COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (SCI 3)

SECOND SEMESTER A.Y.2022-2023

LECTURE 3
EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
BSCE 2B and 2C
ENGR. JOVIN MANARIN
:
Course Outline:

I. GENERAL GEOLOGY

1. Geology in Civil Engineering

2. Branches of geology
3. Earth Structure and Composition
4. Elementary knowledge on continental drift and plate
tectonics
5. Earth processes-Weathering
6. Work of rivers, wind and sea and their engineering
importance
7. Origin, occurrence of earthquake
8. Mode of occurrence
9. Prospecting Ground water
10. Ground water
11. Importance in civil engineering
Earth Structure &
Composition
Formation. When the solar system settled into its current layout about 4.5
billion years ago, Earth formed when gravity pulled swirling gas and dust in
to become the third planet from the Sun. Like its fellow terrestrial planets,
Earth has a central core, a rocky mantle, and a solid crust.

The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust,
the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique
chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface

These layers are both physically and chemically different. The Earth has an
outer solid layer called the crust, a highly viscous layer called the mantle, a
liquid layer that is the outer part of the core, called the outer core, and a
solid center called the inner core.

Starting at the center, Earth is composed of four distinct layers. They are, from
deepest to shallowest, the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the
crust. Except for the crust, no one has ever explored these layers in person.
Earth Structure &
Composition
Structure of the Earth
Diagram
 Compositional Layers of the
Earth is composed of multiple layers, which can be defined either
Earth
by composition or by mechanical properties. The crust, mantle, and core
are defined by differences in composition. The lithosphere, asthenosphere,
mesosphere, and outer and inner cores are defined by differences in
mechanical properties.
More than 90 percent of Earth’s mass is composed of iron, oxygen, silicon, and
magnesium, elements that can form the crystalline minerals known as
silicates. Nevertheless, in chemical and mineralogical composition, as in
physical properties, Earth is far from homogeneous. Apart from the superficial
lateral differences near the surface

geochemical cycle, developmental path followed by individual elements or

groups of elements in the crustal and subcrustal zones of the Earth and on
its surface. The concept of a geochemical cycle encompasses geochemical
differentiation (i.e., the natural separation and concentration of elements by
Earth processes) and heat-assisted, elemental recombination processes.

For the lithosphere (i.e., the crust and upper mantle), the geochemical cycle
begins with the crystallization of a magma at the surface or at depth. In turn,
surface alteration and weathering break down the igneous rock, a process
that is followed by the transportation and deposition of the resulting material
as sediment.
This sediment becomes lithified and eventually metamorphosed until melting
occurs and new magma is generated. This ideal cycle can be interrupted at
any point. Each element may be affected differently as the cycle progresses.
During the weathering of an igneous rock, for example, minerals containing
iron, magnesium, and calcium break down and are carried in solution, but
silicon- rich quartz and feldspar are mainly transported as sediment.

The resultant sedimentary rocks are dominated by quartz and feldspar,

whereas others are dominated by calcium and magnesium owing to the
precipitation of calcium or magnesium carbonates. Such elements as sodium
remain in solution until precipitated under extreme conditions.

As partial melting of sedimentary rocks begins, elements become separated

according to melting properties; volatiles are released to the atmosphere,
and physical movement of chemically separated bodies occurs. While the
geochemical cycle over a short term is in a seemingly steady state, long-term,
or secular, changes occur. Thus, for example, continents and oceans have
evolved over geologic time.
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF
EARTH
Layers of the Earth

To understand the details of plate tectonics, one must first understand the
layers of the Earth. Unfortunately, humankind has insufficient first-hand
information regarding what is below; most of what we know is pieced
together from models, seismic waves, and assumptions based on meteorite
material.
The Earth can be divided into layers based on chemical composition
and physical characteristics.
Layers of the
Earth
Crust

The crust is the outermost chemical layer, and the layer humans currently
reside on. The crust has two types: continental crust, which is relatively low
density and has a composition similar to granite, and oceanic crust, which is
relatively high density (especially when it is cold and old) and has a
composition similar to basalt. In the lower part of the crust, rocks start to be
more ductile and less brittle because of added heat. Earthquakes, therefore,
generally occur in the upper crust.

At the base of the crust is a substantial change in seismic velocity called

the Mohorovičić Discontinuity, or Moho for short, discovered by Andrija
Mohorovičić (pronounced mo-ho-ro-vee-cheech) in 1909 by studying
earthquake wave paths in his native Croatia. It is caused by the dramatic
change in composition between the mantle and the crust. Underneath the
oceans, the Moho is about 5 km down. Under continents, the average is about
30-40 km, except near a sizeable mountain-building event, known as an
orogeny, where that thickness is roughly doubled.
Mantle

The mantle is the layer below the crust and above the core. It is the most
substantial layer by volume, extending from the base of the crust to a depth of
about 2900 km. Most of what we know about the mantle comes from seismic
waves, though some direct information can be gathered from parts of the
ocean floor brought to the surface, known as ophiolites. Also carried within
magma are xenoliths, small chunks of lower rock carried to the surface by
eruptions. These xenoliths are made of the rock peridotite, which is ultramafic
on the scale of igneous rocks. We assume the majority of the mantle is made
of peridotite.

Core

The core of the Earth, which has both liquid and solid components, is made
mainly of iron, nickel, and oxygen. It was first discovered in 1906 by looking
into seismic data. It took the union of modeling, astronomical insight, and
seismic data to arrive at the idea that the core is primarily metallic iron.
Meteorites contain much more iron than typical surface rocks. If meteoric
material is what made the Earth, the core would have formed as dense
material (including iron and nickel) sank to the center of the Earth via its
weight as the planet formed, heating the Earth intensely.
 Physical Layers
The Earth can also be broken down into five distinct physical layers based on
how each layer responds to stress. While there is some overlap in the
chemical and physical designations of layers, precisely the core-mantle
boundary, there are significant differences between the two systems. (2 Plate
Tectonics – An Introduction to Geology, )
Lithosphere

The lithosphere, with ‘litho’ meaning rock, is the outermost physical layer of
the Earth. Including the crust, it has both oceanic and continental
components.

Oceanic lithosphere, ranging from a thickness of zero (at the forming of new
plates on the mid-ocean ridge) to 140 km, is thin and rigid.

The continental lithosphere is more plastic (especially with depth) and thicker,
from 40 to 280 km thick. Most importantly, the lithosphere is not continuous.
Instead, it is broken into several segments that geologists call plates. A plate
boundary is where two plates meet and move relative to each other. It is at
and near plate boundaries where plate tectonics are seen, including mountain
building, earthquakes, and volcanism.
Asthenosphere

With ‘astheno’ meaning weak, the asthenosphere is the layer below the
lithosphere. The most distinctive property of the asthenosphere is
movement. While still solid, over geologic time scales, it will flow and move
because it is mechanically weak. In this layer, partly driven by convection of
intense interior heat, movement allows the lithospheric plates to move.

Since certain types of seismic waves pass through the asthenosphere, we

know that it is solid, at least at the short time scales of the passage of seismic
waves. The depth and occurrence of the asthenosphere are dependent on heat
and can be very shallow at mid-ocean ridges and very deep in plate interiors
and beneath mountains.
Mesosphere

The mesosphere, or lower mantle as it is sometimes called, is more rigid and

immobile than the asthenosphere, though still hot. This can be attributed to
increased pressure with depth. Between approximately 410 and 660 km depth,
the mantle is in a state of transition, as minerals with the same composition
are changed to various forms, dictated by increasing pressure conditions.
Changes in seismic velocity show this, and this zone also can be a physical
barrier to movement. Below this zone, the mantle is uniform and
homogeneous, as no significant changes occur until the core is reached.

The outer core is the only liquid layer found within Earth. It starts at 2,890 km
(1,795 mi) depth and extends to 5,150 km (3,200 mi). Inge Lehmann, a
Danish geophysicist, in 1936, was the first to prove that there was an inner
core that was solid within the liquid outer core based on analyzing seismic
data. The solid inner core is about 1,220 km (758 mi) thick, and the outer core
is about 2,300km (1,429 mi) thick
It seems like a contradiction that the hottest part of the Earth is substantial, as
hot temperatures usually lead to melting or boiling. The solid inner core can be
explained by understanding that the immense pressure inhibits melting,
though as the Earth cools by heat flowing outward, the inner core grows over
time. As the liquid iron and nickel in the outer core moves and convects, it
becomes the most likely source for Earth’s magnetic field.

This is critically important to maintaining the atmosphere and conditions

on Earth that make it favorable to life. Loss of outer core convection and
the
Earth’s magnetic field could strip the atmosphere of most of the gases
essential to life and dry out the planet, much like what has happened to
Mars.

Structure of Earth’s Crust

The fundamental unifying principle of geology and the rock cycle is the theory
of Plate Tectonics. Plate tectonics describes how the layers of the Earth move
relative to each other. Specifically, the outer layer is divided into tectonic or
lithospheric plates. As the tectonic plates float on a mobile layer beneath
called the asthenosphere, they collide, slide past each other, and split apart.
As a result, significant landforms are created at these plate boundaries, and
rocks making up the tectonic plates move through the rock cycle
The following summarizes the Earth’s layers based on chemical composition
(or the chemical makeup of the layers). Earth has three main geological layers
based on chemical composition – crust, mantle, and core. The outermost layer
is the crust and is composed of mostly silicon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, and
magnesium. There are two types of crust, continental and oceanic crust.

Continental crust is about 50 kilometers (30 miles) thick, represents most

continents, and is composed of low-density igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Oceanic crust is approximately 10 kilometers (6 miles) thick, makes up most of
the ocean floor, and covers about 70 percent of the planet. Oceanic crust is
high-density igneous basalt-type rocks. The moving tectonic plates are made of
crust and the upper layers of the mantle. The crust and this portion of the
upper mantle are rigid and called the lithosphere and make up the tectonic
plates.
Continents

The oldest continental rocks are billions of years old, so the continents have
had much time to happen to them. Constructive forces cause physical
features on Earth’s surface known as landforms to grow. Crustal deformation
– when crust compresses, pulls apart, or slides past other crust – results in
hills, valleys, and other landforms.

Mountains rise when continents collide when one slab of ocean crust plunges
beneath another or a slab of continental crust to create a chain of volcanoes.
Sediments are deposited to form landforms, such as deltas. Volcanic
eruptions can also be destructive forces that blow landforms apart. The
destructive
forces of weathering and erosion modify landforms. Water, wind, ice, and
gravity are fundamental forces of erosion.
Oceanic Basins
The ocean basins are all younger than 180 million years. Although the ocean
basins begin where the ocean meets the land, the continent extends
downward to the seafloor, making the continental margin of continental crust.

The ocean floor itself is not flat. The most distinctive feature is the mountain
range that runs through much of the ocean basin, known as the mid-ocean
ridge. The ocean trenches are the deepest places of the ocean, many of which
are found around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. Chains of volcanoes are also
found in the center of the oceans, such as around Hawaii. Finally, flat plains
are located on the ocean floor with their features covered by mud.
DEFINITIONS: LECTURE
NO.1
DEFINITIONS: LECTURE NO.3

1. Our planetary system is named the "solar system" because our Sun is named Sol, after
the Latin word for Sun, "solis," and anything related to the Sun we call "solar." Our
planetary system is located in an outer spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy.
2. To move with an eddying or whirling motion swirling water. b : to pass in whirling confusion.
2 : to have a twist or convolution. transitive verb. : to cause to swirl swirled her drink.
3. Viscous , having a thick, sticky consistency between solid and liquid; having a high viscosity.
4. Core ,the central, innermost, or most essential part of anything.
5. Precipitation, cause (a substance) to be deposited in solid form from a solution.
6. Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a
result of Earth's subterranean movements.
7. Homogeneous consisting of parts all of the same kind.; of the same or a similar kind or
nature
8. Superficial lexisting or occurring at or on the surface; An example of superficial is an oil
spill that doesn't go very deep into the ocean.
9. Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through Earth's layers, and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large man-made
explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic energy.
1. . Astronomy is the study of everything in the universe beyond Earth's atmosphere. That
includes objects we can see with our naked eyes, like the Sun , the Moon , the planets, and
the stars . It also includes objects we can only see with telescopes or other instruments,
like faraway galaxies and tiny particles.
2. Meteoric of or relating to a meteor. b : resembling a meteor in speed or in sudden and
temporary brilliance a meteoric rise to fame. 2 : of, relating to, or derived from the
earth's atmosphere meteoric water.
3. Convection is a way for heat to move, also referred to as a heat transfer mechanism. This
transfer of heat happens when a fluid such as air or water is in motion. Convection is
driven by temperature differences across that fluid.
4. Continental crust is the layer of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms
the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as
continental shelves.
5. Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of the tectonic plates. It is
composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower
oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumulates. The crust overlies
the solidified and uppermost layer of the mantle.
6. Crustal deformation occurs when applied forces exceed the internal strength of rocks,
physically changing their shapes. These forces are called stress, and the physical
changes they create are called strain.
E N D OF L E C T U R E NO.3
END OF LECTURE NO.1