Network and its criteria

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links.

A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network
Network Criteria A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The
performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the
type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency
of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often
contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we
increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses

Signal:
A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that is used for carrying data from one
system or network to another. The signal is a function that conveys information about a
phenomenon.

In electronics and telecommunications, it refers to any time-varying voltage that is an

electromagnetic wave which carries information. A signal can also be defined as an
observable change in quality such as quantity. There are two main types of signals: Analog
signal and Digital signal.
 Characteristics of Analog Signal
Here, are essential characteristics of Analog Signal

 These type of electronic signals are time-varying

 Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
 It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
 Analog Signal works on continuous data.
 The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital signal.
 It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
 Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be meaningful
to all.

Characteristics of Digital Signals

Here, are essential characteristics of Digital signals

 Digital signals are time separated signals.

 This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better compared to
analog signal.
 Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
 The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.

Difference between Analog and Digital signal.

Analog Digital
An analog signal is a continuous signal Digital signals are time separated signals which
that represents physical measurements. are generated using digital modulation.
It is denoted by sine waves It is denoted by square waves
It uses a continuous range of values that Digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent
help you to represent information. information.
Temperature sensors, FM radio signals,
Computers, CDs, DVDs are some examples of
Photocells, Light sensor, Resistive touch
Digital signal.
screen are examples of Analog signals.
The analog signal bandwidth is low The digital signal bandwidth is high.
Analog signals are deteriorated by noise Relatively a noise-immune system without
throughout transmission as well as deterioration during the transmission process and
write/read cycle. write/read cycle.
It is suited for audio and video
It is suited for Computing and digital electronics.
transmission.
Analog instruments usually have s scale
Digital instruments never cause any kind of
which is cramped at lower end and gives
observational errors.
considerable observational errors.
Analog signal doesn’t offer any fixed
Digital signal has a finite number, i.e., 0 and 1.
range.

Protocol.
In networking, a protocol is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network
protocols are like a common language for computers. The computers within a network may
use vastly different software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables them to
communicate with each other regardless. Standardized protocols are like a common language
that computers can use, similar to how two people from different parts of the world may not
understand each other's native languages, but they can communicate using a shared third
language.

Service primitives
Service generally includes set of various primitives. A primitive simply means Operations.
A Service is specified by set of primitives that are available and given to user or other
various entities to access the service. All these primitives simply tell the service to perform
some action or to report on action that is taken by peer entity. Each of the protocol that
communicates in layered architecture also communicates in peer-to-peer manner with some
of its remote protocol entity.
Primitives are called calling functions between the layers that are used to manage
communication among the adjacent protocol layers i.e., among the same communication
node. The set of primitives that are available generally depends upon the nature of the
service that is being provided.
Classification of Service Primitives:

Primitive Meaning

It represent entity that wants or request service to perform some action

Request or do some work (requesting for connection to remote computer).

It represent entity that is to be informed about event (receiver just have

Indication received request of connection).

It represents entity that is responding to event (receiver is simply

Response sending the permission or allowing to connect).

It represent entity that acknowledges the response to earlier request that

has come back (sender just acknowledge the permission to get
Confirm connected to the remote host).

Parameters of Service Primitives:

Some of the Service Primitives need parameters. These are given below:
 Connect. Request –
The initiating entity does this Connect.Request. It just specifies and determines machine
that we want to get connected to, type of service that is being desired, and maximum
size of packet or message that is used on connection.
 Connect. Indication –
The receiver gets this Connect.Indication. It just specifies caller’s identity service that
we want to use like FTP and Telnet, etc., and maximum size of packets that are
exchanged.
 Connect. Response –
It just specifies whether or not it wants to accept or simply reject connection that is
being requested.
 Connect. Confirm –
It just finds out or determines what happened using the entity that is issuing the initial
Connect. Request.

Topology:
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are:
Types of Topology:

Mesh Topology:

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then
the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In
above figure, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of
ports required is N.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-
directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 No of cables used in network is n+1.
Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighbouring
devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data
loss repeaters are used in the network. No of cables used in network is n+1.

General terms in Networking

Bandwidth:
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The bandwidth is
normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000. The bandwidth of
a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained
in that signal. Below Figure shows the concept of bandwidth. The figure depicts two
composite signals, one periodic and the other nonperiodic. The bandwidth of the periodic
signal contains all integer frequencies between 1000 and 5000 (1000, 100 I, 1002, ...). The
bandwidth of the nonperiodic signals has the same range, but the frequencies are continuous
Example:
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the
lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the same
amplitude. Solution:
Let fh be the highest frequency,fz the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then B =fh -
fz :::::} 20 =60 - it =} .ft =60 - 20=40 Hz The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We
show this by a series of spikes.

Wavelength

The wavelength of a signal refers to the relationship between frequency (or period) and
propagation speed of the wave through a medium.
The wavelength is the distance a signal travels in one period.
It is given by
Wavelength = Propagation Speed X Period
OR
Wavelength =Propagation Speed X 1

Amplitude
The amplitude of a signal is proportional to the energy carried by the signal.
Frequency:
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in one second. Period refers
to the time taken by the wave to complete one second.

Phase: Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to time (specifically
relative to time O).

Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the waveform from the axis It is measured in
degrees or radian The figure above shows the sine waves with same amplitude and frequency
but different phases.
Relation between Frequency & Period:
Frequency & Period are inverse of each other. It is indicated by the following formula:
T=1/F
Or
F=1/T
Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz.
Its period(T) is given by T = 1/ F = 1/ 100 = 0.01 sec
Example2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25 seconds.
Its frequency is given by F = 1 / T = 1 / 0.25 = 4 Hz.