BEE – UNIT - 2

Unit – 2 (BEE) R19&R20 Regulations – I ECE II Semester

Transformers: Principle of operation of single phase transformer constructional features –
EMF equation – Losses and efficiency of transformer- regulation of transformer – OC & SC
tests predetermination of efficiency and regulations – Sumpner’s test-Numerical Problems.

1. Explain the Working principle of transformer

1. The basic working principle of a

transformer is mutual induction
between two windings linked by
common magnetic flux.
2. The primary and secondary coils
are electrically separated but
magnetically linked to each other.
3. When, primary winding is
connected to a source of alternating
voltage, alternating magnetic flux is
produced around the winding.
4. The core provides magnetic path
for the flux, to get linked with the
secondary winding. Most of the flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called
as 'useful flux' or main 'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding
is called as 'leakage flux'.
5. As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing), EMF gets
induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
This induced emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the frequency of mutually induced
emf is same as that of supplied emf. Thus, in a transformer the frequency is same on both
sides.
6. If the secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced makes the current flow
through it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to another
circuit (secondary).
2. Derive the EMF Equation of a Transformer
Let
ϕm = Maximum value of flux in Weber
f = Supply frequency in Hz
N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ = flux per turn in Weber
As per the faradays laws,
The average value of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux.
 The flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.
 Flux increases from its zero value to maximum value ϕm in one quarter of the cycle
i.e. in ¼ of the timeperiod.
d  m  0
 Average rate of change of flux is   4 m f volts
dt 1
4f

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 Therefore the average e.m.f per turn is 4 m f

Rmsvalue
 As  Formfactor  1.11 for sinusoidal varying quatities
Averagevalue
 Hence, RMS value of e.m.f/turn is 1.11 * 4m f  4.44m f
 RMS value of e.m.f in the primary & secondary winding. =( e.m.f/turn) * No:of turns
 Therefore Emf induced in primary winding having N1turns is E1  4.44 m fN1
 Emf induced in secondary winding having N2 turns is E 2  4.44 m fN 2
3. Explain the Construction of Transformer
1. The simple construction of a transformer, need two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core.
2. The two coils are insulated from each other and from the
steel core.
3. The device will also need some suitable container for the
assembled core and windings, a medium with which the
core and its windings from its container can be insulated.
4. In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the
winding from the tank, bushings made of porcelain are
used.
5. In all transformers, the core is made of transformer sheet
steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included.
6. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to happen, the steel
should be made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated.
7. By effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be reduced. The lamination
can be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or lay an oxide layer on the
surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm to
0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.
8. To reduce the leakage fluxes in the transformer the windings of the primary and secondary
coils are interleaved in the core type and sandwiched coils in the shell type.
9. To reduce the volume of the cu wire the core used must be the stepped core or cruciform
core.
4. Compare and distinguish the types of transformers
There are two major types of transformers based on construction. 1. Core type 2. Shell type

S.No Core type Transformer Shell type transformer

1 The winding encircles the core The core encircles the winding
2 The cylindrical type of coils are used Generally multilayer disc type or
sandwiched coils coils are used
3 As windings are distributed, the As windings are surrounded by the core,
natural cooling is more effective the natural cooling does not exists.
4 The coils can be easily removed from For removing any winding for
the maintenance point of view maintenance, a large number of laminations
are to be removed. This is difficult.
5 The construction is preferred for low The construction is used for very high
voltage transformers voltage transformers
6 It has a single magnetic core It has a double magnetic core
7 In a single phase type there are two In a single phase type the core has three
limbs limbs

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5. Explain the operation of Transformer on No Load.

Ideal transformer at No-Load:
1. The transformer operating at no load, is equivalent to the secondary winding kept open
circuited, which means current in the secondary is zero.
2. When primary winding is excited at its rated voltage it draws a current Im called magnetizing
current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current. This generates the magnetic flux in the core by
primary mmf N1Im
3. As the transformer is ideal, the core loss and cu loss are zero. And the net current taken is to
create the mmf or flux of alternating nature.
4. This alternating flux induces the emf’s E1 and E2 in the coils which lags the flux by 900
5. The Im is inphase to the flux and the applied voltage leads to the Im by 900 being the coil with
pure inductive type.
6. Hence, emf’s E1 and E2 in the coils are inphase to each other and lags the flux by 900

Ideal Transformer at No-Load

Transformer at No-Load:
1. The transformer in the practical case draws an additional current Iw to the magnetizing
current Im and total current from the supply mains is I0 which lags to the applied voltage by
an angle Φ0
2. There are two components of the current in I0 namely
i. Active (or) power (or) Watt full component of the current Iw which is in phase to the
voltage, and generates the core loss in the transformer
ii. Reactive (or) Watt less (or) magnetizing component of the current Im which lags to the
voltage by 900, and magnetizes the core in the transformer
3. Also, the no-load input power of the transformer is the iron loss (since the cu loss are small at
no-load)
4. The no load angle (Φ0) depends upon the losses in the transformer and is nearly equal to 900.
So that the power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15 lagging.

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6.

6. Explain the operation of Transformer on Load without leakage impedances of the

coils.

1. When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer a current

flows in the secondary winding.
2. This secondary current is due to the induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux Φ
in the core from the primary current(I0) and the main flux direction is from primary coil to
secondary coil (clockwise)

3. The secondary current, I2 which is determined by the characteristics of the load, creates an
secondary or load mmf (N2I2) and a secondary magnetic field, Φ2 is established in the
transformer core which flows in the exact opposite direction to the main primary field, Φ1. i.e
Φ2 is in anti clock wise.
4. These two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of less
magnetic strength than the single field produced by the primary winding alone when the
secondary circuit was open circuited.

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5. This in turn decreases the primary induced emf and leads to the increase in primary current
I1=I0+I21.
6. This additional I21 current is called load component current in the primary and will be in such
a way to balance the load mmf by this mmf on the primary
i.e N2I2=N1I21 therefore I21= I2K where, K = N2/N1
7. This N1I2 will produce a flux Φ21 equal and opposite to Φ2. These fluxes will now be
1

cancelled and the net flux in the core will be Φ1 even under the loading conditions.
8. For lagging load: I12 = I02 + (I21)2 + 2I0I21cos(Φ0~ Φ2)
9. As the flux remains constant from no-load to load, the iron loss will be same from no-load to
load.
7. Explain the operation of transformer on load with leakage impedances of the coils
1. Below figure shows the schematic diagram, equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of the
transformer with the leakage impedances of the coils.

Let,
R1=Resistance of primary coil in Ω R2=Resistance of secondary coil in Ω
X1=Reactance of primary coil in Ω X2=Reactance of secondary coil in Ω
Z1=impedance of primary coil in Ω Z2=impedance of secondary coil in Ω
E1=emf induced in primary coil E2=emf induced in secondary coil
V1=applied voltage to primary coil V2= Load or terminal voltage of transformer
I1Z1 = I1(R1+jX1) = Primary leakage impedance drop
I2Z2 = I2(R2+jX2) = Secondary leakage impedance drop
The magnetic core of the transformer is electrically represented with the parallel
combination of R0 and X0 carrying the currents of Iw and Im respectively and is placed
across the primary coil.

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Currents Analysis of the transformer in equivalent circuit

Currents in the transformer at No-load:
V1 V1  Im 
Iw  Im  I 02  I w2  I m2 I 0  I w2  I m2 0  tan 1  
R0 X0  Iw 
Currents in the transformer with load

I1  I 0   0   I 21   2  Where I 21  I 2  K and K
N2
N1
   
I1  I 0 cos 0  I 21 cos  2  j I 0 sin  0   I 21 sin   2  - for lag and + for lead
Primary phase angle (Φ1)
 I 0 sin  0   I 21 sin  2  
1  tan  1
 and primary power factor is cosΦ1
 I 0 cos  0  I 2
1
cos  2 
Voltages Analysis of the transformer in equivalent circuit
Primary induced emf

E1  V10  I11  Z1 

E1  V1  j0  I1 cos1  jI1 sin 1  R1  jX1 

Using transformation ratio E2=E1*K
Knowing the E2 and applying KVL to the secondary loop the load voltage is

V2  E2  I 2 Z 2

V2  E2  'I 2   2 Z 2 V2  E2  'I 2   2 ( R2  jX 2 )

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8. Explain the equivalent circuits referred to both primary and secondary of the
transformer
The equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primary is shown in the below figure in
which the winding parameters of the secondary are transformed and was referred to primary
based on the voltage balancing principle before and after the transformation.
Secondary Resistance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V R  V1 I 2 1  V
R21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  R2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
R
 R21  22 Thus, it is the secondary resistance referred to primary
K
Secondary Reactance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V X  V1 I 2 1  V
X 21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  X 2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
X
 X 21  22 Thus, it is the secondary reactance referred to primary
K
Secondary Impedance referred to primary:
V V VI VI V Z  V1 I 2 1  V
Z 21  1  1  2 2   1 2  2  22    also 2  Z 2
I1 I1 V2 I 2 V2 I1 I 2 K  V2 I1 K  I2
Z
 Z 21  22 Thus, it is the secondary impedance referred to primary
K

To have simplified calculations the equivalent circuit is modified as bringing the core branch
towards the supply voltage instead of having in between the primary and secondary
parameters

In this simplified circuit the total resistance, reactance and impedances referred to primary are

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R2 X2
 Req1  R1  R21  R1   X eq1  X 1  X 21  X 1 
K2 K2
Z2
 Z eq1  Z1  Z 21  Z1 
K2
Similarly, the equivalent circuit referred to secondary of the transformer is shown below with
their formulas
Primary Resistance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
R11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 R1    K also 1  R1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 R11  R1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary resistance referred to secondary
Primary Reactance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
X 11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 X 1    K also 1  X 1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 X 11  X 1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary reactance referred to secondary
Primary Impedance referred to secondary:
V V VI VI V  V2 I1  V
Z11  2  2  1 1   2 1  1  K 2 Z1    K also 1  Z1
I 2 I 2 V1 I1 V1 I 2 I1  V1 I 2  I1
 Z11  Z1 K 2 Thus, it is the primary impedance referred to secondary
 Req 2  R2  R11  R2  R1 K 2  X eq 2  X 2  X 11  X 2  X 1 K 2
 Z eq 2  Z 2  Z11  Z 2  Z1 K 2

9. Derive the expression for voltage regulation and efficiency of the transformer
Definition of voltage regulation : Voltage regulation is defined as the percentage
change in the output voltage from no-load to full-load expressed in full load voltage.

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Derivation of voltage regulation for the lagging power factor load,

assuming the angle between OC and OD as very small, and neglected it, OD is nearly equal
to OC (E2 > V2)
E2  OC  OA  AB  BC , E2  OC  V2  I 2 Req 2 cos   I 2 X eq 2 sin 
Thus, the % voltage regulation is
E2  V2 V2  I 2 Req 2 cos   I 2 X eq 2 sin   V2 I 2 Req 2 cos   I 2 X eq 2 sin 
*100  100  100
V2 V2 V2

Derivation of voltage regulation for the leading power factor load,

Similarly, from the phasor diagram of the leading pf load , (E2 < V2)

Here

EF = DE sinθ = I2X2 sinθ

AB = AE cosθ = I2R2 cosθ

OA = V2 and OD = E2

assuming the angle between OA and OD as very small, and neglected it, OD is nearly equal
to OC (E2 < V2)
V2 - E2 = OA – OC = CA = CB – AB, thus V2 = E2+CB - AB
Thus, the % voltage regulation is
E2  V2 E - E - CB  AB I 2 Req 2 cos   I 2 X eq 2 sin 
*100  2 2 100  100
V2 V2 V2
Therefore,

I 2 Req 2 cos   I 2 X eq 2 sin 

%regulation  100 (+ ) for lagging pf and (-) for leading pf
V2

10. Discuss the losses and efficiency in the transformer

Transformer is a static device, i.e. it doesn’t have any parts, so no mechanical losses exist in
the transformer and only electrical losses are observed.
So there are two primary types of losses in the transformer:
1. Copper losses
2. Iron losses
Other than these, some small amount of power losses in the form of ‘stray losses’ are also
observed, which are produced due to the leakage of magnetic flux.

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Copper losses
1. These losses occur in the windings of the transformer when heat is dissipated due to the
current passing through the windings and the internal resistance offered by the windings.
2. So these are also known as ohmic losses or I2R losses, where ‘I’ is the current passing
through the windings and R is the internal resistance of the windings.
3. These losses are present both in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer and
depend upon the load attached across the secondary windings since the current varies with the
variation in the load, so these are variable losses.
Iron losses or Core Losses
1. These losses occur in the core of the transformer and are generated due to the variations in
the flux.
2. These losses depend upon the magnetic properties of the materials which are present in the
core, so they are also known as iron losses, as the core of the Transformer is made up of iron.
And since they do not change like the load, so these losses are also constant losses.
There are two types of Iron losses in the transformer:
1. Eddy Current losses
2. Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Losses
1. When an alternating current is supplied to the primary windings of the transformer, it
generates an alternating magnetic flux in the winding which is then induced in the secondary
winding also through Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, and is then transferred to
the externally connected load.
2. During this process, the other conduction materials of which the core is composed of; also
gets linked with this flux and an emf is induced.
3. But this magnetic flux does not contribute anything towards the externally connected load or
the output power and is dissipated in the form of heat energy.
4. So such losses are called Eddy Current losses and are mathematically expressed as:
Pe = Ke f² Kf² Bm²
Where;
Ke = Constant of Eddy Current
Kf2 = Form Constant
Bm = Strength of Magnetic Field

Hysteresis Loss
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1. Hysteresis loss is defined as the electrical energy which is required to realign the domains of
the ferromagnetic material which is present in the core of the transformer.
2. These domains loose their alignment when an alternating current is supplied to the primary
windings of the transformer and the emf is induced in the ferromagnetic material of the core
which disturbs the alignment of the domains and afterwards they do not realign properly.
3. For their proper realignment, some external energy supply, usually in the form of current is
required. This extra energy is known as Hysteresis loss.
Mathematically, they can be defined as;
Ph = Kh Bm1.6 f V

 The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of power output to the input power.
Where,
V2 = Secondary terminal voltage
I2 = Full load secondary current in A
Cosϕ2 = power factor of the load
Pi = Iron losses
= hysteresis losses + eddy current
loss
Pc = Full load copper losses = I22Req

Also, the efficiency at any amount of load(x) is given by

outputinwatts xVAcos 
   100
inputinwatts xVAcos   Wi  x 2WFLCu

Condition for maximum efficiency in the transformer:

outputinwatts V2 I 2 cos  1 1
   
inputinwatts V2 I 2 cos   Wi  I 22 re 2 Wi I r 2
Wi I r
1 1 2 e2  2 e2
V2 I 2 cos  V2 I 2 cos  V2 I 2 cos  V2 cos 
To get the maximum efficiency the denominator must be small, therefore condition to be the
denominator minimum is

 Wi I r 
d 1   2 e 2 
 V2 I 2 cos  V2 cos    0
dI 2
 Wi I r 
d 1   2 e 2 
 V2 I 2 cos  V2 cos    0   () Wi   re 2 
 V I cos     V cos    0
2
dI 2  2 2   2 

re 2 Wi Wi
 re 2  I 22 re 2  Wi
V2 cos  V2 I 22 cos  I 22

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Therefore the condition for obtaining the maximum efficiency is the variable loss I 22 re 2 
must be equal to the constant loss Wi .
W 
Also, the load current at which the maximum efficiency occurs is I 2 max   i 
 re 2 
Multiplying both sides with 1000 *V2

W  W 
1000 * V2 * I 2 max  1000 * V2 *  i  Load KVA max  1000 * V2 *  i 
 re 2   re 2 

I 2Fullload  Wi 
Load KVA max  1000 * V2 *  
I 2Fullload  re 2 
 W 
Load KVA max  1000 * V2 * I 2Full load  2 i 
 I 2Full load re 2 

 W 
Load KVA max  Full load KVA  2 i 
 I 2Full load re 2 
 Wi 
The Load KVA at which maximum efficiency  Full load KVA  
 WcuFull load 

Wi
The Load KVA at which maximum efficiency  Full load KVA
WcuFull load
’

Variation of voltage regulation and efficiency with respect to load and load powerfactors

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11. Explain OC and SC tests on a single phase transformer

Ans: Purpose of conducting OC and SC tests is to find
i) Equivalent circuit parameters ii) Efficiency iii) Regulation
Open Circuit Test:
1. The OC test is performed on LV side at rated voltage and HV side is kept opened.
2. As the test is conducted on LV side the meters selected will be at low range values like
smaller voltmeter, smaller ammeter and low pf wattmeter
3. As the no-load current is quite small about 2 to 5% of the rated current, the ammeter
required here will be smaller range even after on LV side which are designed for higher
current values.
4. The voltmeter, ammeter and the wattmeter readings V0, I0 and W0 respectively are noted
by applying rated voltage on LV side.
5. The wattmeter will record the core loss because of noload input power.

Calculations from OC test readings:

R0, X0 and Iron loss are calculated
from the OC test results as
V V0
Core resistance R0  0 
I w I 0 cos 0
V V0
Magnetizing reactance X 0  0 
I m I 0 sin 0
P
Where cos 0  0
V0 I 0
and iron loss Wi = P0 (No load input power)

Short Circuit Test:

1. The SC test is performed on HV side at rated current and LV side is kept Shorted.

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2. As the test is conducted on HV side the meters selected will be at low range values like
smaller voltmeter, smaller ammeter and unity pf wattmeter
3. As the voltage required to circulate the short circuit rated current is very small about 10 to
15% of the rated HV voltage, so the voltmeter required here will be smaller range even the
test is conducted on HV side.
4. The voltmeter, ammeter and the wattmeter readings Vsc, Isc and Wsc respectively are noted by
passing rated current on HV side.
5. The wattmeter will record thecopper loss corresponding to the Isc.

Calculations from SC test readings:

re(HV), xe(HV) and cu loss are calculated
from the SC test results as
Equivalent resistance referred to HV side is
Psc
Rsc  2
 re ( HV )
I sc
Equivalent impedance referred to HV side is
Vsc
Z sc   z e(HV )
I sc

Equivalent reactance referred to HV side is X sc  Z sc2  Rsc2  xe( HV )

The culoss is equal to the wattmeter reading Wsc

 Thus, the approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer can be drawn by the calculated
values of R0 and X0 on LV side and re(HV) and xe(HV) on HV side.
 The efficiency at any load is calculated from the losses Wi and Wcufl as
xVAcos 
x   100
xVAcos   Wi  x 2WFLCu

The regulation of the transformer is calculated from the re(HV) and xe(HV) as
I HV reHV cos   I HV xeHV sin 
%reg   100 where  is for lagging pf and  is for leading pf
VHV

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12. Explain Sumpner’s test or back to back test

Ans: Purpose of Sumpner’s test or back to back test on transformer is to determine
efficiency, voltage regulation considering the heating under loaded conditions.
1. Two identical transformers are required to conduct the Sumpner's test
2. Both transformers are connected to supply such that one transformer is loaded on
another.
3. Both Primaries are connected in parallel and both secondaries are connected in series
opposition which is checked by the voltmeter showing zero volts when the switch S is
closed.

Procedure for sumpner’s test:

1. Both the emf's cancel each other, as transformers are identical. In this case, as per
superposition theorem, no current flows through secondary. And thus the no load test is
simulated.
2. The current drawn from Voc is 2I0=Ioc and the input power measured by wattmeter Woc is
equal to iron losses of both transformers. i.e. iron loss per transformer Pi = Woc/2.
3. Now, a small voltage Vsc is injected into secondary with the help of a low voltage
transformer.
4. The voltage Vsc is adjusted so that, the rated current Isc flows through the secondary. In this
case, both primaries and secondary’s carry rated current.
5. Thus short circuit test is simulated and wattmeter Wsc shows total full load copper losses of
both transformers. i.e. copper loss per transformer PCu = Wsc/2.
6. From above test results, the full load efficiency of each transformer is calculated and is given
as
xVAcos 
%   100
Woc 2 Wsc
xVAcos   x
2 2

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