CHAPTER 5

CONSUMERIZATION
DET30053 – POWER SYSTEMS

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 OUTCOME
✓Remember the power quality issues;
✓Understand the electrical energy demand;
✓Apply the understanding of electrical energy demand.

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 IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALITY
• ‘Power quality’ broadly refers to the delivery of a sufficiently
high grade of electric service;
• In general, it involves maintaining a sinusoidal load bus voltage
at stipulated magnitude and frequency;
• The power is to be provided in clean sinusoidal waveforms at a
frequency of 50Hz that does not contain sags or spikes, which
allows the customer’s equipment to operate reliably.

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 DEFINITION OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEM
• Any power problem manifested in voltage, current or
frequency deviations that result in failure or mal-operation of
customer equipment;
• In most cases, power quality is the quality of the voltage that is
being addressed;
• The supply system can only control the quality of voltage; it has
no control over the currents that some particular loads might
draw.
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• Poor Power Quality can be described as any event related to
the electrical network that ultimately results in a financial loss
& possible consequences of poor Power Quality include;
– Electronic communication interferences;
– Unexpected power supply failures;
– Damage to sensitive equipment;
– Equipment failure or malfunctioning;

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 POWER QUALITY PARAMETERS

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 Frequency

Voltage Variations

Voltage Flicker

Voltage Dip
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 Interruptions

Temporary Overvoltage

Transients

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 Unbalance

Harmonics

Interharmonics
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 FACTORS EFFECTING POWER QUALITY
• Harmonics Distortion
– Harmonics result from distortions to the voltage and/or current sine
waves;
– Commonly caused by ASDs (Adjustable Speed Drive), industrial
processes, certain electronic loads, and wiring connections;
– Can be corrected by filtering or resizing power system components;

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• When a source of sinusoidal voltage is applied to nonlinear
device or load (transistors and other semiconductor devices,
vacuum tubes, and iron core inductors), the resulting current is
not perfectly sinusoidal.
• In the presence of system impendence of this cause a non
sinusoidal voltage drop causing voltage distortion at the load
terminals known as harmonic distortion.

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 sin(5 x ) sin(5 x )
f ( x ) = sin( x ) f ( x) = f ( x ) = sin( x ) +
5 5

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 – Much of the equipment today, such as computers, automated
process control equipment and solid state power conversion
equipment, contains circuits which convert alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC);
– When energized, these power conversion circuits, themselves very
sensitive to power fluctuations and abnormalities, create harmonics
which can severely distort the power supply and cause problems for
others connected to the same source;

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• Sags
– Also know as voltage dips or brownout;
– names for a decrease in voltage to between 10 and 90% of nominal
voltage for one-half cycle to one minute;

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 – Sags are under-voltages on the power system and commonly caused
by power failures, downed lines, utility reclose operations, and
storms;
– They can be corrected by using backup power sources such as UPSs,
generators or similar voltage restoration technologies;
– The starting of large electrical loads or switching off shunt capacitor
banks can generate sag large enough to affect a local area;

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• Surges Voltage
– Surges are caused by over-voltages resulting from lightning, switching
on the utility power system and other causes without forewarning;

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 – A spike in voltage can be harmful to appliances and electrical devices
in your home;
– An increase in voltage above an appliance's normal operating voltage
can cause an arc of electrical current within the appliance;
– The heat generated in the arc causes damage to the electronic circuit
boards and other electrical components;

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 UNDER VOLTAGE OR OVER VOLTAGE
• Over voltage or under voltages means, supply voltage more or
less than the allowable tolerances.
• These are the causes of unbalance of supply and consumption
of reactive energy in network
• If generation of reactive power in more then the consumption
supply voltage will be high.
• If generation of reactive power is less than the consumption
voltage will be less.
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• Over Voltage
– When the voltage in a circuit or part of it is raised above its upper
design limit, this is known as overvoltage. The conditions may be
hazardous. Depending on its duration, the overvoltage event can be
transient—a voltage spike—or permanent;

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• Different Between Surge Voltage & Over Voltage
– When the voltage rises at least 10% above nominal for a period no
longer than 8.3 microseconds. Any duration from 8.3uS to 1 minute is
a "surge" and anything longer than 1 minute is an "overvoltage“;

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• Blackout
– Types of power outage
❖A permanent fault is a massive loss of power typically caused by a fault on a
power line;
❖A brownout is a drop in voltage in an electrical power supply. Brownouts can
cause poor performance of equipment or even incorrect operation;

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• Blackout or Power outage means energy is not available for
work.
• Power outage may be caused by generator maintenance
outage, failure of equipment of any critical element.

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 HOW TO ENHANCE THE POWER QUALITY?
• Surge Protector
– A surge protector (or surge suppressor) is an appliance/device
designed to protect electrical devices from voltage spikes;
– A surge protector attempts to limit the voltage supplied to an
electric device by either blocking or by shorting to ground any
unwanted voltages above a safe threshold;

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• A standard surge protector passes the electrical current along
from the outlet to a number of electrical and electronic devices
plugged into the power strip;
• If the voltage from the outlet surges or spikes -- rises above
the accepted level -- the surge protector diverts the extra
electricity into the outlet's grounding wire.

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 A simple MOV surge
protector with line
conditioning and a
fuse

Gas Discharge Arrestors

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• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
– is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load
when the input power source breakdown;
– typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data centres,
telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where
an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities,
serious business disruption or data loss;

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 – A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device
senses a loss of power from the primary source;
– When power surges occur, a UPS intercepts the surge so that
it doesn't damage the computer;

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 – Every UPS converts incoming AC to DC through a rectifier,
and converts it back with an inverter;
– Batteries or flywheels store energy to use in a utility failure;
– A bypass circuit routes power around the rectifier and
inverter;

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• Backup Generator
– Back-up electrical system that operates automatically;
– Within seconds of a utility outage an automatic transfer switch
senses the power loss, commands the generator to start and then
transfers the electrical load to the generator;
– After utility power returns, the automatic transfer switch transfers
the electrical load back to the utility and signals the standby
generator to shut off;

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 ✓ Required by building codes for
critical safety systems such as
elevators in high-rise buildings,
fire protection systems, standby
lighting, or medical and life
support equipment;

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• Passive Filter
– Passive filters have been used for harmonic mitigation purpose for a
long time;
– It divides by four – low-pass, high-pass, band-pass & tuned filter;
– Passive filtering has been preferred for harmonic compensation in
distribution systems due to low cost, simplicity, reliability, and control
less operation;

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✓Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads
representing more than 500 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs,
rectifiers, etc.);
✓ Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to
avoid disturbing sensitive loads;
✓Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid
overloads.

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 ❖Passive filter, consists in a capacitor connected in
series with an inductor so that the resonance
frequency is altogether equal to the frequency of
the harmonic to be eliminated;
❖Generally speaking, the passive filter is tuned to a
harmonic order close to the order to be eliminated;
❖Several parallel-connected branches of filters can
be used if a significant reduction in the distortion of
a number of harmonic orders is required.

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 DEMAND CURVE
• In electrical engineering, a load profile is a graph of the
variation in the electrical load versus time;
• A load profile will vary according to customer type (typical
examples include residential, commercial and industrial),
temperature and holiday seasons;

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 IMPORTANT TERMS & FACTORS
❖Maximum Demand
❖It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given
period;

❖Average Load
❖The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period
(day or month or year) is known as average load or average demand;

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 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟

❖Load Factor (The Load factor is always <=1)

❖The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given
period is known as load factor;
❖Load factor is always less than 1 because average load is smaller than
the maximum demand;
❖Higher the load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per
unit generated;
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 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

❖Diversity Factor (The diversity factor is always >= 1);

❖The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the
maximum demand on power station;
❖The greater the diversity factor, the lesser is the cost of generation
of power;
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
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 TYPES OF LOADS
• Domestic Loads;
– Most of the residential load occurs only for some hours during the
day;
– The load factor is low (10% to 12%);

• Commercial Loads;
– This class of load occurs for more hours during the day ;
– Extensive use of air conditioners and space heaters;

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• Industrial Loads;
– The magnitude of industrial load depends upon the type of industry;
• Small Scale - 25 kW
• Medium Scale - between 25 kW and 100 kW
• Large Scale - above 500 kW
– Industrial loads are generally not weather dependent;

• Municipal Loads;
– Municipal load consists of street lighting, power required for water
supply and drainage purposes;
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• Irrigation Loads;
– This type of load is the electric power needed for pumps driven by
motors to supply water to fields;
– Generally this type of load is supplied for 12 hours during night;

• Traction Loads;
– This type of load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways;
– This class of load has wide variation;

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 EXAMPLE (F.E DEC 2015)
The power plant has daily load demand shown in table below.
Calculate;
✓ Maximum Demand;
✓ Average Load;
✓ Load Factor;

Time (h) 0–6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24

Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40

(7 M)

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 EXAMPLE (F.E. DEC 2016)
1. List THREE (3) type of power plant with their energy sources.
(3M)
2. A power plant has daily load demand as shown in Table 1. Calculate;
Time 0–6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24
(hours)
Load 50 60 70 60 80 50
(MW)

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a. Maximum demand;
b. Average load
(5M)

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 EXAMPLE
A sub-station has three outgoing feeders, feeder 1 has maximum
demand 10 MW at 10:00 am, feeder 2 has maximum demand 12
MW at 7:00 pm and feeder 3 has maximum demand 15 MW at
9:00 pm. While the maximum demand of all three feeders is 33
MW at 8:00 pm. Calculate the diversity factor for this substation.

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