UNIT-3

Single Phase Transformers: Necessity of transformer, principle of operation, Construction of core and
shell type for single - phase, ideal transformer, derivation for induced EMF, transformer on No-Load &
On-Load (inductive), constant and variable losses, OC & SC tests, efficiency & regulation, condition for
maximum efficiency.

TRANSFORMERS

https://youtu.be/Cx4_7lIjoBA

https://youtu.be/vh_aCAHThTQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6UMx2_63OE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrIXioEn3yQ

Introduction:
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per the requirements in different stages of electrical
network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with the help of static
device called transformers.

Transformers transfer electrical power from one electrical circuit to the other which are magnetically
coupled together with or without change of voltage without any change in power and frequency.

If transformer is used to increase the voltage, then it is termed as step up transformer.

If transformer is used to decrease the voltage, then it is called step down transformer.

It voltage is not changed, then it is called one to one transformer.

There are no moving parts in the transformer. Hence there are no mechanical losses in the transformer.
Hence efficiency of transformer is very high (95% to 98%).

Construction:

There are basically two parts.

● Magnetic core
● Windings

Core is made up of high grade silicon steel laminations(0.3 to 0.5mm thick).Its function is to carry flux
produced by the winding. It is either square or rectangular in size.It is further divided into two parts ,
 vertical portion on which the windings are wound called LIMB, top and bottom horizontal portion called
YOKE of the core.

The laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. Laminations are
overlapped so that to avoid air gap at the joints. They are ‘l’ shaped or ‘I’ shaped laminations.

The coils are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. To decrease the leakage flux, and to
have high mutual inductance, two windings are split into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each
other on same limb. The coils are made up of conducting material like copper.

The core provides low reluctance path to the flux produced by the primary while windings carry the current
necessary for functioning of the transformer.

Based on the type of construction, transformers are classified as

● Core type transformers.

● Shell type transformers.

Core type Transformers:

● It has single magnetic circuit.
● The core is rectangular having two limbs.
● The winding encircles the core.
● Both the coils are placed on both the limbs.
● The low voltage coil is placed inside the core on which high voltage coil surrounds the low
voltage coil.
● As windings are uniformly distributed over two limbs, natural cooling is effective, preferred for
low voltage transformers.
● The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of top yoke, for maintainance.

Core type transformer

Shell type transformer:

● It has double magnetic circuit.

● It has three limbs.
● Both the windings will be placed on the central limb. The core encircles the most part of the
winding.
● The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich type coils.
● The core is laminated while arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the joints
at alternate layers are staggered.
● Generally for high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred.
● As the windings are surrounded by the core, natural cooling does not exist.

Working principle:

A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically
coupled coils.

When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage of R.M.S value V1 volts, an alternating
current flows through the primary winding and sets up an alternating flux φ in the material of the core. This
alternating flux φ, links not only the primary winding but also the secondary winding.
Therefore an e.m.f is induced in the primary winding and an e.m.f. is induced in the secondary winding.

e1=-N1 𝑑∅𝑑𝑡 --------------------------- Eqn.1

e2=-N2 𝑑∅𝑑𝑡 --------------------------- Eqn.2

therefore,
𝑒2 𝑁2
𝑒1
= 𝑁1
= K , where k is called transformation ratio of the transformer.

When load is connected to the secondary winding, a current I2 flows through the load.V2 is the terminal
voltage across the load.

As the power transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding is same,

Power input to the primary winding=Power output from the secondary winding.

E1I1=E2I2
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝐼1
𝐸1
= 𝑁1
= 𝐼2
=𝐾

the directions of the e.m.f’s E1 and E2 induced in the primary and secondary windings are such that they
always oppose the primary applied voltage V1.

E.M.F. equation of a transformer:

𝑉𝑚
When an alternating voltage V1=Vmsinωt of r.m.s value V1= √2
is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer, the alternating current flowing through the primary winding produces an alternating flux φ,
which links both the primary and secondary winding.

Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in the primary winding and e.m.f E2 is induced in the secondary winding.The
equation of E1 is

e1=-N1 𝑑∅𝑑𝑡

the primary applied voltage is sinusoidal in nature, current it drives and the flux resultant are also sinusoidal
.

φ=φmsinωt

substituting

e1=-N1 𝑑𝑡𝑑 (φ𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡)

 = -ω N1φ𝑚cosωt

=2Пf N1φ𝑚sin(ω𝑡 − 90°)

The magnitude of maximum value of e.m.f. induced in the primary winding is

Em1=2Пf N1φ𝑚

The r.m.s value is

𝐸𝑚
E1= √2
= 4.44fφmN1

Similarly

E2=4.44fφmN2

The induced e.m.f lags the flux by 90 .

Ideal transformer:

An ideal transformer is one in which

The resistances of windings are neglected

There is no leakage flux
There are no iron losses in the core.

Consider an ideal transformer which is not loaded, the secondary winding is open.

The primary and secondary windings are pure inductive coils in an ideal transformer.
When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage V1, the primary winding draws a
small current Iµ produces an alternating flux φ which is in phase with it, hence it is called
magnetizing current.
 The alternating flux φ links both the primary and secondary windings and hence e.m.f s E1 and E2
are induced in the coil.

The primary induced e.m.f E1 is equal and opposite to applied voltage V1, at every instant. Both E1
and E2 lag behind the flux by 90 . However their magnitudes depend on the number of turns N1 and
N2.

As the flux is common to both the windings. It is known as reference vector.

Practical transformer:

The windings have resistances.

There are iron losses in the core.
The effect of leakage resistance is taken into consideration.
Winding resistances:
The primary and secondary windings are made of copper and therefore have small values of
resistances R1 and R2, which are connected in series with respective windings.

Iron losses:
As the core of the transformer is subjected to alternating flux, eddy current loss and hysteresis loss
occur in the core. These two losses together are known as iron losses.

Iron losses depend on the maximum value of the flux density in the core, supply frequency, the
volume of the core, which are constant. Hence, considered as constant losses in a transformer.

Pi α Bm f V
Leakage fluxes:

V1 is the primary applied voltage.V2 is the secondary terminal voltage.E1 and E2 are the e.m.fs
induced in the primary and secondary windings respectively.

I1 and I2 are currents flowing through them. Φ is the flux, linking both the coils, hence called mutual
flux.

All the flux produced by the primary Winding does not link with the secondary winding.

A flux φL1 completes its magnetic path through the surrounding medium, called primary leakage
flux, which links only the primary winding.

This leakage flux is proportional to the primary ampere turns N1I1, due to this leakage flux, an e.m.f
eL1 is induced in the primary winding.

Similarly, when a current I2 flows through the secondary winding, it creates a leakage flux φL2, hence
an e.m.f. eL2 is induced in the secondary winding.

When transformer is on No-load, or very light load, primary ampere turns, secondary ampere turns
are very small, hence leakage fluxes and their effects may be neglected.

When transformer is on load, the effects of resistances R1 and R2 and leakage reactances X1 and X2
must be taken into consideration.

Transformer on No-Load:

In an actual transformer on no load, there are iron losses in the core and small amount of copper
losses in primary winding.

As secondary winding is open, there is no current flowing through it.

No load current Io, flows through primary winding. As the losses in the transformer are not
neglected, the no load current must not only produce the necessary flux but also account for the iron
losses in the core.

As Io is very small, copper losses in the primary winding may be neglected.

Iµ- produces flux φ and is in phase.

Iω- iron loss component.

Iµ=Io Sin φo
Iω= Io cos φo

2 2
Io= (𝐼µ + 𝐼ω)
Power input to the transformer Primary
winding

Wo=V1IoCOSφo

COSφo is the No-Load power factor of the primary winding of the transformer.

Transformer on Load:
When secondary winding is connected to a load , a current I2 flows through the secondary winding.
The phase relation of I2 w.r.t V2 depends on the type of load.

When current I2 flows through secondary winding, it sets up its own m.m.f. N2I2, which produces a
flux φ2 which opposes the main flux φ, thus tending to decrease the flux in the core. Hence N2I2
termed as demagnetizing ampere turns. Hence E1 also reduces due to opposing flux φ2. Hence
difference between V1 and E1 increases and the primary winding draws an extra current which is
known as load component of primary current.

I2’ is in antiphase with I2.Now the primary winding sets up extra ampere turns N1I2’ and sets up own
flux c; in opposite direction. Hence φ2 and φ2’ cancel each other, to maintain flux constant.

Therefore whether transformer is on no-load or on-load, flux remains constant.

The current I2’ drawn from N1 will be such that

N2I2’ =N2I2
Or
I2’=K I2
Under load conditions,
→ → →
`
𝐼1=𝐼𝑜 +𝐼2

And Z1=R1+jX1, Z2=R2+jX2

V1=-E1+I1Z1 E2=V2+ I2Z2

=- E1+I1(R1+jX1)
= V2+ I2(R2+jX2)
Losses in a transformer:

The losses that occur in a transformer are:

● Iron losses
● Copper losses

Iron Loss(Wi):-

It is also called as core loss; there are two types: eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.

The eddy current loss occurs due to the flow of eddy currents in the laminations of the core. The
eddy currents are induced in the laminations, because the alternating flux produced by the
primary winding links them. These eddy currents cause power loss in th e core and heats up the
core of the transformer. The eddy current loss in core is given by empirical formula,

We=βBm2 f2t2V watts.

We= eddy current loss in watts

Bm=Maximum value of flux density in core in Wb/m2+.

f= frequency of supply in Hz.

t-thickness of laminations in metre.

V-volume of core in m3.

Β- constant, (value depends on quality of magnetic material used for making the core.)

To limit the eddy current loss, the core is made of thin laminations of high [permeability
magnetic material, such as silicon steel and they are insulated from one another by coating them
with varnish or an oxide layer.

The hysteresis loss(Wh) occurs because, the core of the transformer is subjected to cycles of
magnetization.
1.6
Wh=η𝐵𝑚 𝑓𝑉 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠.

where

Wh= hysteresis loss in watts

Bm=maximum flux density in Wb/m2

f=frequency of supply in Hz.

V-Volume of the core in m3.

η- constant (value depends on th equality of magnetic material used for making the core.)

Wi= We+Wh

Iron loss in the transformer is considered to be constant loss at all loads including No-Load.

The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel have low
hysteresis loop and by manufacturing core in the form of laminations.

Copper loss:

The copper losses are due to power wasted in the form of I2R loss due to resistances of
primary and secondary windings.

The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents flow through the windings.
2 2
Total copper loss=𝐼1𝑅1 + 𝐼2𝑅2
If the current through the windings is full load current , we get copper loss at full load.

If the load on the transformer is half, then we get copper losses at half full load.

Thus copper losses are variable losses.

Pcu α I2 α(KVA)2

Copper losses are kept minimum by designing the windings with low resistances values.

Therefore total losses= Pi+ Pcu

Efficiency of a transformer:

Due to the losses, output power of a transformer is less than the power input applied.

Hence , Power input= Power output + Total losses

The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of power output to the power input.

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

η= 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑃𝑖+𝑃𝑐𝑢

Power output= V2I2COS φ, COS φ- load power factor

𝑉2𝐼2𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ
η= 𝑉2𝐼2𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ+𝑃𝑖+𝑃𝑐𝑢

V2I2= VA rating of transformer

𝑉2𝐼2𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ
%η = 𝑉2𝐼2𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ+𝑃𝑖+𝑃𝑐𝑢
* 100

I2= full load secondary current

Let ‘n’ be fraction by which load is less than full load, when load changes, the load current
changes by same proportion.

New I2=n(I2)F.L

New Pcu= n2(Pcu)F.L

In general for fractional load,
(𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ)
η= 2
(𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ+𝑃𝑖+𝑛 (𝑃𝑐𝑢) )
𝐹.𝐿

Condition for maximum efficiency:

Efficiency is the function of load, i.e load current I2 assuming COSφ2 constant, V2 is also
constant.
𝑑η
For maximum efficiency, 𝑑𝐼2
=0

𝑑
𝑑𝐼2 ( (𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ)
2
(𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ+𝑃𝑖+𝑛 (𝑃𝑐𝑢) )
𝐹.𝐿
) =0

2
(V2I2 cos φ2+Pi+𝐼2R2e)(V2cos φ2)-( V2I2 cos φ2)( V2cos φ2+2I2R2e)=0

2
Pi-𝐼2𝑅2𝑒=0

P1=Pcu, for ηmax

Load current at ηmax:-

I2= I2m for maximum efficiency

𝑃𝑖
I2m= 𝑅2𝑒

𝑃𝑖
I2m= 𝑅2𝑒

Let

𝐼2𝑚 1 𝑃𝑖
(𝐼2)
= (𝐼2) 𝑅2𝑒
𝐹.𝐿 𝐹.𝐿

I2m=(I2)F.L 𝑃𝑖
(𝑃𝑐𝑢)
𝐹.𝐿
KVA supplied at maximum efficiency = V2I2m

=V2(I2)F.L 𝑃𝑖
(𝑃𝑐𝑢)
𝐹.𝐿

Regulation of a transformer:

It is observed that the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E2) to load value
(V2) as load and load current increases.

The regulation is defined as the change n magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage , when
full load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no load, with primary
voltage maintained constant expressed as percentage of rated terminal voltage.

Let E2- secondary terminal voltage on no load.

V2- secondary terminal voltage on given load.

𝐸2− 𝑉
% voltage regulation = 𝑉2
2
* 100

The regulation depends on power factor of the load.

𝐼1𝑅1𝑒𝐶𝑂𝑆 ± 𝐼1𝑋1𝑒𝑆𝐼𝑁
% regulation = 𝑉1
*100

‘+’ for lagging power factor

‘-‘ for leading power factor.

Note:

Why transformer rating is expressed in KVA ?

When electrical power is transferred from primary to secondary winding, there are few power losses.

Pcu are dependent on ‘I’ through the windings, while ‘Pi’ depends on voltage as frequency is constant, none
of the losses depend on power factor of load, hence losses decide rating of transformer and are expresses in
‘KVA’.

Can D.C.Supply be used for transformers?

D.C. Supply cannot be used for transformers.

Practically, winding resistance is very small. For D.C , XL 0 (no frequency), total impedance is very low.
Thus winding draws very high current and may damage the windings and saturate the core.

VOLTAGE REGULATION

The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output voltage from no-load
to full-load. And since power factor is a determining factor in the secondary voltage, power factor
influences voltage regulation. This means the voltage regulation of a transformer is a dynamic,
load-dependent number.

OC AND SC TEST
The open-circuit test and the short-circuit test being performed on a transformer to determine the circuit
parameters, efficiency and the voltage regulation without actual loaded of the transformer.

OC test on transfoemer:-
The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated current.
The copper loss occurs only on the primary winding of the transformer because the
secondary winding is open. The reading of the wattmeter only represents the core
and iron losses. The core loss of the transformer is the same for all types of loads.

Calculation of open-circuit test

Let,

● W0 – wattmeter reading
● V1 – voltmeter reading
● I0 – ammeter reading
Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

The no-load power factor is

Working component Iw is

Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value
of the working component as

Magnetizing component is

Magnetizing component is
The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used for calculating the
efficiency of the transformer.

SC test on transfoemer:-
The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less occur in the short
circuit test because of the low value of flux. The reading of the wattmeter only
determines the copper loss occurred, in their windings. The voltmeter measures the
voltage applied to their high voltage winding. The secondary current induces in the
transformer because of the applied voltage.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,

● Wc – Wattmeter reading
● V2sc – voltmeter reading
● I2sc – ammeter reading

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is

The phasor diagram of the short circuit test of the transformer is shown below

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses, including core loss
but the value of core loss are very small as compared to copper loss so the core
loss can be neglected.

Problems:

Q3.1 A single phase, 20KVA transformer has 1000 primary turns and 2500 secondary turns.The net
cross-sectional area of the core is 100cm2, when the primary winding is connected to 500V, 50Hz
supply, Calculate

I. maximum value of flux density in the core.

II. The voltage induced in secondary winding.
III. Th eprimary and secondary full load current.

Solution:

E1=4.44f φmN1

500=4.44*50*φm*1000

Therefore, φm=2.252 mWb.

φ𝑚
Bm= 𝐴 =
0.2252 Wb/m2

𝐸2 𝑁2
𝐸1
= 𝑁1
Therefore, E2=1250 V

I1=(KVA*1000)/E1=40A

Q2.Find the number of turns on primary and secondary side of a 440/230V, 50Hz, single phase
transformer, If the net area of cross section is 30cm2 and maximum value of flux density is 1Wb/m2.
Solution:

E1=4.44f φmN1

→ N1=660.667 turns
𝐸2 𝑁2
𝐸1
= 𝑁1

→ N2=345.35 turns

Q3. A 50KVA, 2500/250 V single phase transformer has primary winding resistance of 3Ω and a
reactance of 5Ω. The secondary winding resistance and reactance are 0.02Ω and 0.03Ω respectively.
Find (i) (Req)1 , (Xeq)1 and Z01 and also (ii) (Req)2 , (Xeq)2 and Z02 (iii) Pcu.

Solution:
𝐸2
K= 𝐸1
= 0.1

𝑅2
(Req)1=R1+ 2
𝐾

=5Ω
𝑋2
(Xeq)1=X1+ 2
𝐾

=8Ω

Z01= (𝑅𝑒𝑞)21 + (𝑋𝑒𝑞)21 =9.43Ω

(Req)2=R2+K2R1

= 0.05Ω

(Xeq)2=X2+K2X1

=0.08Ω

Z02=0.094Ω
 50*1000
I1= 2500

= 20A,

2
Pcu= 𝐼1 R01

= 2000W

Q4. The high voltage and low voltage windings of 2500/250 V, single phase transformer have
resistances of 5Ω and 0.05Ω and reactances 3Ω and 0.02Ω respectively. The LV winding is
connected to a load of (8+j6)Ω. Determine (i)current in low voltage (ii) current in high voltage
winding (iii) secondary terminal voltage (iv) power consumed by the load.

Solution:

𝐸 250
K= 𝐸2 = 2500 =0.1
1

(Req)2= R2+K2R1=0.1 Ω

(Xeq)2= X2+K2X1=0.05 Ω

(Zeq)2=(0.1+j 0.05)Ω

𝐸
I2= (𝑍𝑒𝑞)2+𝑍
2
=24.73∠-36.76° A
𝐿

(ii) current in H.V. winding

If no load current is neglected,

`
I1=𝐼2

=KI2

=2.473∠-36.76°

(iii) secondary terminal voltage

 V2=I2ZL= 247.3∠0.11° V

(iv) power consumed by the load, =I2RL= 4.892KW

Q5. A supply frequency 50 Hz produces a flux density varying sinusoidally having a maximum
value of 1Wb/m2 and an eddy current loss of 60W. Find We when supply frequency is raised to
60Hz and Bm being reduced to 0.5 Wb/m2.

Solution:

2 2
We α 𝐵𝑚𝑓

(i) When frequency is 50 Hz

60α 12*502…………………………………..(a)
At frequency =60Hz
We α (0.5)2*(60)2……………………………….(b)

Dividing equation (b) by (a)

We get We= 21.6 W

Q6. The iron loss in magnetic specimen is 120W at 40Hz and 80W at 30Hz, flux density remaining
the same. Find the eddy current loss and hysteresis loss at 50Hz.

Solution:
As Bm is constant

Weα f2 =Af2

Whα f = Bf
Therefore, Wi=Wh+We
= Af2+Bf
At 40 Hz,
120=1600A+40B

At 30 Hz,
80=900A+30B

Solving ,
A=0.033,
B=1.667
 At 50 Hz,
We= 83.25W
Wh=83.38W

Q7. A transformer is rated at 100KVA, at full load Pcu=1200W and Pi=960W. Calculate
I. Efficiency at full load , U.P.F
II. Efficiency at half load, 0.8 P.F
III. The load KVA at which ηmax occurs.
IV. ηmax at 0.85 P.F.

solution:
(𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ)
η= 2
(𝑛(𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔)𝐶𝑂𝑆 φ+𝑃𝑖+𝑛 (𝑃𝑐𝑢) )
𝐹.𝐿

I. n=1, cosϕ=1
η=97.88%
II. n=1/2, cosϕ=0.8
η=96.94%

𝑃𝑖
III. KVA for ηmax = KVA (𝑃𝑐𝑢)
= 89.427KVA
𝐹.𝐿

IV. For ηmax, Pi=Pcu=960W, cosϕ=0.85

(𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 η𝑚𝑎𝑥⁡)𝑐𝑜𝑠
% ηmax= (𝑉𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 η 𝑐𝑜𝑠+2𝑃𝑖
*100
𝑚𝑎𝑥⁡)

=97.53%

Q8. A 600KVA, single phase transformer has efficiency of 92% both at full load and half load,
UPF.Detremine its efficiency at 75% of full load, 0.9 P.f.

Solution:
On full load,
600*1000*1
0.92= 600*1000+𝑃𝑖+(𝑃𝑐𝑢 )
= 𝑃𝑖 + (𝑃𝑐𝑢 ) = 52173. 91……………………..(1)
𝐹.𝐿 𝐹.𝐿
On half load,
 0.5*600*1000*1
0.92= 0.5*600*1000+𝑃 +(0.25*(𝑃 )
𝑖 𝑐𝑢
𝑓.𝐿)

𝑃𝑖 + 0. 25(𝑃𝑐𝑢 ) = 16086. 95…………………………………………..(2)

𝐹.𝐿

Pi=17391.3053W,
(Pcu)F.L= 34782.6W

%η3/ 𝐹. 𝐿.= 91.64%

4

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Videos on construction and working of Transformers (note: internet connection required)

https://youtu.be/Cx4_7lIjoBA

https://youtu.be/vh_aCAHThTQ
Tutorial Problems