Radiology

Lec 1. Physics of Radiation ‫ اريـج‬.‫د‬

Introduction
• Radiology is the science that deals with diagnosis, therapeutic and researches application of high
energy radiation.

• Dental radiography is a process of image production for an object through the use of x – radiation.

• Radiologic examination is an integral component of the diagnostic procedure. Dentists often make
radiographic images of patients to obtain additional information beyond that available from a
clinical examination or their patient's history. Information from these images is combined with the
clinical examination and history to make a diagnosis and formulate an appropriate treatment plan.

Nature of Radiation
Radiation is the transmission of energy through space and matter. It may occur in two forms: (1)
electromagnetic and (2) particulate

Fig 1. Electromagnetic spectrum showing Photons used in dental radiography –x-ray

(blue) have energies of 10 to 120 keV. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging uses radio
waves (orange).

• X – Ray was discovered by (Roentgen) in 1895,it travels in a form of pure energy and the basic unit
is x – ray photon or (quantum).
• X – Ray photons travel with a wave motion called (sine – wave) and the distance between the crests
of these waves called (wave – length) which measured by a unit (A˚). The X – ray photons wave length
used in diagnostic radiography is ranged between 0.1 – 0.5 A˚ , and the amount of energy contained in
each photon called (photon energy) which depend on Wave length and Frequency of x – ray
The high frequency of X – ray the shorter wave length photons this shorter wave length photon has
more energy than a low frequency long wave length type of X – ray photons.
Comparison between x – ray and light

1. Both belong to the same electro – magnetic radiation family.

2. Both travel in straight lines at the same speed which is 186,000 miles per seconds.
3. Both affected the photographic films and made them black.
4. Both not affected by magnetic fields
5. X-ray and light cast the shadows of the objects in the same manner
6. X-ray has the ability to penetrate objects that the light cannot pass through
7. X-ray has the ability to ionize atoms
8. X-ray has the ability to produce light (blue light) when it hits some objects and this
phenomena called (fluorescence).
9. X-ray is invisible

Components of X-ray machine and generation of X-ray

X-ray machines produce x-rays that pass through a patient's tissues and strike a digital receptor
or film to make a radiographic image. The primary components of an x-ray machine are the x-
ray tube and its power supply, positioned within the tube head. A control panel allows the
operator to adjust the duration of the exposure, and often the energy and exposure rate, of the x-
ray beam. An electrical insulating material, usually oil, surrounds the tube and transformers.
Often, the tube is recessed within the tube head to increase the source-to-object distance and
minimize distortion.

Fig 2: most important components of x-ray machine

X–ray tube is composed of a cathode and an anode situated within an evacuated glass
envelope or tube .The glass of the tube is leaded to prevent (the generated X – ray) from
escaping in all directions. While the window is of unleaded glass so that X – ray exist out
through this window.
The cathode consists of a filament and a focusing cup. The filament is the source of electrons
within the x-ray tube. It is a coil of tungsten wire approximately 2 mm in diameter and 1 cm or
less in length, and typically contains approximately 1% thorium, which greatly increases the
release of electrons from the heated wire. The filament is heated by a low-voltage source and
emits electrons at a rate proportional to the temperature of the filament.

The filament lies in a focusing cup, a negatively charged concave molybdenum bowl. The
electrons emitted by the filament into a narrow beam directed at a small rectangular area on the
anode called the focal spot. The x-ray tube is evacuated to prevent collision of the fast-moving
electrons with gas molecules, which would significantly reduce their speed. The vacuum also
prevents oxidation, or “burnout,” of the filament.
The anode in an x-ray tube consists of a tungsten target embedded in a copper stem .The
purpose of the target in an x-ray tube is to convert the kinetic energy of the colliding electrons
into x-ray photons. The conversion of the kinetic energy of the electrons into x-ray photons is an
inefficient process, with more than 99% of the electron kinetic energy converted to heat. The
target is made of tungsten, an element that has several characteristics of an ideal target material,
including the following:

1. High atomic number (74), allows for efficient x-ray production.

2. High melting point (3422°C), to withstand heat produced during x-ray production.
3. High thermal conductivity (173 W m−1 K−1), to dissipate the heat produced away from
the target.
4. Low vapor pressure at the working temperatures of an x-ray tube, to help maintain
vacuum in the tube at high operating temperatures.

The tungsten target is typically embedded in a large block of copper which functions as a
thermal conductor to remove heat from the tungsten, reducing the risk of the target melting.

To produce x-rays, electrons stream from the filament in the cathode to the target in the anode,
where the energy from some of the electrons is converted into x-rays.

Fig 3: x-ray tube head and production of useful x-ray beam

 Fig 4: (A) Dental x-ray tube with cathode on left and copper anode on right. (B) Focusing cup
containing a filament (arrow) in the cathode. (C) Copper anode with tungsten inset.

Types of radiation

1. Central ray: is X– ray photons that traveling in very center of the cone of radiation (radiation
beam), and it’s commonly used to fix and locate the position of X – ray beam.
2. Bremsstrahlung radiation: radiation produced when projectile electron is slowed by the
electric field of target atom nucleus.
3. Characteristic radiation: radiation produced when an outer shell electron fills an inner shell
void (empty orbital).
4. Primary radiation: Radiation emerging from the X – ray machine in form of collimated useful
X – ray beam
5. Secondary radiation: Radiation result from interaction of primary beam with matter
6. Leakage radiation: x-ray that escape through the protective housing and result in unnecessary
exposure of the patient and radiologic technologist and have no value in diagnostic radiology.

Definition of terms used in X – ray interaction:-

 Scattering: - change in direction of photon with or without a loss of energy.

 Absorption: - deposition of energy i.e. removal of energy from the beam.
 Attenuation: - reduction in the intensity of X – ray beam caused by absorption and scattering
attenuation = absorption + scattering.
 Ionization: - removal of an electron from neutral atom.

X-ray interaction with matter (Absorption of X – ray)

x – Ray absorbed by any form of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) when photons reach an atom,
different types of interaction may occur depends on photon energy:

1. X – Ray photons can pass through the atom without any change occurred to both of them.
2. Coherent scattering sometimes called classical scattering or Thompson scattering occur
by interaction of low energy x-ray photon and atom. there is no loss of photon energy only
changes in direction (photon of scattered radiation) .

3. Compton Effect: occur between moderate energy x-ray photon and free or loosely bound
outer shell electron of atom. It result in ionization of atom (ejection of Compton recoil electron) ,
reduction of photon energy (there is some absorption of photon energy by ejected electron which
undergoes further ionization interaction within the tissue) , and change in x-ray direction
(scattered radiation ).

4. Photoelectric effect: occur by X – Ray photon interaction with inner – shell electron of
the tissue atom (ex. From k shell) , the X – ray photon disappears and deposits all its energy this
process is pure absorption. Now the inner – shell electron is ejected with considerable energy
(now called a photo – electron) in to the tissue for further interaction with other electrons of other
tissue atoms. So this high – energy ejected photo electron behaves like the original high energy X
– ray photons interact and eject other electrons as it passes through the tissues, these ejected
electrons are responsible for the majority of ionization interactions within the tissue and the
possible resulting damage attributable to the X – rays.
When k electron removed out of its orbital, an electron from L shell falls in to k shell and release
energy in the form of x-ray photon. This photon has definite wavelength of a particular element,
this phenomena is used to identify elements and the radiation is called characteristic radiation.

There are two other types of interaction Pair production ( between high energy x-ray photon and
nuclear force field ) and photodisintegration (between high energy photon and nucleus) but both of
them not occur in diagnostic radiology.

Filtration
X – ray used in dentistry must be able to penetrate dental hard tissues (teeth and bone). The
longer wave length X – ray (soft X – ray) are not useful in diagnostic radiology thus removal of
these long wave length photons from the beam by passing the beam through a filter made from
Aluminum which absorb most of long wave length photons (soft X – ray), the resulting X – ray
beam will consist mainly of X – ray photons with short wave length, high energy photons and
high penetrating power that’s why they named (hard X – ray beam).

Types of filtration:

1. Inherent filtration: done by filter built-in to the X – ray machine by manufacturer (as
glass wall, the insulating oil and the metal housing of the tube). The inherent filtration tends to
increase with age because some of tungsten metal of both target and filament is vaporized and
deposited on the inside of the tube window.
2. Added filtration : done by using aluminum sheet as extra filter.

*[total filtration = inherent filtration + added filtration]

fig 3: aluminum filter attached to the tube head

Collimation
Is a process used to control the size and shape of X – ray beam. In diagnostic radiography its
essential to get the diameter of circular X – ray beam at patients skin surface is not great than
2.75 inches, while for Rectangular X – ray beam the dimensions at the skin should be
approximately 1½ × 2 inches.
Types of collimators:

1. diaphragms (round or rectangular shape).

2. metal cylinders, cones and rectangular tubes.

Diaphragm Consists of a metal plate or disk made from lead with a hole in the center of the disk
which allow the beam to pass through it only.

The shape of X – ray beam determine by the shape of the diaphragm hole such diaphragm is
placed over the opening in the head of X – ray machine.

fig 4: collimator attached to the end of tube head

a b
X- ray Film X- ray Film
exposed
tissues

Fig 5: comparison between exposed tissues with (a)rectangular and (b)round collimators

Half – value layer:

It’s a method of monitoring the penetration quality of the X – ray beam. Determination of half –
value layer is done by placing thin filtering material such as aluminum filter in front of the beam
so we continue increase the thickness of filtering material until we have a thickness that reduce
the number of X – ray photons in the beam passing through it to (one half) this will representing
a half – value layer for such beam of radiation.
High half value layer the high penetrating ability of the beam. In oral diagnosis the acceptable
value is approximately 2 mm of aluminum
X-ray measuring units:
1. Traditional Units
 Roentgen ( R) is the basic unit of radiation exposure for the amount of X-radiation or gamma
radiation which will produced in one cc of air ions carrying one electrostatic unit of either sign.
 rad ( roentgens absorbed dose ) is a measure of the amount of energy absorbed by an organ or
tissue.
 rem ( roentgens equivalent man ) is a measure of the degree of damage caused to different organs
or tissues.
 Curie (Ci) : is the unit of quantity of radioactive material and not the radiation emitted by that
material.
 RBE: is a relative biological effectiveness dose.

2. International system of units SI Units

 Coulomb per kilogram (C\kg) : 1 C\kg = 3876 R
 Gray (Gy) : 1 Gy = 100 rad
 Sievert (Sv) : 1 Sv = 100 rem
 Becquerel (Bq) : 1 Bq=2.7 x 10*11 Ci