor Fisher has enumerated three

principles ofexperimental designs:

(1) the Principle of Replication-the experiment should be repeated more than once.
Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so
the statistical accuracyof the experiments is increased.

(2) the Principle of Randomization- The Principle of Randomization provides

protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the
experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be
combined under the general heading of “chance.”

(3) Principle of Local Control- the extraneous factor, the known source of variability,
is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done
in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from
the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that
we can perform a two-way analysis ofvariance, in which the total variability of the data
is divided into three components attributed to, the extraneous factor and experimental
error. In other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field
into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided
into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned
to these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several homogenous parts is known as
‘blocking’. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factor fixed,
so that we can measure its contribution to the total variability of the data by means of a
two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variabilitydue to extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs.

(a) Informal experimental designs:

21
 Research Methodology - Class Notes

(i) Before-and-after without control design-A single test group or area is selected and
the dependent variable is measured. the treatment is then introduced and then the
dependent variable is measured again.
the effect of the treatment:the level of the phenomenon after the treatment-the level
of thephenomenon before the treatment.

(ii) After-only with control design-Two groups or areas (test area and control area)
are selectedand the treatment is introduced into the test area only.

(iii) Before-and-after with control design-

(b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).

22
 Research Methodology - Class Notes

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).

(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).

(iv) Factorial designs

23
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
UNIT -3

Design of Sampling:

Introduction: The use of sampling in making inferences about a population is possible and has
been in operation right from beginning. When one has to make an inference about a lot of large
size and it is not practicable to examine each individual unit, then few units of the lot are
examinedand on the basis of the information of those units, one makes decisions about whole
lot. For example, a person would like to purchase a bag of rice may examine a handful of rice
from the bag and on the basis of that he/she makes his/her decision about the purchase of full
bag.

Population - A group of individuals having same characteristics in same surrounding is known

aspopulation

Census - In census, we study about each and every unit of the population. Population means
total units of investigation area. In census, whole group related to investigation is investigated
and the information are collected, i.e. Census of population of a country, Census of import and
export, etc

Sample - A finite subset of statistical individuals in a population is called a sample and the
numberof individuals in a sample is called the sample size.

Sample Design: Essentials of Sampling For obtaining the unbiased and real result by a
samplingmethod, a sample should have the following factors (characteristics):

1. Homogeneity The nature of each and every unit of the population should not contain much
difference. If two or more samples are selected then they should be similar in nature not in their
response/output.

2. Representativeness The sample should represent all the characteristics of the population that
canbe possible only when the selection of items or units has been done unbiased and each and
every unit have an equal probability of chance to be selected in the sample.

3. Independency Each and every unit of the population should be independent. In other words,
theselection of a unit in the sample should not be dependent on the selection of other units.

4. Adequacy The number of units or elements which are to be selected in the sample should
be sufficient. If the sample size is not sufficient then results cannot be reliable. The more the
sampleunits in the sample, more reliable results would occur.

PRINCIPLE STEPS IN SAMPLE SURVEY The main steps involved in the planning and
execution of a sample survey are under the following heads:
1. Objectives The objective of the survey must be defined in clear and concrete terms.
Generally, in survey a investigation team is not quite clear in mind as to what they want and
how they are going to use the results. Some of the objectives may be immediate and some
24
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
far-reaching. The investigator should take care of these objectives with the available resources
in terms of money, manpower and the time limit required for the availability of the survey.

2. Defining the Population The population from which sample is chosen should be defined in
clear and unambiguous terms. The geographical, demographic and other boundaries of the
population must be specified so that no ambiguity arises regarding the coverage of the survey.

3. Sampling Frame and Sampling Units The sampling unit is the ultimate unit to be sampled
for the purpose of the survey. The sampling units must cover the entire population and they
must be distinct, unambiguous and non-overlapping in the sense that every element of the
population belongs to one and only one sampling unit. In a Socio economic survey, whether a
family or a member of a family is to be the ultimate sampling unit. Once the sampling units are
defined, one must see whether a sampling frame which is a list of all the units in the population,
is available. The construction of the frame is often one of the major practical problem since it is
the frame which determines the structure of the sample survey. The list of units have to be
carefully scrutinized and examined to ensures that it is free from duplicity or incompleteness
and are up-to- date. A good frame is hard to come by and only good experience helps to
construct a good frame.

4. Selection of Proper Sampling Design This is the most important step in planning a sample
survey. There is a group of sampling designs (to be discussed later) and selection of the proper
one is an important task. The design should take into account the available resources and the
time- limit, if any, besides the degree of accuracy desired. The cost and precision should also
be considered before the final selection of sampling design.

5. Method of Collecton of Data For collection of data, either the interview method or the mail
questionnaire method is to be adopted. Although the later method is less costly but there is a
large scope of non-response in it. In the cases, where the information is to be collected by
observation they must decide upon the method of measurement.

6. Data to be Collected Collection of data must be done in conformity with the objectives of
the survey and the nature of the data. After it is decided upon, one must prepare a questionnaire
or a schedule of enquiry. A schedule or a questionnaire contains a list of items of which
information issought, but the exact form of the questions to be asked is not standardized but left
to the judgment of the investigators. A questionnaire should be in a specified order. The
questions should be clear,brief, collaborative, non offending and unambiguous and to the point
so that not much scope of speculation is left on the part of the respondent or interviewer.

7. Field Work Organization Field work, itself has several stages and so it is to be well
organized.The different stages include training the field workers, supervising the field workers,
etc. It is absolutely essential that the personnel should be Introduction to Sample Surveys
thoroughly trained in locating the sample units, the methods of collection of required data
before starting the field word. The success of a survey to a great extent depends upon the
reliable field work. Inspection after field work by the adequate supervisors should also be
performed.

8. Summary and Analysis of Data This is the last step wherein inference is to be made on the
basisof collected data. This step again consists of the following steps:
25
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
a) The filled in questionnaires should be carefully scrutinized to find out whether the data
furnishedare plausible and consistent;
b) Depending upon the quantity of data, a hand-tabulation or machine tabulation is to be
drawn;
c) After the data has been properly scrutinized, edited and tabulated, a very careful
statisticalanalysis is to be made; and
d) Finally a report incorporating detailed statement of the different stages of the survey should
be prepared. In the presentation of the result, it is advisable to report technical aspects of the
design

Sampling and Non-sampling Errors: The errors involved in the collection, processing and
analysis of data may be broadly classified under the following two heads:

1. Sampling Error

2. Non-sampling Error

1. Sampling Error The error which arises only in sample survey is termed as sampling error.
This error arises because in sample survey a part of the population is only studied. This is the
reason why sampling error is absent in census. The main factors of sampling error are:
 Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling techniques for the
selectionof a sample
 Substitution of a non-selected a convenient unit of the population in place of a selected
unitto which the investigation is difficult leads to some biases in the sample survey;
 Bias due to defective demarcation of sampling units, particularly in area/filed survey;
and
 Constant errors due to improper choice of the statistics for estimating the population
parameters.

2 Non-Sampling Error The non-sampling error arises at the stages of observation,

ascertainment and processing of the data. This is the reason why the non-sampling error
presents Statistical Techniques in both the census and the sample survey. Non-sampling error
can occur at every stageof the planning or execution of census or sample survey. Non sampling
errors arise due to the following factors:
 Data specification being inadequate and inconsistent with respect to the objective of
thestudy;
 Error due to location of the units and actual measurement of the characteristics;
 Error due to ill designed questionnaire;
 Lack of trained and qualified investigators and lack of adequate supervisory staff;
 Errors due to lack of correct responses furnished by the respondents;
 Non-response biases occur if full information is not obtained on all the sampling units;
 If the objectives of the survey are not stated clearly, it may result in inclusion of the
units which are not to be included and exclusion of the units which are to be included in the
sample;
 Due to error in various operations of data processing such as editing and coding of the
26
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
responses, punching of cards, tabulation and summarizing the observation made in the survey;
and
 The errors may be committed during presentation and printing the results of the survey.

Sample Survey versus Census Survey: The advantages of sampling over complete census
maybe outlined as follows:

1. Sampling requires less time and labor than census because only a part of the population has
tobe examined. The sampling results also can be analysed much faster;

2. Sampling usually results in reduction in cost in terms of money and man powers. The total
costof the sample survey is expected to be much smaller than a complete census;

3. There is generally a greater scope in a sample survey than in census. Some inquiries may
requirehighly trained personnel or specialized equipment for collection of data, then the census
may be inconceivable;

4. In some cases a complete census is ruled out by the nature of the population. If there is a
population which is infinite and/or hypothetical, then sampling is the only option;

5. A sample survey gives data of better quality than a complete census, because in a sample
surveyit may be possible to use better resources than complete census;

6. If the population is too large, as for example, trees in a jungle, leaves in a tree i.e. we are
left with no option but to resort to sampling; and

7. If testing is destructive, then complete enumeration is impracticable and sampling design is

theonly method to be used in such cases. For example, testing the breaking strength of a chalk,
testingof lifetime of an electrical bulb, etc.

Types of Sampling Designs : According to the method of selection of sample, the sampling
schemes can be categorised as follows:

1. Non-probability sampling

2. Probability or random sampling and

3. Mixed sampling.

1 Non-Probability Sampling- In this method, the sample is selected with a definite purpose
in view and the choice of the sampling units depends entirely on the discretion and judgment of
the investigator. While selecting a sample, investigator tries to include each and every
characteristicsof population in sample. Non-Probability Sampling scheme can be classified as:

 Purposive Sampling In this sampling the sample is selected with definite purpose in
view and the choice of sampling units depends entirely on the discretion of the surveyor. This
sampling suffers from drawback of favoritism and nepotism of the surveyor.

27
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
 Judgment Sampling In judgment sampling respondents are selected on the judgment of
the surveyor with the hope that they will meet requirements of the study. The underling
assumptions are that the respondent truly represents the entire population. To find out the
potential guide for the food and catering technology a researcher go to the teachers of Hotel
Management Department may be the example of judgment sampling.

 Deliberate Sampling In deliberate sampling, deliberate selection of sample is made so

thatany important unit could not be leftout.

 Convenience Sampling In convenience sampling method, a surveyor selects the

sample at his/her own convenience, often as the study is being conducted. Convenience
Statistical Techniques sampling is based on assumption that the target population is
homogeneous and the individuals selected and interviewed yields similar information with
regard to the characteristics under study. If persons selected from restaurants to collect the
informationabout quality of the food, service, etc. are supposed to represent the population of
food takers. Such a sampling is known as convenience sampling

 Quota Sampling If the cost of selected random samples in each stratum is very high in
stratified sampling then the sampling units are assigned in a quota (fixed number of units) in
each stratum and the actual selection of units is left at the decision of the surveyor.

Merits of Non-Probability Sampling

1. This method of sampling is very simple;
2. After sample size determination with the help of planning, a suitable sample may possibly
beobtained; and
3. Important units or members may be included in the sample.

Demerits of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Predetermined view of selector effects the selection of sample which impure the result. This
effect does directly or indirectly on the process;
2. There is no place for probability in selection of units therefore sampling error cannot be
obtained;
3. There is no guaranty of validity of the results from the sample selected by this method; and
4. The attitude and biasedness of the investigator also affect the selection of sample that’s
why the results obtained by this method are not reliable scientifically.

2 Random or Probability Sampling The technique of random sampling is of fundamental

importance in the application of Statistics. Probability sampling is the scientific method of
selecting samples accordingly to some laws of chance in which each unit in the population has
some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the sample.

Merits of Random or Probability Sampling

1. No Plan for Selection There is no need to make any detailed plan for the selection of units.
2. Less Expensive In this method, money, time and hard work are very less.
3. Unbiased In this method there is no space for any biasedness. Every unit has same chance
of selection
28
 Research Methodology - Class Notes
4. Inspection of Purity Inspection of purity of one sample can be done by other sample. In this
method measure of statistical error can also be done.
5. Random Selection Selector has not to use his mind. He selects units at random.
6. True Representation of Population In this method real characteristics can be represented
through sample because it is based on the law of statistical regularity and law of inertia. In real,
itbecomes a small part of population.

Demerits of Random or Probability Sampling

1. Inappropriate This method is not appropriate where some units are so important to be
includednecessarily in the sample.
2. Less Representative It may be possible that sample could not represent the population if
sampleis not sufficiently large.
3. Less Independency This method is useless if the units of the population are dependent.

Difference between Probability and Non-probability Sampling

1. In non-probability sampling the selection of units are pre-decided whether in probability
sampling is based on chances.
2. Non-probability sampling is biased but probability sampling is unbiased.
3. In non-probability sampling, the errors are of cumulative in nature whereas in probability
sampling errors are less Statistical Techniques
4. If a sample, from a population with homogeneous and important units, is to be selected then
non-probability sampling is appropriate where as probability sampling is used in various kinds
ofpopulation.

3. Mixed Sampling If the samples are selected partly according to some laws of chance and
partlyaccording to a fixed rule, they are called mixed samples and the method of selecting such
samplesis known as mixed sampling. The merits of this sampling are the mixture of the merits
of both sampling. Selection of units is more reliable in this method because that is the
representation of various stages of population. In mixed sample no important characteristics is
left which is to be selected in the sample.

Measurement and Scaling:

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

29
 Research Methodology - Class Notes

SAMPLING DESIGN

research does not exist without sampling. Every research study requires the selection of some
kind of sample. It is the life blood of research.
Any research study aims to obtain information about the characteristics or parameters of a
population. A population is the aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of
characteristics and that comprise the universe for the purpose of the research problem. In other
words, population is defined as the totality of all cases that conform to some designated
specifications. The specification helps the researcher to define the elements that ought to be
included and to be excluded. Sometimes, groups that are of, interest to the researcher may be
significantly smaller allowing the researcher to collect data from all the elements of population.
Collection of data from the entire population is referred to as census study. A census involves a
complete enumeration of the elements of a population.
Collecting data from the aggregate of all the elements (population) in case of, the number of
elements being larger, would sometimes render the researcher incur huge costs and time. It may
sometimes be a remote possibility. An alternative way would be to collect information from a
portion of the population, by taking a sample of elements from the population and the on the
basis of information collected from the sample elements, the characteristics of the population is
inferred. Hence, Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back
to the population from which they were chosen.
While deciding on the sampling, the researcher should clearly define the target population
without allowing any kind of ambiguity and inconsistency on the boundary of the aggregate
setof respondents. To do so, the researcher may have to use his wisdom, logic and judgment to
define the boundary of the population keeping with the objectives of the study.

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TYPES OF SAMPLING PLANS

Sampling techniques are classified into two broad categories of probability samples or non-
probability samples.

Probability Sampling Techniques

Probability samples are characterised by the fact that, the sampling units are selected by chance.
In such case, each member of the population has a known, non-zero probability of being
selected. However, it may not be true that all sample would have the same probability of
selection, but it is possible to say the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given
size. It is possible that one can calculate the probability that any given population element
would be included in the sample. This requires a precise definition of the target population as
well as the sampling frame.
Probability sampling techniques differ in terms of sampling efficiency which is a concept that
refers to trade off between sampling cost and precision. Precision refers to the level of
uncertainty about the characteristics being measured. Precision is inversely related to sampling
errors but directly related to cost. The greater the precision, the greater the cost and there
should be a tradeoff between sampling cost and precision. The researcher is required to design
the mostefficient sampling design in order to increase the efficiency of the sampling.
Probability sampling techniques are broadly classified as simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, and stratified sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

This is the most important and widely used probability sampling technique. They gain much
significance because of their characteristic of being used to frame the concepts and arguments
in statistics. Another important feature is that it allows each element in the population to have a
known and equal probability of selection. This means that every element is selected
independently of every other element. This method resembles lottery method where a in a
systemnames are placed in a box, the box is shuffled, and the names of the winners are then
drawn outin an unbiased manner.
Simple random sampling has a definite process, though not, so rigid. It involves compilation of
a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique identification number. Random
numbers are generated either using random number table or a computer to determine which
elements to include in the sample. For example, a researcher is interested in investigating the
behavioural pattern of customers while making a decision on purchasing a computer.
Accordingly, the researcher is interested in taking 5 samples from a sampling frame containing
100 elements. The required sample may be chosen using simple random sampling technique by
arranging the 100 elements in an order and starting with row 1 and column 1 of random table,
and going down the column until 5 numbers between 1 and 100 are selected. Numbers outside
this range are ignored. Random number tables are found in every statistics book. It consists of
a randomly generated series of digits from 0 – 9. To enhance the readability of the numbers,
a the space between every 4 digit and between every 10 row is given. The researcher may
begin reading from anywhere in the random number table, however, once started the researcher
should continue to read across the row or down a column. The most important feature of simple
random sampling is that it facilitates representation of the population by the sample ensuring
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
that the statistical conclusions are valid.

Systematic Sampling

This is also another widely used type of sampling technique. This is used because of its ease
and convenience. As in the case of simple random sampling, it is conducted choosing a random
starting point and then picking every element in succession from the sampling frame. The
sample interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and
rounding to the nearest integer.
Consider a situation where the researcher intends to choose 10 elements from a population of
100. In order to choose these 10 elements, number the elements from one to 100. Within 20
population elements and a sample of size 10, the number is 10/100 = 1/10, meaning that one
element in 10 will be selected. The sample interval will, therefore, be 10. This means that after
a the random start from any point in the random table, the researcher has to choose every 10
element.

Systematic sampling is almost similar to simple random sampling in that each population
element has a known and equal probability of selection. However, the difference lies in that
simple random sampling allows only the permissible samples of size n drawn have a known
and equal probability of selection. The remaining samples of size n have a zero probability of
being selected
Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling is a two-way process. It is distinguished from the simple random sampling
and systematic sampling, in that:
a) It requires division of the parent population into mutually exclusively and exhaustive
subsets;

b) A simple random sample of elements is chosen independently from each group or subset.

Therefore, it characterises that, every population element should be assigned to one and only
stratum and no population elements should be omitted. Next, elements are selected from each
stratum by simple random sampling technique. Stratified sampling differs from quota
sampling in that the sample elements are selected probabilistically rather than based on
convenience or on judgemental basis.
Strata are created by a divider called the stratification variable. This variable divides the
population into strata based on homogeneity, heterogeneity, relatedness or cost. Sometimes,
more than one variable is used for stratification purpose. This type of sampling is done in
orderto get homogenous elements within each strata and, the elements between each strata
should have a higher degree of heterogeneity. The number of strata to be formed for the
research is left to the discretion of the researcher, though, researchers agree that the optimum
number of strata may be 6.
The reasons for using stratified sampling are as follows:

a) it ensures representation of all important sub-populations in the sample;

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
b) the cost per observation in the survey may be reduced;

c) it combines the use of simple random sampling with potential gains in precision;
d) estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each sub-population and;

e) increased accuracy at given cost.

Non-probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection. It involves personal judgement of
the researcher rather than chance to select sample elements. Sometimes this judgement is
imposed by the researcher, while in other cases the selection of population elements to be
includes is left to the individual field workers. The decision maker may also contribute to
including a particular individual in the sampling frame. Evidently, non probability sampling
does not include elements selected probabilistically and hence, leaves an degree of „sampling
error‟ associated with the sample.
Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. Therefore,
while inferring to the population, results could not be reported plus or minus the sampling error.
In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population
remains unknown However, we canno come to a conclusion that sampling error is an inherent
of non probability sample.
Non-probability samples also yield good estimates of the population characteristics. Since,
inclusion of the elements in the sample are not determined in a probabilistic way, the estimates
obtained are not statistically projectable to the population.
The most commonly used non-probability sampling methods are convenience sampling,
judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.

Convenience Sampling

Convenience samples are sometimes called accidental samples because the elements included
inthe sample enter by „accident‟. It is a sampling technique where samples are obtained from
convenient elements. This refers to happening of the element at the right place at the right time,
that is, where and when the information for the study is being collected. The selection of the
respondents is left to the discretion of the interviewer. The popular examples of convenience
sampling include (a) respondents who gather in a church (b) students in a class room (c) mall
intercept interviews
without qualifying the respondents for the study (d) tear-out questionnaire included in
magazinesand (e) people on the street. In the above examples, the people may not be qualified
respondents, however, form part of the sample by virtue of assembling in the place where the
researcher is conveniently placed.
Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling
techniques. The disadvantage with convenience sampling is that the researcher would have no
way of knowing if the sample chosen is representative of the target population.
Judgement Sampling This is a form of convenience sampling otherwise called as purposive
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
sampling because the sample elements are chosen since it is expected that they can serve the
research purpose. The sample elements are chosen based on the judgement that prevails in the
researcher‟s mind about the prospective individual. The researcher may use his wisdom to
conclude that a particular individual may be a representative of the population in which one is
interested.
The distinguishing feature of judgment sampling is that the population elements are
purposively selected. Again, the selection is not based on that they are representative, but
rather because they

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

can offer the contributions sought. In judgement sampling, the researcher may be well aware of
the characteristics of the prospective respondents, in order that, he includes the individual in the
sample. It may be possible that the researcher has ideas and insights about the respondent‟s
requisite experience and knowledge to offer some perspective on the research question.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is another non-probability sampling. It attempts to ensure that the sample chosen
by the researcher is a representative by selecting elements in such a way that the proportion of the
sample elements possessing a certain characteristic is approximately the same as the proportion of
the elements with the characteristic in the population.
Quota sampling is viewed as two-staged restricted judgemental sampling technique. The first
stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population elements. Control
characteristics involve age, sex, and race identified on the basis of judgement. Then the
distribution of these characteristics in the target population is determined. For example, the
researcher may use control categories in that, he/she intends to study 40% of men and 60% of
women in a population. Sex is the control group and the percentages fixed are the quotas.
In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgement. Once the
quotas have been determined, there is considerable freedom to select the elements to be includedin
the sample. For example, the researcher may not choose more than 40% of men and 60% of
women in the study. Even if the researcher comes across qualified men after reaching the 40%
mark, he/she would still restrict entry of men into the sample and keep searching for women till
the quota is fulfilled.

Snowball Sampling

This is another popular non-probability technique widely used, especially in academic research. In
this technique, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. After being
interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the target population of
interest. Subsequent respondents are selected based on the information provided by the selected
group members. The group members may provide information based on their understanding about
the qualification of the other prospective respondents. This method involves probability and
non-probability methods. The initial respondents are chosen by a random method and the
subsequent respondents are chosen by non-probability methods.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

UNIT - 4
Data Collection:

Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data

Primary Data— collected for the first time
Secondary Data—those which have already been collected and analysed by someone else.

Methods of Primary Data Collection

OBSERVATION METHOD: Commonly used in behavioural sciences It is the gathering of

primary data by investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations
without asking from the respondent. e.g. • A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its
coffee shop to check on cleanliness and customer service. • A food service operator sends
researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu items prices, check portion sizes and
consistency and observe point-of purchase merchandising. • A restaurant evaluates possible new
locations by checking out locations of competing restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood
conditions. Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to
provide. e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu items
indicates that food is not satisfactory.

Types of Observation:

1. Structured – for descriptive research

2. Unstructured—for exploratory research

3. Participant Observation

4. Non- participant observation

5. Disguised observation

Limitations: - feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and infrequent
behaviour cannot be observed. - expensive method Because of these limitations, researchers often
supplement observation with survey research.

SURVEY METHOD Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.

Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.

Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview according
to their answers. Survey research may be Direct or Indirect. Direct Approach: The researcher asks
direct questions about behaviours and thoughts. e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonalds? Indirect
Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?” From the

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids MacDonald’s. It may
suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

ADVANTAGES: -can be used to collect many different kinds of information -Quick and low cost
as compared to observation and experimental method.

LIMITATIONS: -Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers

about things they consider private. -Busy people may not want to take the time -may try to help by
giving pleasant answers -unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought
to what they do and why -may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

CONTACT METHODS: Information may be collected by Mail, Telephone, Personal interview

Mail Questionnaires:

Advantages: -can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent. -
respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail questionnaire
-no interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
-convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time - good way to reach people
who often travel

Limitations: -not flexible

-take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
-response rate is often very low –
researcher has no control over who answers.

Telephone Interviewing: - quick method –

more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent –depending
on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others – allows greater sample
control –
response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks: -Cost per respondent higher –

Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
-Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers – Different interviewers
may interpret and record response in a variety of ways –under time pressure ,data may be entered
without actually interviewing

Personal Interviewing: It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information.
Trained interviewers are can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult
questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires. Personal
interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record
theirreactions and behaviour. This takes two forms-

Individual- Intercept interviewing Group –

Focus Group Interviewing Intercept interviewing: Widely used in tourism research. -allows
researcher to reach known people in a short period of time. - only method of reaching people
whosenames and addresses are unknown -involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the
street, or in shopping malls. -interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation -time involved
may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys compensation may be
offered) --involvesthe use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom to
“intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60
Drawbacks: -Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to
correctly judge age, race etc. -Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or
age groups.
Focus Group Interviewing: It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tool to understand
people’s thoughts and feelings. It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for
a few hours with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service or organization.The
meeting isheld in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment.
The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some
understanding of group and consumer behaviour. The moderator starts with a broad question
before moving to morespecific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true
feelings and thoughts. At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name
focus group interviewing. - often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions
should be asked in a later, large- scale, structured-direct interview Comments are recorded
through note taking or videotaped and studied later to understand consumer’ buying process.
This method is especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who have easy access
to their customers. e.g. Some hotel managers often invite a group of hotel guests from a
particular market segment to have a free breakfast with them. Managers get the chance to meet
the guests and discuss what they like aboutthe hotel and what the hotel could do to make their
stay more enjoyable and comfortable. The guests appreciate this recognition and the manager
gets valuable information. Restaurant managers use the same approach by holding discussion
meetings over lunch or dinner.
Drawbacks: -Cost: may cost more than telephone survey -Sampling: group interview studies
keepsmall sample size to keep time and cost down, therefore it may be difficult to generalize
from theresults. - Interviewer bias.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method,
it is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
with observation or experiment. Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way. e.g. -Tenderisers ( independent variable)
affect cooking time and texture of meat( dependent variable) . - The effect of substituting one
ingredient in whole or in part for another such as soya flour to flour for making high protein
bread. -Developrecipes to use products. Such research is characterised by the experimenter’s
control over the variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study
its effects. In such aresearch, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively
go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. -Researcher
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. - Then work to
get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis. -He then sets up experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring
forth the desired information. Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies
today is considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Testing of Hypotheses:

A hypothesis test is a formal way to make a decision based on statistical analysis. Hypotheses.
Hypothesis tests are tests about a population parameter .

Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.

(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, many a
time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by researcher
in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be
made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”

(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational

hypothesis.

(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must remember
that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.

(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis
has nothing to do with its significance.

(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as
being the most likely.

(vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use
even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot
spend a life-time collecting data to test it.

(viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means
that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able
to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims
to explain; it should have empirical reference.

The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement involving equality (=, ≤, ≥) about a population
parameter.
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that contradicts the null hypothesis. The
alternativehypothesis is what we conclude is true if the experimental results lead us to conclude
that the null
hypothesis (our assumption) is false. The alternative hypothesis must not involve equality
(6=, ). The exact statement of the null and alternative hypotheses depend on the claim that you
are testing.

We decide to reject the null hypothesis if the sample outcome contradicts our assumption. The
logic is as follows:

• To make this decision we calculate the p-value := the probability of our sample outcome or
something more extreme occuring ASSUMING the null hypothesis is true.
If the p-value is very small, our sample outcome was very unlikely (a “rare event”) based on
ourassumption, so we reject our assumption.
Recall that our assumption is based on the null hypothesis, so rejecting the assumption is the
sameas rejecting the null hypothesis.
The smaller the p-value, the larger (in absolute value) the z/t-score, so an “unusual” z/t-score
givesus a hint about the p-value.
Example : Skittles. Our null hypothesis (assumption) is that a bag of Skittles contains 95%
orangeSkittles (and the rest are green), because that is written on the label. We reach in a hand
and pull out a big handful of Skittles. They are all green! • Describe the p-value in words.
We can’t get the exact p-value, but what do you estimate it to be? • Should we decide to
“reject” or “not to reject” our assumption (null hypothesis) that the bag contains 95% orange
Skittles? Disclaimer: This scenario is a complete fabrication. Skittles are fabulous.
. Decision. How small must the p-value be to reject the null hypothesis? This can change and is
set by the significance level, α, which will be provided in each problem. Common significance
levels are 0.01, or 1 100 , and 0.05, or 5 100 .
The decision process is as follows:
• If p-value < α, reject the null hypothesis. (Our outcome contradicts the assumption.)
• If p-value ≥ α, do not reject the null hypothesis. (Our outcome seems reasonable based on
the assumption.)

Skipper, p 6 This silly little rhyme is from the Triola textbook “Elementary Statistics” and has
been helpful to many students: “If the p is low, the null must go. If the p is high, the null will
fly.”

Confidence intervals allowed us to find ranges of reasonable values for parameters we were
interested in. Hypothesis testing will let us make decisions about specific values of parameters
orrelationships between parameters.

1. π - population proportion
2. µ - population mean
3. µ1 −µ2 - difference in population means (example: compare average heights of men and
women)
4. µd - population mean difference (for paired data) (example: compare average heights of
fathersand sons)

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
5. π1 − π2 - difference in population proportions

You will need to be able to distinguish these settings from each other. Notably, to distinguish
proportion settings from mean settings, think about the question being asked. Are responses to
the question of interest yes or no? If so, you are dealing with proportions. If the response is a
numericalvalue, you are dealing with means.
In hypothesis testing, we use sample data to choose between two competing hypotheses. Think
of it like a jury trial. There are two options: innocent and guilty. You assume innocence until
shown guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. In hypothesis testing, there are 2 choices, the null
hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. You assume the null hypothesis is true until the
alternative is shown beyond “chance”. Hypothesis - a claim about a population characteristic
(parameter)
Null Hypothesis - the status quo - initially assumed true
Alternative Hypothesis - the researcher’s proposal - what you hope to show Main idea:

Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative only with convincing/significant evidence.
We do NOT say that we accept the alternative, only that we have significant evidence to reject
thenull. This is because we could have made a mistake (see below).
Forms of Hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis: H0 : population parameter = some hypothesized valueAlternative Hypothesis:
HA : population parameter is not equal to that same hypothesized value (two-sided) ORHA :
population parameter > that same hypothesized value (one-sided to the right) OR HA :
population parameter < that same hypothesized value (one-sided to the left)

ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS
Analysis means the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case of survey
or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population
and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as
descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often known as statistical
analysis).

“Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides
us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”. this sort of analysis
may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis), or in respect of two
variables (described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (described as
multivariate analysis). In this context we work out various measures that show the size and
shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of measuring relationships between two or more
variables. We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables. Causal analysis is concerned with the
study of how one or more variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study of
functional relationships existing between two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as
regression analysis

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in experimental researches, whereas in
most social and business researches our interest lies in understanding and controlling
relationships between variables then with determining causes per se and as such we consider
correlation analysis as relatively more important. In modern times, with the availability of
computer facilities, there has been a rapid development of multivariate analysis which may be
defined as “all statistical methods which simultaneously analyse more than two variables on a
sample of observations”

Usually the following analyses are involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:

(a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one
dependent variable which is presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables.
The objective of this analysis is to make a prediction about the dependent variable based on its
covariance with all the concerned independent variables.

(b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single
dependent variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on
the basis of some attribute. The object of this analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s
possibility of belonging to a particular group based on several predictor variables.

(c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of two
way ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked
out on a set of variables.

(d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and
non-measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent
variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent variables.

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in
order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences
and conclusions) is performed.

The chi-squared test

This is a versatile non-parametric test.
Goodness of Fit: whether a sample fits an expected distribution (of arbitrary shape). Test for
Independence: are paired observations on two categorical variables independent.
• Variable X: Gender [Male,Female]
• Variable Y: Voting Preference [Lab,Con,Lib]
• Does gender affect voting preference?

Goodness of Fit - Consider throwing a die many times to see whether or not it's fair. We get a
frequency distribution. We expect this to be a uniform distribution: an equal number of 1s, 2s,
3s,etc.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

DATA COLLECTION

The next step in the research process after identifying the type of research the researcher
intends to do is the deciding on the selection of the data collection techniques. The data
collection technique is different for different types of research design. There are
predominantly two typesof data: (i) the primary data and (ii) the secondary data.
Primary data is one a researcher collects for a specific purpose of investigating the research
problem at hand. Secondary data are ones that have not been collected for the immediate study
at hand but for purposes other than the problem at hand. Both types of data offer specific
advantages and disadvantages.
a) Secondary data offer cost and time economies to the researcher as they already exist in
variousforms in the company or in the market.
b) It is feasible for a firm to collect.

c) Since they are collected for some other purposes, it may sometimes not fit perfectly into
theproblem defined.
d) The objectives, nature and methods used to collect the secondary data may not be
appropriateto the present situation.
Mostly secondary data helps to:

a) Identify the problem.

b) Better define the problem.

c) Develop an approach to the problem.

d) Formulate an appropriate research design by identifying the key variables.

e) Answer certain research questions and formulate hypotheses.

f) Interpret the primary data more in-depth.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are the data that are in actual existence in accessible records, having been
alreadycollected and treated statistically by the persons maintaining the records. In other words,
secondary data are the data that have been already collected, presented tabulated, treated with
necessary statistical techniques and conclusions have been drawn. Therefore, collecting
secondary data doesn't mean doing some original enumeration but it merely means obtaining
data that have already been collected by some agencies, reliable persons, government
departments, research workers, dependable organisations etc. Secondary data are easily
obtainable from reliable records, books, government publications and journals.
When once primary data have been originally collected, moulded by statisticians or statistical
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
machinery, then it becomes secondary in the hands of all other persons who may be desirous of
handling it for their own purpose or studies. It follows, therefore, that primary and secondary
data are demarcated separately and that the distinction between them is of degree only. It a
person 'X' collects some data originally, then the data is primary data to 'X' whereas the same
data when used by another person 'Y' becomes secondary data to 'Y'.
SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

The following are some of the sources of secondary data:

1. Central and State government publications.

2. Publications brought out by international organisation like the UNO, UNESCO, etc.

3. Foreign government publications.

4. Official publications as well as reports of municipalities, district parishads, etc.

5. Reports and publications of commissions - like U.G.C. education commission, tariff

commission, chambers of commerce, co-operative societies, trade associations, banks, stock
exchanges, business houses etc.
6. Well-know newspapers and journals like the Economic Times, The Financial Express,
Indian Journal of Economics, Commerce, Capital, Economical Eastern Economist, etc. Further
Year Books such as Times of India Year Book, Statesman's Year Book also provide valuable
data.
7. Publications brought out by research institutions, universities as well as those published by
research workers give considerable secondary data.
8. Through the Internet/website sources.

Though the given list of secondary data cannot be said to be thorough or complete, yet it can be
pointed out that it fairly indicates the chief sources of secondary data. Also, besides the above
mentioned data there are a number of other important sources, such as records of governments
in various departments, unpublished manuscripts of eminent scholars, research workers,
statisticians, economists, private organisations, labour bureaus and records of business firms.

TYPES OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data are of two types. Data that are originated from within the company are called as
internal data. If they are collected for some other purpose, they are internal secondary data.
This poses significant advantage as they are readily available in the company at low cost. The
most convenient example internal secondary data is the figures relating sales of the company.
Important internal source of secondary data is database marketing, Database marketinginvolves
the use of computers to capture and track customer profiles and purchase details. The
information about customer profile would serve as the foundation for marketing programmes or
as an internal source of information related to preference of customer‟s preference of a
particularproduct.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
Published external secondary data refers to the data available without the company. There is
sucha pool of published data available in the market that it is sometimes easy to underestimate
whatis available and thereby bypass relevant information. Several sources of external data are
available. They are:

General Business Data

Guides or small booklets containing information about a particular trade or business.

Directories are helpful for identifying individuals or organisations that collect specific data.

Indexes used to locate information on a particular topic in several different publications by

using an index.
Non-governmental statistical data refers to published statistical data of great interest to
researchers. Graphic and statistical analyses can be performed on these data to draw meaning
inference.

Government Sources

Census data is a report published by the Government containing information about the
population of the country.
Other Government publications may be pertaining to availability of train tickets just before it
leaves.

Computerised Databases

Online databases are databases consisting of data pertaining to a particular sector (e.g., banks)
that is accessed with a computer through a telecommunication network
□ Internet databases are available in internet portals that can be accessed, searched, and
analysed on the internet.

□ Offline databases are databases available in the form of diskettes and CD-ROM disks.

Bibliographic databases comprises of citations in articles published in journals, magazines,

newspapers etc.
Numeric databases contain numerical and statistical information. For example, time series
data about stock markets.
Directory databases provide information on individuals, organisations and service. E.g. Getit
Yellow pages.
Special-purpose databases are databases developed online for a special purpose.

External Data-syndicated In response to the growing need for data pertaining to markets,
consumer etc., companies have started collecting and selling standardised data designed to
serve the information needs of the shared by a number of organisations. Syndicated data
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
sources can be further classified as (a) consumer data (b) retail data (c) wholesale data (d)
industrial data (e) advertising evaluation data and (f) media and audience data.
Consumer data relates to data about consumers purchases and the circumstances surrounding
the purchase.
Retail data rely on retailing establishments for their data. The data collected focus on the
products or services sold through the outlets and / or the characteristics of the outlets
themselves.
□ Wholesale data refers to data on warehouse shipment data to estimate sales at retail.

□ Industrial data refers to substantially more syndicated data services available to

consumer goods manufacturers than to industrial goods suppliers.
□ Advertising evaluation data refers to money spent each year on media such as
magazines and television with the expectation that these expenditures will result in sales.

VERIFICATION OF SECONDARY DATA

Before accepting secondary data it is always necessary to scrutinize it properly in regard to its
accuracy and reliability. It may perhaps happen that the authorities collecting a particular type
of data may unknowingly carry out investigations using procedures wrongly. Hence it is always
necessary to carry out the verification of the secondary data in the following manner:
(i) Whether the organization that has collected the data is reliable.

(ii) Whether the appropriate statistical methods were used by the primary data enumerators
andinvestigators.
(iii) Whether the data was collected at the proper time.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

By primary data we mean the data that have been collected originally for the first time. In other
words, primary data may be the outcome of an original statistical enquiry, measurement of
facts or a count that is undertaken for the first time. For instance data of population census is
primary. Primary data being fresh from the fields of investigation is very often referred to as
raw data. In the collection of primary data, a good deal of time, money and energy are required.

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is defined as a formalised schedule for collecting data from respondents. It

may be called as a schedule, interview form or measuring instrument.
Measurement error is a serious problem in questionnaire construction. The broad objective of a
questionnaire include one without measurement errors. Specifically, the objectives of a
questionnaire are as follows:
a) It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents
can and will answer.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
b) The questions should measure what they are supposed to measure.

c) It must stimulate the respondents to participate in the data collection process. The
respondents should adequately motivated by the virtual construct of the questionnaire.
d) It should not carry an ambiguous statements that confuses the respondents.

Questionnaire Components

A questionnaire consists typically of five sections. They are:

a) Identification data

b) Request for cooperation

c) Instruction

d) Information sought

e) Classification of data

a) Identification data occupation is the first section of a questionnaire where the

researcher intends to collect data pertaining to the respondent‟s name, address and phone
number.
b) Request for cooperation refers to gaining respondent‟s cooperation regarding the
datacollection process.
c) Instruction refers to the comments to the respondent regarding how to use the
questionnaire.
d) The information sought form the major portion of the questionnaire. This refers to
theitems relating to the actual area of the study.
e) Classification data are concerned with the characteristics of the respondent.

OBSERVATION METHODS

This is another type of method used when the researcher feels that survey type of methods may
not be so relevant in data collection. In subjective issues, respondents need to be observed
rather than asked lest biases and prejudices happen in their response. Observation method may
be either

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structured or unstructured. Structured observation method involves having a set of items to be
observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. In unstructured observation, the
observer monitors all aspects of the phenomena that seem relevant to the problem at hand. In
thiscontext, the observer may have an open mind to study the persons or object.

DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

A researcher's important function is the appropriate interpretation of different types of statistical

data with the help of his tools. The preliminary statistical work consists of collection,
classification, tabulation, presentation and analysis of data. The most important part of the
statistical work consists in the proper use of the statistical tools in the interpretation of data.
The most commonly used tools are 'Mean, Median, Mode; Geometric Mean, Measures of
Dispersion such as Range; Mean Deviation, Standard Deviation and also other measures such
as Coefficient of Correlation, Index Numbers etc. It is necessary to note that technical
interpretation of data has to be combined with a high degree of sound judgement, statistical
experience, skill and accuracy. After all figures do not lie, they are innocent. But figures
obtained haphazardly, compiled unscientifically and analyzed incompetently would lead to
general distrust in statistics by the citizens. It should be understood that "statistical methods are
the most dangerous tools in the hands of an expert".

DATA EDITING AND CODING

Authenticity and relevance of a research investigation is based on the assurance of error-free

qualitative reliability of the collected data. Data processing has to be carried out in an
appropriate manner. Processing comprises the task of editing, coding classification and
tabulation.
In spite of a careful collection by a researcher, there may be a possibility for errors of omission
and commission arising and it is for this purpose that the process of editing becomes necessary.

The editor, while examining certain responses of the respondents, may find some mistakes in
the form of incomplete, vague or irrelevant answers. Such inconsistent answers have to be
eliminated or suitably and reasonably modified. Further, there should be no room for fictitious
data to creep in. Hence the editor has to take care to see that the authenticity of the data is in a
perfect shape.
For the purpose of classification of the data into meaningful and useful classes, the procedure of
coding has to be used. This procedure would be advantageous in dealing with the data having a
number of characteristics. Also, a large volume of data can be processed accurately.
Manual processing and analysis can be carried out by using measures of central tendency,
dispersion, correlation regression and other statistical methods if the volume of data is not very
large.
In case a researcher is confronted with a very large volume of data then it is imperative to use
'computer processing'. For this purpose necessary statistical packages such as SPSS etc. may be

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
used. Computer technology can prove to be a boon because a huge volume of complex data can
be processed speedily with greater accuracy.

INTERPRETATION OF DATA IN GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL

SCIENCES
Data pertaining to economic, psychological sociological or managerial phenomena necessarily
requires appropriate interpretation through the use of analytical procedures based on inductive
or deductive logical reasoning. Further, proper statistical methods will have to applied for
scientific analysis. Depending upon the nature of the data which may be nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio level, a researcher has to carefully evaluate the appropriateness and precision
in the use of 'Parametric' or 'Non-parametric' tests of hypothesis. It may be noted that generally
the nominal level data is weak whereas the ratio level data is comparatively strong.
Statistical analysis can be classified as (i) descriptive and (ii) inferential.

Descriptive data provides quantitative information for analytical interpretation for instance:
with respect to the wage distribution of 500 workers in a factory, we can calculate various
measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness etc. Inferential data relates to statistical
inference where conclusions are drawn on the basis of samples taken randomly from a
population, which isassumed to be normal. Population parameters are estimated on the basis on
the basis of sample statistics.
Depending upon the nature of researcher's problem, relevant sampling methods are used for
obtaining data. However, for the purpose of hypothesis testing, parametric or non-parametric
tests may be used depending upon the fact whether the assumptions in regard to population are
based on 'distribution' or 'distribution-free characteristics'.

INTERPRETATION OF FINANCIAL RATIOS

Financial ratio analysis is a study of ratios between various items or groups of items in
financialstatements. Financial ratios can be broadly classified into the following categories:
1. Liquidity ratios

2. Leverage ratios

3. Turnover ratios

4. Profitability ratios

5. Valuation ratios

Liquidity Ratios

Liquidity refers to the ability of a firm to meet its obligations in the short run, usually one year.
Liquidity ratios are generally based on the relationship between current assets and current
liabilities.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
The important liquidity ratios are:

(a) Current Ratio: Current assets include cash, current investments, debtors, inventories
(stocks), loans and advances, and prepaid expenses. Current liabilities represent liabilities that
are expected to mature in the next twelve months. These comprise (i) loans, secured or
unsecured, that are due in the next twelve months and (ii) current liabilities and provisions. The
current ratio thus measures the ability of the firm to meet its current liabilities.
(b) Acid-Test Ratio (also called the quick ratio): Quick assets are defined as current assets
excluding inventories.
It is a fairly stringent measure of liquidity. It is based on those current assets, which are highly
liquid. Inventories are excluded because they are deemed to be the least liquid component of the
current assets.
(c) Cash Ratio: Because cash and bank balance and short term marketable securities are the
mostliquid assets of a firm.

Leverage Ratios

Financial leverage refers to the use of debt finance. While debt capital is a cheaper source of
finance, it is also a riskier source of finance. Leverage ratios help in accessing the risk arising
from the use of debt capital. Two types of ratios are commonly used to analyze financial
leverage:
(i) Structural ratios

(ii) Coverage ratios

Structural ratios are based on the proportions of debt and equity in the financial structure of the
firm. Coverage ratios show the relationship between debt serving commitments and sources for
meeting these burdens.
The important structural ratios are:

(a) Debt-Equity Ratio: It shows the relative contributions of creditors and owners.

The numerator of this ratio consists of all debt, short-term as well as long-term, and the
denominator consists of net worth plus preferential capital.
(b) Debt-Assets Ratio: It measures the extent to which borrowed funds support the firm's
assets.

The numerator of this ratio includes all debts, short-term as well long-term, and the
denominator of this ratio is total of all assets.
(c) Interest Coverage Ratio (also called "times interest earned"): A high interest coverage
ratio means that the firm can easily meet the interest burden even if profit before interest and
taxes suffer a considerable decline. A low interest coverage ratio may result in financial
embarrassment when profit before interest and taxes decline.
Though widely used, this ratio is not a very appropriate measure because the source of interest
payment is cash flow before interest and taxes.
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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
(d) Fixed Charges Coverage Ratio: This ratio shows how many times the cash flow before
interest and taxes covers all fixed financing charges. In the denominator of this ratio, only the
repayment of loan is adjusted upwards for the tax factor because the loan repayment amount,
unlike interest, is not tax deductible.
(e) Debt Service Coverage Ratio

Turnover Ratios

Turnover ratios also referred to as activity ratios or assets management ratios, measure how
efficiently the assets are employed by a firm. The important turnover ratios are:
(a) Inventory Turnover: It measures how fast the inventory is moving through the firm and
generating sales. It reflects the efficiency of inventory management.
(b) Debtors' Turnover: It shows how many times accounts receivable (debtors) turnover
duringthe year.
(c) Average Collection Period: It represents the number of days' worth of credit sales that is
locked in debtors.
(d) Fixed Assets Turnover: This ratio measures sales per rupee of investment in fixed assets.

This ratio is supposed to measure the efficiency with which fixed assets are employed.

(e) Total Assets Turnover: This ratio measures how efficiently assets are employed overall.

Profitability Ratios

They reflect the final result of business operations. There are two types of profitability ratios:

(i) Profit margin ratios

(ii) Rate of return ratios

The important profit margin ratios are:

(a) Gross Profit Margin Ratio: The ratio shows the margin left after meeting
manufacturingcosts. It measures the efficiency of the production as well as pricing.
(b) Net Profit Margin Ratio: This ratio shows the earnings left for shareholders as a
percentageof net sales.
(c) Return on Total Assets: It is measure of how efficiently the capital is employed. To
ensureinternal consistency, the following variant of return on total assets may be employed:
(a) Earning Power: It is a measure of operating profitability.

(b) Return on Equity: it is a measure of great interest to equity shareholder. The

numerator of this ratio is equal to profit after tax less preference dividends. The denominator

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
includes all contributions made by equity shareholders. It is also called the return on net worth.

Valuation Ratios

Valuation ratios indicate how the equity stock of the company is assessed in the capital market:

(a) Price-earnings Ratio: The market price per share may be the price prevailing on a certain
day or the average price over a period of time. The earnings per share are simply: profit after
tax less preference divided by the number of outstanding equity shares.
(b) Yield: It is a measure of the rate of return earned by shareholders.

(c) Market Value to Book Value Ratio

(d) „q‟ Ratio: Proposed by James Tobin, this ratio resembles the market value to book value
ratio. However, there are two key differences:
(i) The numerator of the 'q' ratio represents the market value of equity as well as debt, not
justequity.
(ii) The denominator of the' q' ratio represents all assets. Further, these assets are reckoned
attheir replacement cost, not book value.

CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION

Classification is the process of sorting 'similar' things from among a group of objects with
different characteristics. In other words, heterogeneous data is divided into separate
homogeneous classes according to characteristics that exist amongst different individuals or
quantities constituting the data. Thus, fundamentally classification is dependent upon
similaritiesand resemblances among the items in the data.
The main object of classification is to present vividly, in a simplified and quickly intelligible
form, a mass of complex data. Without condensing details in a classified form it is difficult to
compare quickly, interpret thoroughly and analyse properly different sets of quantitative and
qualitative phenomena. The basic requirements of good classification are stability, non-
ambiguity, flexibility and comparability.

Descriptive and Quantitative Classification

Depending on the characteristics of the data, they can be broadly categorized into two separate
and distinct groups - descriptive and numerical. Descriptive characteristics are those that can be
described in words and are expressible in qualitative terms. Numerical characteristics are
quantitative in nature. For instance, literacy, sex, caste and religion are descriptive
characteristics. Height, weight, age, income and expenditure are numerically expressible
characteristics. Descriptive or qualitative classification is termed classification according to
attributes. Numerical or quantitative classification of data in certain class intervals is termed as
classification in terms of classes with certain intervals, or classification according to class
intervals.

Simple and Manifold Classification

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

Classification based on attributes may be either simple or manifold. In the case of simple
classification, only one attribute is studied. That is, the data is classified into two separate
classes under a single attribute. For instance, data collected on literacy in the country can be
classified into two distinct classes: literate and illiterate. Since this process is quite simple, it is
known as simple classification.
On the other hand, analysing and classifying collected data under several attributes in different
classes is called manifold classification. For example, if each of the two classes, literate and
illiterate, is divided into males and females, then there would be four classes. If classified
further on a regional basis, there would be a number of other classes. Such a process of
classification of data into a number of classes and classes within classes is known as manifold
classification.

Classification According to Class Intervals

Phenomena like income, heights and weights are all quantitatively measurable and data on them
can be classified into separate class intervals of uniform length. For instance, the marks
obtained by a group of 50 candidates in a subject at an examination can be classified into the
following classes: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50, 50-60, 60-70 etc. Each class has a lower
and an upper limit and the number of candidates getting marks between these two limits of the
same class interval is called the frequency of the respective class. To give an example, if 12
candidates get between 40 and 50 marks, 12 is the frequency of the class 40-50.

Number of Classes
The number of classes into which particular data should be classified depends upon the mass of
data. The larger the mass, the more should be the number of classes. Usually data is classified
into not less than six classes and not more than 20 classes, depending upon the mass and size of
the data and the length of the class intervals. The fundamental object of classifying data is to get
the maximum possible amount of information most precisely. According to Sturges' Rule, the
number of class intervals (n) = 1 + 3.322 log N, where N = total number of observations.

Length of Class Intervals

The uniform length of class intervals depends upon the difference between the extreme items in
the data-the largest item and the smallest item-and the number of classes required. For example,
if in the data on marks secured by 250 candidates in a subject at an examination, 0 and 93 are
the lowest and highest marks respectively and 10 classes are required, each class would then
have a class interval length of 10. Ordinarily class intervals are fixed in such a way as to enable
easy calculation and precision.
Class Limits

The choice of class limits is determined by the mid-value of a class interval, which should as
far as possible be identical with the arithmetic average of the items occurring in that class
interval.

Tabulation

Tabulation is the process of arranging given quantitative data based on similarities and common

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
characteristics in certain rows and columns so as to present the data vividly for quick
intelligibility, easy comparability and visual appeal.

Components of a Statistical Table

A statistical table comprises a title, a head-note, a stub head and stub details, captions and
columns under the captions, field of the table under different column heads, footnotes and,
source notes.
Here's a sample:

Title: Students studying in different classes in X, Y, Z Commerce College.

Head-Note: Data relates to the academic year for ex.1998-99.

Purpose of Statistical Tables

Statistical tables are of two types: general purpose table and special purpose table.

1. General Purpose Table: This is primarily meant to present the entire original data on a
subject. Such presentation of numerical data in a tabular form is especially useful as a source of
information and reference for constructing different special
purpose tables.

2. Special Purpose Table: As its name implies, this is a statistical table that specially presents
and emphasizes certain phases or significant aspects of the information given in a general
purpose table. Presenting data in a special table not only makes it easy to understand specific
data, it also facilitates easy comparison and clear-cut interpretation.

4.5.5 Types of Tabulation

1. One-way Table (single tabulation): A one-way table gives answers to questions about one
characteristic of the data.
2. Two-way Table (double tabulation): A two-way table gives information about two
interrelated characteristics of a particular type of data.
3. Three-way Table (Triple Tabulation): A three-way table answers questions relating to
threeinterrelated characteristics of a given data.
4. Higher Order Table (Manifold Tabulation): This table gives information under several
mainheads and subheads on questions relating to a number of interrelated characteristics.

Rules and Precautions on Tabulation

1. Every statistical table should be given an appropriate title to indicate the nature of the
data.

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The title should be simple, intelligible and unambiguous and should not be too lengthy or too
short.
2. If necessary, the title may be further explained with a suitable head-note.

3. Different types of data require different types of tabulation. It has to be decided at the outset
whether one or more tables would be necessary to fit in the data precisely and suitably. A single
simple table is appealing to the eye provided it is prepared properly. Several tables or a large
table make comparisons difficult.
4. The stub heads and the main heads should be consistent with the nature of the data and be
veryclear.
5. The main headings under the caption should be as few as possible in keeping with the
requirements of space and type of data. If the main headings are few, comparison between
different sets of data becomes easy.
6. The entire arrangement of data should be appropriate, compact and self-explanatory so that
itis not necessary to rearrange the data in any manner.
7. Comparisons between different figures such as totals and averages-are easier if they are
arranged vertically and not horizontally.
8. In order to show important parts of the data (under main heads) distinctly, it is necessary
todraw thick double or multiple ruled lines.
9. Depending upon the nature of the data, items in the stub column may be arranged
accordingto:
(i) Alphabetical order.

(ii) Geographical importance.

(iii) Customary classification.

(iv) Chronological order.

(v) Size or magnitude.

10. Figures in the data that are estimates, approximate or revised should be indicated by an
alphabet, asterisk, number or any other symbol. An explanation should be given in the footnote.
11. The different units used in the data should be indicated in the column heads. For example:
'figures in rupees', 'figures in metres', and so on.
12. The source of the data should be indicated under the footnote. It is necessary to mention
the source for further references and other details and also for indicating the reliability of the
data.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

The data generated using the questionnaire is analysed and inference made out of the data could
be used by the decision maker. The fundamental question that arises in the minds of the
researcher is: “What technique should be used to analyse the collected data?”
The collected data may be coded as per the description given in the scaling lesson. The
researcher should ensure that he/she does not deviate from the scaling principles enumerated in
the scaling lesson. The researcher can create a master file containing the coded information of
allthe items included in the questionnaire.
The choice of technique to analyse the collected data could be pictorially represented as given
in figure 11.1. Data analysis technique depends on the level of measurement and the type of
sample the researcher uses. An overview of the choice of techniques used is given in figure
11.1. Descriptive statistics such as mode and relative and absolute frequencies are used on
nominal data. Further chi-square test and Mcnemer test is used as inferential statistics. Ordinal
data may be subjected to median and interquartile range. Under inferential statistics, non
parametric techniques such as Kolmogorov Smirnov test, Mann Whitney test, Kruskal Wallis,
and Friedman two- way ANOVA are used. Interval and ratio scale may be subjected to mean
and standard deviation. Under inferential statistics, z test, t –test, one-way ANOVA, correlation
and regression.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Basic analysis of the data involves testing of hypothesis. Lot of confusion prevails in
developing a hypothesis. In simple terms, hypothesis refers to assumption of a relationship
between two variables or difference between two or more groups. Hypothesis also contains the
direction of relationship between the variables concerned.
Examples for hypothesis is given below:

(a) The purchasing power of the consumers is positively related to the availability of
surplusincome.
(b) Customers belonging to the Northern states in India have a different taste preference
thanthose from Northern States.
Hypotheses are of two types: (a) Null hypothesis and (b) Alternative hypothesis. A simple rule
may be followed to develop a hypothesis:
1. What we hope or expect to be able to conclude as a result of the test usually should be
placedin alternative hypothesis.
2. The null hypothesis should contain a statement of equality (=) and an alternative
hypothesiscontains a > or < than sign.
3. The null is the hypothesis that is tested.

4. The null and alternate hypothesis are complementary.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

HOW TO SELECT A PARTICULAR TEST

An appropriate statistical test for analysing a given set of data is selected on the basis of:Scaling
of the data: Is the measurement scale nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio;
Dependence, Independence of the measurements; Types of samples: Independent or dependent
samples;Number of samples (groups) studied and;
Specific requirements such as sample size, shape of population distribution, are also used for
considering the choice of a statistical test.

There are two types of samples: Independent and dependent samples. Two samples are
independent sample if the sample selected from one of the populations has no effect or bearing
on the sample selected from the other population. E.g., responses collected from Tamilians,
Keralites, Kannadigas etc. They are exclusive groups of respondents where a Tamilian is
exclusive in nature in that he does not take part in the other groups. Similarly, a Kannadiga is
exclusive in nature in his membership in his group in that he does not take part in any other
groups.
Dependent samples, also called related or correlated or matched samples, are ones in which the
response of the nth subject in one sample is partly a function of the response of the nth subject
in an earlier sample. Examples of dependent samples include before-during-after samples of the
same people or matched response of similar people.
The nature of the samples is also considered while deciding on the appropriateness of the
statistical test. The following are the conditions to be followed while choosing the tests:
Does the test involve one sample, two samples or k samples

If 2 samples or k samples are involved, are the individual cases independent or related.

The selection of an appropriate statistical test rests with two criteria:

(a) Type of scale used (Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio)

(b) Type and the size of the samples. Type relates to whether the samples are independent
ordependent.
The hypothesis of type two mentioned in the example above could be tested using two types of
statistical tests. They are:
(a) Parametric tests

(b) Non-parametric tests

A simple understanding of the characteristics of the tests reveal that the term „parametric‟ is
derived from the term parameter which is a descriptive measure computed from or used to
describe a population of data. Parametric tests are used to test hypothesis with interval and ratio
measurements and non parametric tests are used to test hypothesis involving nominal and

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes
ordinal data. Parametric tests are more powerful than non–parametric tests. Explanation of
parametric and non parametric tests in detail is beyond the scope of this study material.
There are few simple, easy to understand assumptions made while applying a parametric test.
They are:
The observations must be independent – that is, the selection of any one case should notaffect
the chances for any other case to be included in the sample.
The observations should be drawn from normally distributed populations. These populations
should have equal variances.
The measurement scales should be at least interval so that arithmetic operations can be used
with them.
Non-parametric tests do not have any assumptions of such kind. This is the advantage of non-
parametric tests over parametric tests.
Hypothesis of the type 1 may be tested using Correlation and regression. Correlation is a test of
association only between two variables. It uses only interval and ratio scale. Such correlations
are called as Karl Pearson bi–variate correlation. Correlation of a special type employed on
ordinal data is called Rank Correlation. This is otherwise called as Spearman Rank correlation.
However, correlation will never tell the researcher about the independent – dependent
relationship. Correlation analysis will give a result r called the correlation coefficient. R value
ranges from -1 to +1 through a O. As r value approaches 1, the strength of the association
increases and as it approaches 0, it decreases. R value will be associated with a positive or
negative sign. Positive sign refers to positive correlation where the change in one variable
causes change in the other variable in the same direction whereas a negative sign indicates
inverse relationship.
Regression is a powerful technique dealing with two or more than two number of variables.
Regression analysis will tell the researcher about the independent and dependent relationship.It
deals with one dependent variable and any number of independent variables. Regression
analysis involving only one independent variable, is called simple regression and that involves
more than one independent variables is called multiple regression. Regressionresults in r² value
which explains the amount of variance accounted for, by the independent variables on the
dependent variable. Standardized β coefficient determines the strength and the direction of
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

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 Research Methodology - Class Notes

REPORT DESIGN AND WRITING IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Much has been dealt in detail in the previous lesson about the processes involved in research.
The researcher may be glued into the technicalities in doing a research, however, the research
effort goes in vain, if it is reported in a systematic manner to concerned decision makers. The
report should be presented in a way what the decision maker needs and wishes to know. The
decision maker is interested only in the results rather than complicated tables and he/she should
be convinced of the usefulness of the findings. He / she must have sufficient appreciation of the
method to realize its strengths and weaknesses. Research report is the only one which
communicates with the decision maker.
Research reports are the only tangible products of a research project and only

documentary evidence on which the decision maker can make decisions. Management decisions
on the problem concerned are guided by the report and presentation. Moreover, the report
should be meticulously presented as this would form part of a secondary data at a later stage.
Any reference to this report should convey information in an unambiguous manner with clarity.

CRITERIA FOR REPORT WRITING

The research report should be made as per the requirement of the decision maker meaning that
it should purely and simply tailor made for the decision maker with due regard for their
technical sophistication, interest in the subject area, circumstances under which they will read
the report, and use they will make of it. The report should be made keeping in mind the
technical sophistication of the decision maker. A decision maker with little technical
sophistication may sometimes distort the inference that could be made from the result.
Sometimes use of sophisticated technical jargons may result in the decision maker looking at
the researcher with suspicion that he / she has used his high flair knowledge to prove his
supremacy in the area of research.
The researcher may be confronted with a situation where the report he or she makes is meant
for several others in the organization. In such a case, preparing a report that would satisfy
everyone in the organization would be a tough task. In this regard, the researcher should have
an understanding of the technical capacity and level of interest in the report by everyone
concerned.
It may be appropriate if the researcher discusses the major findings, conclusions and
recommendations with the decision makers before sitting down to prepare. Discussions before
submission may prevent major discord among the targets to whom the research report is
concerned. This would also result in the researcher knowing the needs of the concerned

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decision makers and ensures that the report meets the client‟s needs and finally the report is
ultimately accepted. The discussion on the results should confirm specific dates for the delivery
of the written report and other data.

REPORT FORMAT

Research formats may vary from researcher to researcher as well depending on the need of the
decision maker. However, any researcher could not violate the fundamental contents a report
should have. They should include the following:
i) Title page includes the title of the report, name, address and telephone number of the
researcher or organization conducting the research, the name of the client for whom the report
was prepared and the date of release.
ii) Letter of transmittal refers to a summary of the researcher‟s overall experience with the
research, without mentioning the findings.
iii) Letter of authorization contains the authorization given by the decision maker to the
researcher to do the project.
iv) Table of contents include the list of topics covered and appropriate page number.

v) Executive summary is important in a research report as this presents the report in a

shortened form. Sometimes, the decision maker would read only this portion of the report when
constrained by time. This should describe the problem, approach, and research design that was
adopted. A small portion of the summary section should be devoted to the major results,
conclusions and recommendations.
vi) Problem definition shows the background to the problem, highlights the discussion with
the decision makers and industry experts and discusses the secondary data analysis, the
qualitative research that was conducted, and the factors that were considered.
vii) Approach to the problem discusses the broad approach that was adopted in addressing the
problem. This should contain a description of the theoretical foundations that guided the
research, any analytical models formulated, research questions, hypothesis and the factors that
influenced the research design.
viii) Research design shows the details of the nature of the research design adopted,
information needed, data collection from secondary and primary sources, scaling techniques,
questionnaire development and pretesting, sampling techniques, and field work.
ix) Data analysis describes the plan of the data analysis conducted on the data. It justifies the
choice of the technique for a particular objective and hypothesis.
x) Results comprise of the results presented not only at the aggregate level but also at the
subgroup level. The results, as mentioned earlier, should be presented in the most simpler way,
enabling the decision maker to understand in the right sense.
xi) Limitations and Caveats contain the limitations caused by the research design, cost, time
and other organizational constraints. However, a research should not contain many limitations.
The researcher should have controlled many of the limitations during the research process.
xii) Conclusions and recommendations involve interpretation of the results in light of the

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problem being addressed to arrive at major conclusions. The decision maker makes decision
based on the conclusion and recommendations of the researcher.

GUIDELINES FOR TABLES

Data analysed should be presented in the research report in a tabular form. The guidelines for
tables are as follows:
i) Title and number should be given for every table such as 1a. The title should be very brief
just explaining the description of the information provided in the table.
ii) Arrangement of data items indicate that the data should be arranged in some order either
pertaining to time or data etc.
iii) Leaders, ruling and spaces should be made in such a way that they lead the eye
horizontally, impart uniformity, and improve readability.
iv) Explanations and comments: explanations and comments clarifying the table may be
provided in the form of captions, stubs and footnotes. Designations placed on the vertical
columns are headings; those placed in the left-hand are called stubs. Information that cannotbe
incorporated in the table should be explained by footnotes.
v) Sources of the data refer to citing the source of secondary data used in the research.

GUIDELINES FOR GRAPHS

The researcher may have used graphical interpretation of the results. Use of graphs
complements the textand the table adding clarity of communication and impact. The researcher
may use any type of graphssuch as pie or round charts, line charts, pictographs, histograms and
bar charts. While presentingthe graphs, the researcher should ensure that each section or line or
bar of the charts should be representedin different colours or shades.

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