EARTH SCIENCE elSalam

Sala
For K12 STEM Students

EARTH'S INTERNAL STRUCTURE

DR. AHMED ABDEL SALAM

Prof of Earth Science
 Eartb's Internal Structure

Earth's Internal Structure

Rememeer that
The decrease in temperature caused those

substances with condense into

high melting points to
tiny particles that beqan to coalesce ((oin together).
Materias such as iron and nickel and the elements
ot which the rock-forming minerals are com posed
silicon calcium sodum and so forth-formed metalic
and rocky cumps that orbited the Sun
9 Repeated colisions caused these masses to coalesce
into
larger asteroid size bodies, caled planetesimals
which in Few tens of milions of years
a
accreted
into the four inner
plancts.
Formation of Earthis Layered Structure
As materidl occumulated to form Earth (and for a
short period afterward), the high-velocity impact of
nebular debris and the decay of radioactive elements
caused the temperature PhysicalProperties
of Our planet to Chemical Properties
Manti
eompos
increase steadily. LIthosphere Fe. Uesa 3.3-
-r ecomposioon:
brittesolid) S. 8/Em composition:
Astheosphere-
27% S
(ductile solid)

Durin this time Of Mesosphere.

(rgid solid)
e
Fe and Ni

aloy Density 4%Ca

2% Mg K, Na)
13
Outer Core
intense heating Earth (lhquid)

became hot enough that nr NotE: There are nwo typesof

ustconnnand
iron and nickel beaan to Ocnic.Lonunental crust is
COmposed mosty or granmte
(2.7-3.08/m") and oceanc

melt.

Dr. Ahmd Abdel Salam OIOOO7G3TT3

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

Meting produced lquid blobs of dense metal that

sank toward the center of the
planet
This process occurred rapidly on the scle o+

geologic time and produced Earth's dense iron-rich

Core

Chemical DFferentiation and Earth's Layers

The early period of heating resulted in another
Process of chemical difFerentiation whereby
melting formed buoyant masses of moten rock
that toward the surtace,where
rose
they
soliditied to produce a primitive crust. Thcs
rocky materials were eiriched in oxygen and
oxygen-seeking elements particularly silicon and
aluminum along with lesser amounts of calcum
sodum potassurm, iron, and magnesum
I n addtion some heavy metals such as gold lcad,
and urarium which have low melting points or were
hicnly souble in the ascending moten masses, were
GCavenged hrom Earth's interior and concentrated
in the developing crust.
This carly period of chemical difterentiation
cstablished the three basic divisions of Earth's
interior: the iron-rich core the thin primitive crust
and Earths largest layer, calcd the marntle, which is
located between the core and crust

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOT63T73

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

An Atmosphere Develops

An important consequence of the early period

of chemical differentiationis that large
quantities of qoseaus materials were alowed to
escape rom Earthis interior, as happens today
during volcanic eruptions.
By this process, a primitive atmosphere grada

aly evolved. t is on this planet, with his

aftmosphere, that like as we know it caine nto

existence. lel
S

Earth's Internal Structure

Methods to Infer Earths Interior??
There are several methods that enable us to infer
about the earthis interior:

Xenoliths
Xenoliths are like chocolate chunks in a cookie
douah pieces of mantle within the lava (foreian
rock inclusions in
an laneous rock)
Xenoliths provide
in+ormation about
the lower crust

and the upper

mantle

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOTG3TT3

Prof of Earth Sciernce
Eartb's Imternal Structure

They are
storehouse of valuable information
a

about the
composition of continental and oceanC
crusts that the otherwise
inaccessiole Matle,
does not provide.
The presence of
coorse-arained Olivine
Peridotite) in basdtic lavas is one such
cxample
which has been

that of a
brouaht up from far below.
Xenoliths ranae in size from a qrain of
boulder, being as biq as
SaialA
a toot
sandto

2-Ophiolites
Ophiolites are rich in iron-maanesium Silicate
minerals that once
Velocity (in km/sec)
oriainated deep within Sediments
the earthis interior lowbasalt

Sheeted dykes
Now ying on the
Plagiogranitey
surace, they are Gabbro s Layered
unstable and hence, Moho

convert rapidly into Mantie

Persdotet
11

hydrated magnesium
silicate minerals, forming serpent-lke bands with
vivid areen/brown colors in the rock Hence, the
name Ophiolites lin Greek 'ophs', means snak.e, and
'lithos, means rock)
The Ophiolites provide another linc of direct
evidence of the earths interior

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam o00OT63TT3

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

They are sections of the earth's oceanic crust

and the underlying upper mantle that has been

uplited or
emplaced and exposed within the
continental crustal rocks and characterize an

assemblage of rocks that are formed at

spreading ridges
3-Volcanism
Volcanism (both Recent and Ancient i
Paleovolcanism) provides another evidence ot

intormation about the upper mantle

Paleovolcanoloaic studies reveal the qeodynamical
conditions that existed af the time of eruption.
Such a
study helps to identify bets of paleo
ridges, zones o paleo-spreading and palco
transforn oults

4 Driling
Drilinq as a tool to understand the earth's
interior, is lirmited to Few
kilometers below due to
increased qeothermal
aradient within the earth's
crust (with cach km
depth the temperature
increases by - 25 the

temperature aradient).

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OI00OT63773

Prof of Earth Science
 Eartb's Imternal Structure

Most driled holes are in the

upper 7 km o the
crust and the
deepest one (the Kola Superdeep
Borehole drilled from 1989 to 1994) is about |2
km deep in the northern Kola Peninsula, NN
Soviet Union Russia The rocks encountered
were 2.7 billion years old

5 Meteorites
They provide excelent information about hie
earths interior and are thought to be remnants
o the core and
plume
mantle of other
fal back

planetary bodies 1. Moteorito

Impact ejecta
rom tsunami
within the
Solar System all o melt

which were tormed shock

wave

at the Same time

2. Sudbury Crater ejecta layer
and trom the same
material as our
melt fractured
rock shocked
earth rock

Stony meteorites are very similar in composition

to the materiols that we find within the Xenoliths
and at the bottom of Ophiolites
The earth's mantle is made out of Peridotite
which is the same material that is also +ound in
Ophiolites Xenoliths and in Stony meteorites

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OI000763773

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

Scismic Waves
The Seismic waves provide the most

Comprchensive picture of the earths interior.

The particular velocity at which a seismic waVC

travels through a layer aives clues about the

chemical composition of the

layer.
+the earth were of the same
compositior en
sesmic waves would, like any other wave toke
longer to travel further and die out in velocity
and strenath with increasing distance (this
this

decrease is called Attenuaticn)

However, down 2 0 0 km the seismic waves
arrive with higher velocities than those within a

200 km radius indicating the presence ota

denser layer below; the seismic waves travel
aster in denser material.
Based on this fact, scientists detected a
boundary within the carths interior, a boundary
between the crust and a denser layer below, the
mantle.
This crust-mantle boundary is also caled the
Mohorovicic discontinuity (better known as
Moho), in honor of its Croatian
discoverer
Such sudden umps in seismic velocities across a
boundar y are called Seismic discontinuities

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOO0T 3773

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure
Hence, a
systematic study of he waves and their
Propagation gives a robust idea dbout the earth?
interior, its structure and
camposition

Layering by
Chemical Compositon Layering by
The let side el this eross section
Physical Properties Hydrosphere
shows Layers on the rigm side are based on AtMOSper
thatthare are three diant layers based factors such as whedher the layer is
fquid or selid, weak or strong
cean

Lihosphee nd

Upodel
Sal km thick

koer ante
(old)
A o d e l
&
er a
Mantle
hgh dessty feck

Outer

Transition zone

hme me

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OI0OOT3T73

Prof of Earth Scierce
 EARTH SCIENCE delSalam
For K12 STEM Students

EARTH'S INTERNAL STRUCTURE 2

ned

DR. AHMED ABDEL SALAM

Prof. of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

Interior ot the Earth

Earths three compositionaly distinct layers-the
crust mantle, and core-can be further subdivided
into based on
zones
physical propertics
The physical properties used to define such

regions include whether the layer is sold or

liquid and how weak or strong t is.

Knowiedge of both the chemical composition
and physicad properties of Eartns dayers is
cssential to our
understanding of b0sic geologic
processes, such as volcaniem carthquakes, and
mountain building (next iqure)
Crust
stron. Upper mante
5-70 kn rocky, incudes weak
and strong ayers)

Hydrosphere Atmospbere
(Bqud

OCeanic
crust
SUTe Mantile Lower mantie
Lithesphere Lithospheric
ConIoe0a
With but etror CrGSI

pfelsue rochy layers

100 km
Ahenphere
pper
2900 km

Outercore
600km
Figure Views of Earth's layered
structure The properties of Earth's layers
include the physical state of the material (solid, Core
liquid, or gas) as well as how strong the materia
is-for example, the distinction between the
strong lithosphere and weak asthenosphere 5150 km
Inner
Studies have shown that Earth's layers are COre
mainly determined by density, with the heaviest
materiais (iron) at the center and the lightest ones
(gases and liquids) on the outside
- 6371 kTm

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOO0763773

Prof of Earth Science
 Eartb's Internal Structure

The Crust

Earths Crust The crust is Earthis

relatively thin
rocky outer skin and two types exist contnental
crust and oceanic crust
Continental crust and oceanic crust have very
ditferent compositions, histories, and ages
Inact, oceanic crust is compositionally more
similar to Earth s mantle than to continental crust

Continental Crust (0-75 km) Sala

Continental crust: the crust that makes up the

continernts.
Continental crust avernaes aoout 40 kilometers
(25 miles) thickbut can be more than 75
kilometers (40 miles) thick in mountainous reaions
Such as the Himalayas and the Arndes.
Continental erust has average density of about
an

2.7 /cm which is much lower than the density

of mante rock
The low density of the continents relative to the
mantle explains why continents are buoyant-
actin like ajant rafts, Hoating atop the underlying
mantle-and why they cannot be readily subducted
into the mantle.

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOO7%3773

Prof of Earth Scence
Eartb's Internal Structure

Because continental rocks cannot be casily

recycled into the mantle, cotinental rocks older

than 4 ba have been found
Urlike aceanic crust which has a rclatiely
continerntal
homogeneous chemical composition
crust consists ot many rock types
Continental crust contains qreat variety o a

rock types, ranging from mafic to felsig in

composition 1a
On average, upper continental crust is less matic
than oceanic crust-it has a felsio (gronite-like) to
continental crust
intermediate Composition-so
overall is less dense than oceanic crust. Notably,
element in the crust.
oxygen is the most abundant
me

Subduction zone (a) (b)

Lithosphere (rigid)
400
650 Crust and Asthenosphere
LITHOSPHERE (plastic)
Mantie
Lower Mantle Mid-Oceanic Mesosphere (rigid)
ridge
ASTHENOSPHERE
E 2700- Shallow
2890 Transition Mantle
Outer Core (iquid)
Dláyer region (source ore
of basaitic magma) Inner Core (solid)

Continental crust 0-75 km

Oceanic Crust 0-10 km
(c)
Outer Core
Upper Mantle 10-400 kmm
(molten) Transition zone 400-650 km
5150
inner
MESOSPHERE Lower Mantle 650-2890 km
D" layer 2700-2890 km
Gore solid-liquid 2890-5150 km
Outer Core
boundary Inner Core 5150-6378 km
6378

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOT63773

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb'sInternal Sructure

EOceanic Crust (0-1O km)

the oceans.
&Occanic crust crust beneath
as
crust is younger than and not
T h e oceanic

thick as, the continental crust.

miles)
The ocean crust is about 7 kilometers (4

thick and Forms alona the mid-ocean ridge system

of the oceanic crust are yOurgen
T h e rocks
tharn
(200 million years old or less) and denger
ala
continental rocks.

Oceanic crust has a density of

dark iqneous rocks basat
and is composed ot the

and gabbro
ot
Hawaii and Iceland are two classic examples
Such accumulations.

oceanic crust ocean surface

continental crust

mantle lithosphere
50 km
mantle asthenosphere
500 km

OI00073773
Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam
Prof of Earth Science
 Eartb'sInternal Structure

The Nature of Qccanic Crust

From these exposures and core Samples
collected by deep-sea driling ships, researchers
have concluded that the ocean crust consists ot

four distinct layers

ayer t The upper layer isa sequence ot deep-sea

sediments or sedimentary rocks. Sediments are
am
very thin near the axes of oceanic ridaes.
s rock
Layer 2: Below the layer of sedimerits a

unit composed mainly of basaltic avasthat contain

aoundant pillow-lke structures called pillow lavas.

is made o
Layer 3: The middle, rocky layer up
numerous interconnected dikes that have a nearly
vertical orierntation called a
sheeted dike complex. These ROCK TYPE

Layer #1
dikes are former pathways Deep-sea sediment

where magma rose to feed Layer #2

Pillow lavas
(basaitic)

pillow basalts on the ocean

Layer 3
Ploor Sheeted dike
complex

4: The lowest layer is

Layer
the coarse Layer
mainly qalbbro Gabbro

arained equivalent of basalt,

Layered gabbro
Mantle
which crystallized deeper in Peridobite and
related rocks

the crust without eruptin

OIOOOT3773
Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam
Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

When Aragments of accanic crust and the

larnd they are
underlying martie are discovered on
ophiolite complex From studies of various
called an
he alobe ard related
ophiolte complexes araurd
data geologists have pieced together a scenario

tor the formation of the acecan Hoor

Sediments
am
Sediments
Pillow
Lavas

Sheeted Dykes
Lithosphere

Gabbro Granitic
Intrusions Basement

30km
Tkm Ultrabasic Ultrabasic
Rock Rock 100km
100km

Asthenosphere

The Matie

Earths Mantle More than 62 percent of Earths

volume is contained in the mantle, a solid rocky shell

2900 kilometers
that cxtends to a depth of dbout
1800 miles) beneath Earths crust.

OlOOOT%3773
Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salom
Prof of Earth Scienee
 Eartb's Internal Structure

The
boundary between the crust
represents a
cnust and mantle
mantle
marked
composition chanae
chonge in chemical
The dominant rock
type in the
is
peridotite, which is richer uppermost marnte
in the
metals iron and
maanesium than are the rocks found in
continental or oceanic crust.
either the
The
upper mantle extends
from the crust-montie
boundary down to a of depth SaboutGO
arcaboutooo
kilometers (410 miles)
Kecall that the
upper mantle is dividedito two
ditFerent parts. The
portiontop of the
mantle is upper
part of thetiFF lthosphere, and
beneath that is th
wdaker asthenosphere.
Lithosphere
Theuppermost mantle and and Crust together
constitute the rigid
layer of rock called the
thosphere (lithos is the Greek word for stone)
Crust is the upper part of the lithosphere, and
upper mantle is the lower part of the

lithosphere.
Within the mantle, the upper part is cooler and
more riajid than the deeper
Hence, the upper part behaves more like the
overlying crust.

Dr. Ahmed Albdel Salam OIOOOTG3773

Prof of Earth Science

Eartb's Internal Structure

arnd
Lithosphere is thirrnest under occans

thickest under continents

The lithosphere is broken into moving plates
that contain the world's continents and oceans

The bae of the lithosphere and he top of he

the asthenosphere, is marked by a
next layer,
and S-
sudden decrease in velocities of both P-
Waves, at around IOO km Salam
Asthenosphere C
mobile zone exists below the
A relatively narrow,
e
and within the Mantle
ithosphere
is
This is called the asthenosphere (Asthenes
a

Greek word for weak or plastic)

Nearer o he surface of the earth
temperature is relatively high but the pressure
mantle is partialy
1sgreaty reduced thus,
molten and accordingy, this zone is composed

of hot, semi-solid material that can sotten and

How.
The rigid lithosphere is thought to "Hoat or

move about on this slowly Howing

asthenosphere.
The asthenosphere is the likely source of much

of the basaltic maamas

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salan OIOOOT3773

Prof of Earth Science
 Eartb's Internal Structure

Mesosphere
Mesosphere is the layer below the Asthenosphere
and includes the majority of the mantie and core.

This layer is more of physical sionificance rather

than tectonic.
The boundary between Mesosphere and

Asthenosphere is marked by an
abrupt increa
in the velocitics of seismic waves at a depth o
about 400 km representing a termperature and

pressure change.
This change is marked by a palymorphic phase
transition a change in the crystal structure o

olivine, one of the most abundant mineral within

hme
the mantle.

The Core
The core is thauoht to consist mainly of iron
cembined with an unknown quantity of nickel as well
as minor amounts ot oxyqen silicon and sulfur-
elements that readily form compounds with iron

Because ot the extreme pressure found in the

core, this iron-rich material has an average

density of more than 10 times the density of

water, or 0 4/cm. The density at Earths center
is about 13 times that of water, or 5 q/cm

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOO0763773

Prof of Earth Science
OEartb'sInternal Structure
to
Studies of scismic waves ed geoscientists
core
divide the core into two parts, the outer
the
between 2,900 and 5,55 km deep) and
inner core (from a depth of 5,55 km down

to the Earth's ceter at 6371 km).

3 The Outer Cor

m
T h e outer core consists of liquid iron alloy

t can exist liquid because the temperature

as a
h a t even
in the outer c o r e 5155 km is so

the sques9 the region

great pressures
solid
cannot keep atoms ocked into a

framework.
and
The iron alloy o the outer core can How,
this Howqencrates Earth's magnetic icld

The inineir core

The inner core, with a radius ot about 1220

reach a
km is a alloy that may
solid iron

temperature ot over 4,700-C

Even though it is hotter than the outer core,
the inner core is a sold becausC t is deeper

and is subjected to even greater pressure. The

pressure keeps atoms lockcd together tightly
n very dense materials

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam Ol000763T73

Prof of Earth Science
Eartb's Internal Structure

Discontinuities Inside the Earth

Earths interior is made of dfferent kinds ot
materials.
Each of those materials are different trom
cach other by their physical and chemical
properties, such as temperature, density etc.
All those layers are separated from each
other through a transition zone
These transition zones are called discontiruities.

There are Live discontinuesin-ide thecarth

Conrad Discontinuity: Transition zone between SiAL
Cc) and SIMA (OC)
Mohorovicic Discortirnuity: Transition zone betwecen
the Crust and cONORD discontinuty between
upper & lower orust

Mantle MOHOROVICC
Discontinuity
Repiti belween ower
crust & upper
mante
Grust
Upper Mantle
REPITI
Discortinuity: Mantle
Dscontinuity
between upper
lower Mante
Transition zone GUTTENBERG
Outer Core/
discontinuity
between outer and
between Outer inner core
Inner'Core
LEHMANN
Discontinuity
between outer&
mantle and Inner inner core

mantle.
Transition between
Gqutenberg Discontinuity: zone

Mantle and Core.

Lehman Discontinuity: Transition zone between
Outer core and Inner core.

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam Ol00OT63T73

Prof of Earth Sciencc