Usman Ali

UW-19-ME-BSC-029

EXPERIMENT # 01
Familiarization with the lab equipment and sketch the layout of thermodynamics lab.

Objective
To study layout & its types.

Introduction
Layout means planning:

• For the location of all machines , utilities , employee workstations , customer service
areas, material storage areas, aisles, restrooms, lunchrooms, internal walls, offices, and computer
rooms.
• For the flow patterns of materials and people around, into, and within buildings.
• Infrastructure services such as the delivery of line communications, energy, and water and the
removal of waste water all make up basic utilities.

Theory

Layout
The physical arrangement of machines / equipment's or apparatus in a systematic manner is called
layout.

Types of layout

1. Product/Line/Flow line layout

2. Process/Job Shop/Functional layout
3. Fixed Position layout
4. U- shaped layout
5. Combination/ hybrid layout

Product layout:
Also know as line/flow line layout. If all the processing equipment and machines are arranged according
to the operations of the product , the layout is called product layout. Product Layout

Examples

Automobile Assembly, Loan application processing, self –service cafeteria etc.

Advantages

• Product layouts can generate a large volume of products in a short time.

Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• Unit cost is low as a result of the high volume. Labor specialization results in reduced training
time and cost. A wider span of supervision also reduces labor costs. Accounting, purchasing,
and inventory control are routine. Because routing is fixed, less attention is required.
• There is a high degree of labor and equipment utilization.

Disadvantages

• The system's inherent division of labor can result in dull, repetitive jobs that can prove to be
quite stressful. Also, assembly-line layouts make it very hard to administer individual incentive
plans.
• Product layouts are inflexible and cannot easily respond to required system changes especially
changes in product or process design.
• The system is at risk from equipment breakdown, absenteeism, and downtime due to preventive
maintenance.

Process layout:
Also known as job shop/functional layout. The process layout is particularly useful where low volume
of production is needed. If the product is not standardized, the process layout is more low desirable,
because it has creator process flexibility than other. Process layout

Example
Machines performing milling operations are placed in milling department & same procedure should be
follow for the other machines.

Advantages

• The firm has the ability to handle a variety of processing requirements.

Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• Sometimes, the general-purpose equipment utilized may be less costly to purchase and less
costly and easier to maintain than specialized equipment.
• Employees in this type of layout will probably be able to perform a variety of tasks on multiple
machines.
• Since there are multiple machines available, process layouts are not particularly vulnerable to
equipment failures.

Disadvantages

• Equipment utilization rates in process layout are frequently very low, because machine usage is
dependent upon a variety of output requirements.
• If batch processing is used, in-process inventory costs could be high. Lower volume means
higher per-unit costs. More specialized attention is necessary for both products and customers.
Setups are more frequent, hence higher setup costs.
• Constantly changing schedules and routings make juggling process requirements more difficult.

Fixed position layout:

This type of layout is the least important for today’s manufacturing industries. In this type of layout the
major component remain in a fixed location, other materials, parts, tools, machinery, man power and
other supporting equipment’s are brought to this location.

Examples

Ship building, High- class service restaurant, Bridge construction etc

Advantages

• This type of layout is more flexible.

• This type of layout has variety of tasks for labors or staff.

Disadvantages
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• For many fixed-position layouts, the work area may be crowded so that little storage space is
available. This also can cause material handling problems.
• Oftentimes, the administrative burden is higher for fixed-position layouts. The span of control
can be narrow, and coordination difficult.

U- shaped layout
It is a type of layout where machines are grouped according to the process requirements for a set of
similar items that require similar processing

Combination layout
Many situations call for mixture of three layout types. These mixtures are commonly called combination
or hybrid layout.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Conclusion:
• Product layout will be better as compared to process layout due to greater mass production.
• Low initial investment is required for process layout as high initial investment is required
for product layout.
• In product layout, processing time is less & productivity is high & while variety of product
is same.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment # 02
To study two stroke and four stroke engine

Objective
To study two stroke and four stroke engines and how two stroke and four stroke works.

Theory

Two stoke engines:

A two-stroke petrol engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the process cycle in one
revolution of the crankshaft . Thus one power stroke is obtained in each revolution of the crank shaft.

Basic parts:

Piston
A sliding plug that harness the force of the burning gases in the cylinder.

Piston rings
In 2-stroke large engines, compression type piston rings are used to seal the combustion chamber and
wiper rings are installed below them to wipe the deposits from the liner and distribute oil on the liner
surface.

Spark plug
Electronic match is used to begun the combustion process of burning air and petrol to create heat.It
provides the means of ignition when the petrol engine’s piston is at the end of compression stroke close
to Top Dead Central (TDC).

Connecting rod
Connects the piston and piston point to the crankshaft.

Crank shaft
Along the piston pin and the connecting rod is converts the up and down motion
( reciprocating ) of the engine to spinning (rotary) motion
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Two stroke engine diagram

Working principle
• Here suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated .
• Instead of valves , ports are used.
• The exhaust gases are driven out of the cylinder by the fresh charge entering the cylinder.
• The intake & exhaust are controlled by movement of piston.
• The fresh charge enter to cylinder due to difference of pressure.
• The charge is compressed by the pumping action of the piston due to the design of crankcase .
• As the piston continues to move upward , exhaust and transfer port get closed and the
compression is continued.
• In the end of the compression the spark is created which ignites the charge and the products of
combustion thrust the piston from TDC to BDC
• This cycle repeated continuously.

Four stroke engine:

A four-stroke engine, as the name suggests, has a piston that goes through four strokes (or two
crankshaft revolutions) to complete one full cycle; the intake, compression, power and exhaust stroke.

Basic Parts Of Four Stroke Engine:

Piston
A piston slides up and down a cylinder and pushes the crankshaft around. The piston connects to the
crankshaft via the connecting rods.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Piston Rings
Each piston has two compression rings and one oil control ring to help seal the piston in the cylinder.

Connecting Rods
Connecting rods connect the pistons to the crank. They utilize an I-beam construction for strength.

Crankshaft
The crankshaft is bolted to the bottom of the engine block through bearings so it can rotate freely. It is
sometimes referred to as the crank. The crankshaft converts the vertical motion of the pistons and
connecting rods to rotational motion. One end of the crankshaft is connected to a flywheel that transfers
the engine power to the wheels through a transmission (manual or automatic).

Cylinder Head
The cylinder head is bolted to the top of the cylinder block. It serves as a cover for the cylinders and
pistons. The cylinder head helps to create the top part of the combustion chamber. An engine “breathes”
through the cylinder head. It lets an air/gas mixture into the engine and exhaust out of the engine. The
valves and valve train control the breathing of the engine by opening and closing the valves at the
appropriate time.

Four stroke engine diagram

Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Four stroke cycle

Intake stroke

• The piston moves from TDC to BDC (down).

• The intake valve is open.
• The exhaust valve is closed.
• The piston creates a suction (vacuum) and air and fuel are sucked into the cylinder.

Compression stroke

• The piston moves from BDC to TDC (up).

• Both valves are closed.
• The piston compresses the air and fuel mixture.

Power stroke

• The piston moves from TDC to BDC (down).

• Both valves are closed.
• The spark plug fires.
• The fuel mixture burns rapidly. This expanding heated mixture forces the piston down.

Exhaust stroke

• Piston moves from BDC to TDC (up).

• The intake valve is closed.

• The exhaust valve is open.

• The piston pushes the exhaust out.

Conclusion:
A two-stroke petrol engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the process cycle in one
revolution of the crankshaft . Thus one power stroke is obtained in each revolution of the crank shaft.

A four-stroke engine, as the name suggests, has a piston that goes through four strokes (or two
crankshaft revolutions) to complete one full cycle; the intake, compression, power and exhaust stroke.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 03
To operate the safety valve of air compressor test bench.

Apparatus
• Reciprocating Air compressor rig.
• Safety valve
• Manometer
• Tachometer

Introduction
Air compressor is a device, which sucks air from atmosphere and compresses it and delivers reservoir
tank. it compresses the air by means of reciprocating piston. which reciprocate in a stationary cylinder. it
can be single stage or multi stage. it can be single acting or double acting.

Theory
The reciprocating compressor consists of a cylinder, piston, inlet and exit valves which is powered by a
motor. Air is sucked from atmosphere and compressed in the first cylinder (Low pressure) and passed to
the second cylinder (High pressure) through an inter cooler. In the second cylinder, air is compressed to
high pressure and stored in the air tank.

During the downward motion of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder drops below the atmospheric
pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to the pressure difference. Air enters into the cylinder till
the piston reaches the bottom dead center and as the piston starts moving upwards , the inlet valve is
closed and the pressure starts increasing continuously until the pressure inside the cylinder above the
pressure of the delivery side which is connected to the receiver tank. Then the delivery valve opens and
air is delivered to the air tank till the TDC is reached.

At the end of the delivery stroke a small volume of high pressure air is left in the clearance volume. Air
at high pressure in the clearance volume starts expanding as the piston starts moving downwards up to
the atmospheric pressure and falls below as piston moves downward. Thus the cycle is repeated. The
suction, compression and delivery of air take place in two strokes / one revolution of the crank
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Safety valve
A safety valve is used to protect the system against overpressure. Overpressure occurs when the
pressure exceeds the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MWAP) or the pressure for which the
system is designed. Safety valves can open very quickly compared to relief valves. A safety valve opens
from a set pressure; the valve first opens a little, after which it opens fully so that the unwanted pressure
is removed from the system as quickly as possible.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Types of safety valves:

• Safety valve with spring mechanism
• Safety valve with balanced bellows
• Pressure relief valve with guide control

Selection criteria:
• Set pressure
• Back pressure
• Discharge capacity
• Operating temperatures
• Valve and sealing material

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The air compressor consists of two cylinders of “v” type. The compressor is driven by an AC motor. Air
is first sucked into the low pressure (LP) cylinder and it is compressed and delivered at some
intermediate pressure. The compressed air is then cooled in the intercooler and the same is then sucked
by the high pressure (HP) cylinder. Compressed air is the finally discharged to the receiver tank.

An orifice plate is mounted on one side of the air tank and which is connected with a manometer for the
measurement of air flow rate. One side of the air tank is attached with a flexible rubber sheet to prevent
damage due to pulsating air flow. A pressure gauge is mounted on the air tank to measure the air tank
pressure. The tank pressure can be regulated by adjusting the delivery valve. A pressure switch is
mounted on the air tank to switch off the motor power supply automatically when the pressure inside the
tank raises to the higher limit and to avoids explosion.

Procedure :
• The manometer is checked for water level in the limbs.
• The delivery valve in the receiver tank is closed.
• The compressor is started and allowed to build up pressure in the receiver tank.
• Open and adjust the outlet valve slowly to maintain the receiver tank pressure constant.
• The dynamometer is adjusted so that the circular balance reads zero when the points at the
motor pedestal coincide. This can be done by operating the hand wheel.
• Note down the readings as per the observation table.
• Repeat the experiment for various delivery pressures. This can be done by closing the
delivery valve and running the compressor to build up higher pressure.
• Ensure the tank pressure is maintained constant by adjusting the outlet valve before taking
the readings.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Conclusion:
The air compressor consists of two cylinders of “v” type. The compressor is driven by an AC motor. Air
is first sucked into the low pressure (LP) cylinder and it is compressed and delivered at some
intermediate pressure. The compressed air is then cooled in the intercooler and the same is then sucked
by the high pressure (HP) cylinder. Compressed air is the finally discharged to the receiver tank.

An orifice plate is mounted on one side of the air tank and which is connected with a manometer for the
measurement of air flow rate. One side of the air tank is attached with a flexible rubber sheet to prevent
damage due to pulsating air flow.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 04
To calculate the differential pressure using U-Tube manometer of air compressor
available in thermo lab.

Apparatus:
• Air compressor test bench bench
• U- tube Manometer filled with mercury
• Bourdon pressure gauge
• Pressure transducer

Theory:
Pressure of a fluid is the normal force exerted by a fluid on a unit area. The pressure designated will be
either an absolute pressure or a gauge pressure. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect
vacuum (absolute zero pressure), whereas gauge pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric
pressure. Absolute pressures are positive, but gauge pressure can be either positive (above atmospheric
pressure) or negative (below atmospheric pressure) as shown in figure.

Fig : Graphical Representation of Gage & Absolute Pressure

U-tube manometers, bourdon gauge and the pressure transducer used in this experiment to measure the
pressure.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Description of the Instruments

Manometer:

It is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressure under steady state and laboratory
conditions. This method involves balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced by a
fluid column of known density. The manometer gives directly the gauge pressure. In order to improve
the resolution on very low-pressure manometers, the indicating tube is inclined to cause a greater
linear movement than a vertical tube. U-tube and inclined manometer.

Burdon pressure gauge

The Bourdon tube is usually an elliptical cross-section tube having a ‘C’ shape configuration. When
pressure is admitted to the inside of the tube, an elastic deformation results, which tries to straighten up
the tube . One end of the tube is fixed and the other end is free to move and is connected to a spring-
loaded linkage, which amplifies the displacement and transforms it into an angular rotation of the
pointer.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Pressure transducer:

The operation of this device is based on the principle of elastic deformation of a sensitive element. The
commonly used transducer is the strain-gage base transducer. It converts pressure into an analog
electrical signal by the physical deformation of strain gages. Pressure applied to the transducer produces
a deflection of the diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The strain will produce an electrical
resistance changes proportionally to the pressure.

Procedure:
• Familiarize with adjusting the pressure of the pump using the control knobs.
• Check the range of pressures to which each instrument can be exposed.
• Connect the U-tube manometer and the pressure transducer to the network.
• Get multiple pressure readings by increasing the pressure gradually.
• Repeat steps 3 and 4 but connect the U-tube manometer with the Bourdon gauge instead
of the pressure transducer.

Conclusion:
It is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressure under steady state and laboratory
conditions. This method involves balancing the unknown pressure against the pressure produced by a
fluid column of known density. The manometer gives directly the gauge pressure. In order to improve
the resolution on very low-pressure manometers, the indicating tube is inclined to cause a greater
linear movement than a vertical tube. U-tube and inclined manometer.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 05
a. To study Triple point and critical point of CO2 & H2O.
Introduction :
Triple Point is the temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and vaporphases of a
particular substance coexist in equilibrium. A specific case of phase equilibrium.

• In Going from solid to liquid you have a sublimation line.

• In going from solid to liquid you have a fusion line.
• In going from liquid to vapor you have a vaporization line.
• So again triple point is a point where sublimation, fusion and vaporization lines intersect
and solid , liquid and vapor states co exist simultaneously.

Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

To recall, the zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a
third are in thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words, two bodies in thermal
equilibrium have the same temperature, and we can use a third body, a thermometer, to find this
temperature

Triple point of water:

The gas–liquid–solid triple point of water corresponds to the minimum pressure at which liquid
water can exist. At pressures below the triple point (as in outer space), solid ice when heated at
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
constant pressure is converted directly into water vapor in a process known as sublimation.
Above the triple point, solid ice when heated at constant pressure first melts to form liquid water,
and then evaporates or boils to form vapor at a higher temperature.

Critical point of water

In water, the critical point occurs at 647.096 K (373.946 °C; 705.103 °F) and 22.064 mega
pascals (3,200.1 psi; 217.75 atm). In the vicinity of the critical point, the physical properties of
the liquid and the vapor change dramatically, with both phases becoming ever more similar.

Conclusion:
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a third are
in thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words, two bodies in thermal equilibrium have
the same temperature, and we can use a third body, a thermometer, to find this temperature
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 06
To study the working of cooling system of automobile and flow diagram.

Introduction :
The burning air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinders may reach 4000°F [2200 °C] or higher. This
means engine parts get hot. However, cylinder walls must not reach hotter than about 500°F
[260°C], higher temperatures causes lubricating oil to break down and lose its lubricating ability.
Other engine parts are also damaged. To prevent overheating, the cooling system removes the
excess heat. The cooling system keeps the engine at its most efficient temperature at all speeds
and operating conditions. It also helps bring the engine up to normal operating temperature as
quickly as possible. In addition, the cooling system provides a source of heat for the passenger-
compartment heater- and-air- conditioner.

Engine Cooling System Cooling system uses five basic parts:-

• Water Jacket
• Water Pump
• Thermostat
• Radiator
• Fan
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Working of cooling system:
The cooling system is a system of parts and fluid that work together to control an engine’s
operating temperature for optimal performance. The system is made up of passages inside the
engine block and heads, a water pump and drive belt to circulate the coolant, a thermostat to
control the temperature of the coolant, a radiator to cool the coolant, a radiator cap to control the
pressure in the system, and hoses to transfer the coolant from the engine to the radiator.

• The liquid that flows through a cooling system, antifreeze, or commonly referred to as
coolant, withstands extreme hot and cold temperatures and contains rust inhibitors and
lubricants to keep the system running smoothly. Coolant follows a circulation path that
begins with the water pump.
• The water pump’s impeller uses centrifugal force to draw coolant from the radiator and
push it into the engine block. Pumps are usually fan, serpentine timing belt, or timing
chain driven. Nowadays, they may even be driven electrically. If the water pump
experiences a leak from the seal, a cracked housing, broken impeller or a bearing
malfunction, it can compromise the entire cooling system, causing the vehicle to
overheat.
• As coolant flows through the system, it picks up heat from the engine before arriving at
the thermostat. The thermostat is a valve that measures the temperature of the coolant
and opens to allow hot fluid to travel to the radiator. If the thermostat becomes ‘stuck’
and quits working, it will affect the entire cooling system. Once released by the
thermostat, hot coolant travels through a hose to be cooled by the radiator.
• The antifreeze passes through thin tubes in the radiator. It is cooled as air flow is passed
over the outside of the tubes. Depending upon the speed of the vehicle, airflow is
provided by the vehicle’s movement down the road (ram air effect) and/or cooling fans.
Radiator restrictions can compromise its ability to transfer heat. These can be either
external air flow or internal coolant flow restrictions..
• Soft hoses, oil soaked belts or cracked belts and hoses can have dire effects on the entire
cooling system.
• Proper belt tension is also important. Always refer to your manufacturer’s manual to
determine the recommended coolant type for your vehicle. This and the proper mixture
of coolant and distilled water are the lifeblood towards keeping your system running
cool.
• Most parts retailers now offer a solution of premixed coolant and distilled water. While it
may seem like an unnecessary added expense, the cleanliness of the premixed solution
will pay off over time.
• Mineral deposits and sediments from corroded or malfunctioning parts accumulate in the
cooling system.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Before performing a cooling system repair, it is recommended to flush the cooling system prior
to installing any new parts. This is a task made even easier by using a flush-fill kit. Failure to
flush the system will contaminate the new parts being installed and could lead to premature
component failure.

All engine cooling systems are based on the following components:

• Coolant radiator
• Thermostat
• Coolant pump (mechanical or electric)
• Expansion tank tubes
• Engine fan (V-belt driven )
• Temperature sensor (engine control/indicator)

Operating principle
The heat generated during fuel combustion, which migrates to the engine components, is
transmitted to the coolant. The circulation causes heat to transmit to the external air, thus cooling
down the coolant. One or several fans (mechanically or electrically powered) that can be
installed in front of or behind the radiator, support the cooling down process. This occurs in
particular at slow speeds or during vehicle standstill. For maintaining the temperature of the
coolant and/or engine relatively constant, a thermostat controls the coolant inflow.

Flow diagram:
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Conclusion:
Cooling system is one of the most important parts of the automobile; it dissipates the extra heat
out of the engine which can damage the various components of the engine. The temperature of
the engine reaches high enough to weld the piston with the cylinder which can damages the
engine. So there is a provision of cooling system which keeps the various components of the
engine cool and safe. Cooling system is of two type :
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 07
To study the cross tube and smoke chochran Boiler. Analyze water flow and fluid
gases exist system of cross tube boiler.

Chochran boiler
Cochran Boiler is a vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, low pressure, multi-
tubular, solid fuel fired, fire tube boiler with internally fired furnace. It is the modified form of a
simple vertical boiler. In this boiler, the fire tubes are placed horizontally. The efficiency of
this boiler is much better than the simple vertical boiler.

Main parts and construction:

Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
1. Shell:
It has a vertical axis cylindrical drum with a hemispherical dome-type shell at the top.

2. Grate:
It is the platform on which the solid fuel is burnt.

3. Combustion Chamber:
The burning of fuel takes place in the combustion chamber.

4. Fire Tubes:
Cochran boiler has multi-tubular fire tubes. The hot flue gases from the combustion chamber
travels to the smoke box through these fire tubes. The fire tubes helps in the exchange of heat
from the hot flue gases to the water.

5. Fire Hole:
It is the hole provided to fire the fuel inside the furnace.

6. Furnace:
It lies at the bottom of the boiler. Furnace is the place where all the fuel is burnt. Without
furnace, the working of this boiler is not possible.

7. Chimney:
The chimney is attached to the smoke box. It transfer smoke to the environment. The size of the
chimney is small as compared with other boiler.

8. Fire Brick Lining:

The fire brick lining is present in the combustion chamber and helps in the combustion of the
fuel.

9. Manhole:
A manhole is provided for the cleaning and inspecting of the boiler from inside.

10. Flue Pipe:

It is a small passage connecting the firebox and combustion chamber. The hot gases enter into
the combustion chamber through the flue pipe.

Working
• In Cochran boiler first the fuel is inserted into the firebox and placed on the grate. The
fuel is ignited through the fire hole provided at the right bottom of the boiler.
• The fuel is burnt in the firebox, and due to the burning of the fuel, smoke and hot flue
gases emerge out. The hot flue gases enter into the combustion chamber through flue
pipes.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• From the combustion chamber, hot gases enter into the fire tubes. The fire tubes are
surrounded by water. The hot flue gases inside the tubes exchange the heat from the hot
gases to the water. Due to the exchange of heat, the temperature of the water starts
increasing and it gets converted into steam. The steam produced rises upward and
collected at top of the boiler in the hemispherical dome. An anti-priming pipe is installed
at top of the boiler which separates the water from the steam and makes it dry steam.
This dry steam is then transferred to the turbines through the steam stop valve.
• The hot flue gases and smoke after exchanging heat moves to the smokebox. From the
smoke box, the burnt gases and smoke is discharged to the atmosphere through the
chimney.
• Burnt fuel is transferred to the ash pit. Blow off Valve is preset at left bottom of the
boiler and is used to blow off the impurities, mud, and sediment from the boiler water.
• A fusible plug is also provided at the top of the combustion chamber. When the
temperature of the combustion chamber crosses the permissible level, the fusible plug
melts and the water through the combustion chamber enters into the furnace of the boiler
and stops the fire. In this way, a big fire accident can be prevented to take place and also
protects the boiler from damage.
• Various boiler mounting and accessories are attached to the boiler for its efficient
working.

Advantage

• Low initial installation cost.

• It requires less floor area.
• Easy to operate and handle.
• Transportation of Cochran boiler is easy.
• It can use all types of fuel.

Disadvantages
• Low rate of steam generation.
• Inspection and maintenance is difficult.
• High room head is required for its installation due to the vertical design.
• It has limited pressure range.

1. Cross tube boiler

A cross-tube boiler was the most common form of small vertical boiler. They were widely used,
in the age of steam, as a small donkey boiler, for the independent power of winches, steam
cranes etc. The boiler has the advantage of simple robust construction, in particular requiring
little regular maintenance.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Components of the simple cross tube boiler
The components of the simple cross tube boiler are as follows.

• Cylindrical shell
• Cross tubes
• Grate
• Firebox
• Ash pit
• Fire hole
• Hand hole
• Manhole
• Steam stop valve
• Chimney
• Uptake
• Safety Valve
• Pressure Guage

Working of Simple Cross Tube Vertical Boiler:

• It consists of a cylindrical firebox placed at the bottom is a fire Grate which is
surrounded by a cylindrical shell. The fuel is to be placed on the Grate and for
combustion of fuel , the spark (fire) is given through the Fire hole.
• To improve the circulation of water and to increase the heating surface, the firebox is
fitted with one or more no. of cross tubes.
• These cross tubes are riveted to the Firebox and these tubes are slightly inclined to
ensure efficient circulation of water.
• These cross tubes are cleaned from the hand hole which is placed at the end of each tube.
• For inspection and cleaning of the boiler, Manhole is provided.
• A chimney is placed at the top of Uptake, which passes from the crown of the shell.
• Water is to be placed in the shell and when the fuel burns on the grate, the hot gases
travel towards the chimney and heat the water in the shell and cross tubes.
• The steam that is generated due to the flue gases will be deposited on the top of the water
which is considered to be as steam space. The steam is then collected from the Steam
stop valve and is used to drive the turbines for the generation of electricity.
• The flue gases will be passed out from the chimney which is placed on the Uptake.
• The ash from the burnt fuel is collected in the Ash pit.

Advantages

• Low initial cost because of lesser parts

• Low maintenance cost
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• Simple working
• Easy to install and replace
• Occupy small space on ground
• Simple vertical boiler have water level tolerance

Disadvantages

• Vertical design limits its working in many places

• Because of the limited grate area steam production is limited
• Impurities settle down at the bottom thus prevent water from heating
• Boiler tubes must be kept short to minimize height. As a result, much of the available
heat is lost through the chimney, as it has too little time to heat the tubes.

Analysis:
A boiler incorporates a firebox or furnace in order to burn the fuel and generate heat.The
generated heat is transferred to water to make steam the process of boiling. This produces steam
at a rate that varies according to boiler operation. High-quality treated water known as boiler
feed water should be used to produce steam. Pressurized boiler feed water is pumped to boilers
or steam generation systems using boiler feed water pumps. The higher the temperature of the
furnace section of the boiler, the faster the steam production.
Any remaining heat in the combustion gases can then either be evacuated or made to pass
through an economizer; the role of which is to warm boiler feed water before it reaches the
boiler.Superheated steam is needed in many applications and plants. The advantage of strong,
superheated steam is that more work can be done by smaller volumes of steam. This enables all
the components, piping, devices and equipment to be reduced in size, and steam turbines and
steam consumers can be better adapted to installations and applications.

Conclusions:
Cochran Boiler is a vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, low pressure, multi-
tubular, solid fuel fired, fire tube boiler with internally fired furnace. It is the modified form of a
simple vertical boiler. In this boiler, the fire tubes are placed horizontally. The efficiency of
this boiler is much better than the simple vertical boiler.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 08
Carry out a detail study on adiabatic process and adiabatic gas law apparatus and
its complete operations.

1. Adiabatic process:
An adiabatic process is defined as:

The thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat from the system to its
surrounding neither during expansion nor during compression.

The adiabatic process can be either reversible or irreversible. Following are the essential
conditions for the adiabatic process to take place:

• The system must be perfectly insulated from the surrounding.

• The process must be carried out quickly so that there is a sufficient amount of time for
heat transfer to take place.

For instance, the gas compression within an engine cylinder is expected to happen so fast that on
the compression process timescale, a minimum amount of the energy of the system could be
produced and sent out in the form of heat.

Despite the cylinders being not insulated and having a conductive nature, the process is deemed
to be adiabatic. The same could be considered to be true for the enlargement process of such a
system.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
What is Adiabatic Process Equation?

Following is the adiabatic process equation:

PVγ = constant

Where,

• P is the pressure of the system

• V is the volume of the system
• γ is the adiabatic index and is defined as the ratio of heat capacity at constant pressure
Cp to heat capacity at constant volume Cv

Reversible Adiabatic Process

Reversible adiabatic process is also called an Isentropic Process. It is an

idealized thermodynamic process that is adiabatic and in which the work transfers of the system
are frictionless; there is no transfer of heat or of matter and the process is reversible. Such an
idealized process is useful in engineering as a model of and basis of comparison for real
processes.

Adiabatic Expansion

Adiabatic expansion is defined as an ideal behavior for a closed system, in which the pressure is
constant and the temperature is decreasing.

Adiabatic Compression

Adiabatic compression of the air is defined as the compression in which no heat is added or
subtracted from the air and the internal energy of the air is increased which is equal to the
external work done on the air. The pressure of the air is more than the volume as the temperature
increases during compression.

Adiabatic Process Example

There are several instances, some are stated below:

• It is a process where there is a gas compression and heat is generated. One of the
simplest examples would be the release of air from a pneumatic tire.
• Adiabatic Efficiency is applied to devices such as nozzles, compressors, and turbines.
One of the good applications of the adiabatic process.
• The pendulum oscillating in a vertical plane is an example of it.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• A quantum harmonic oscillator is also an example of an adiabatic system.
• When we put the ice into the icebox, no heat goes out and no heat comes in.

Adiabatic gas law apparatus:

Adiabatic and isothermal processes are difficult for beginning students to understand. The
Adiabatic Gas Law Apparatus provides the ideal demonstration. It enables the user to
investigate the compression and expansion of gases, either rapidly under near adiabatic
conditions or slowly under isothermal conditions with direct measurement of pressure, volume,
and temperature.

HOW IT WORKS

Sensitive transducers in the setup measure the pressure, temperature, and volume of the gas
almost simultaneously as the gas is compressed or expanded rapidly under nearly adiabatic
conditions, or slowly under isothermal conditions. Analog signals from the sensors are monitored
by a three channel analog-to-digital data acquisition system that is capable of collecting at least
500 data points per second in each channel simultaneously. The interface connects to a computer
workstation with the data acquisition program that can collect data and plot graphs of pressure,
volume, and temperature.

PRODUCT INCLUDES

• Adiabatic Gas Law Apparatus

• 3 Signal Cables (3.5mm plug to 5-pin DIN)
• Power Adapter (9V DC @ 1A)
• Instruction Manual
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
SPECIAL FEATURES

Volume Transducer: A linear potential divider is mounted on the side of the piston. A 5-Volt
source is applied across the potentiometer element. The voltage from the commutator brush on
the cylinder is used to indicate the position of the piston and the volume of the confined gas.

Pressure Sensor: A solid-state, piezoresistive device that forms part of a bridge circuit is
mounted at the base of the cylinder.

Temperature Sensor: Mounted in the cylinder on the top of the base. The active element is fine
nickel wire with a high surface-to-mass ratio. The wire’s temperature changes rapidly as the gas
compresses or expands.

Operations:
If we want to compress the gas adiabatically following operations to be adopted:

• Select a gas to compress (air is a good gas to start with).

• If you are using a gas other than air, purge the cylinder in the following manner:
• Connect the gas supply to one of the gas cylinder .The pressure should be less than
35kPa or 5 PSI. This prevents damage to the temperature sensor from the external
gas cylinder or supply. The flow of gas must be kept at a low level to avoid breaking
the wire of the sensor. Remove the piston excursion limit pins so the range of
volumes is at the maximum (approximately 16 to 6).
• With the piston down and the second gas cylinder closed, fill the cylinder to
maximum volume with the gas.
• Now shut the incoming gas cylinder off and exhaust through the second gas tank.
• Close the exhaust cock and re-fill with gas.
• Repeat this process at least nine more times, ending with a full cylinder. Shut both
cylinders before performing the experiments. If during the experiment some gas
escapes simply add more.

In case of adiabatic expansion:

• Clamp the cylinder to maximum displacement at atmospheric pressure. Close the gas
cock and compress the gas. Set the trigger level to a value slightly higher than the
steady value and set the slope to positive or “going up”. When ready to take data,
compress the gas to this initial volume, hold it there until equilibrium is achieved
(about 30 seconds), and then very rapidly expand the gas fully.

When compressing the gas, some work is done against friction in the cylinder, but the part of
the cylinder that becomes warm is not in contact with the gas. However, when expanding
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
the gas, the part of the cylinder that is warmed is in contact with the gas. For this reason, the
expansion data may not give good quantitative results.

Conclusion:
The thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat from the system to its
surrounding neither during expansion nor during compression.

The adiabatic process can be either reversible or irreversible. Following are the essential
conditions for the adiabatic process
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 09
Determine the initial pressure and temperature at the time of compression and
evacuation. Also determine the final pressure and temperature at the time of
achieving equilibrium pressure between two cylinders by using adiabatic gas law
apparatus.

Materials:

Gas Law Apparatus.

Background:
There are three main gas laws which are combined to form the ideal gas equation. One of these
three laws is applied in this experiment. But , first of all,

what is an ideal gas?

An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas formed by identical particles of zero volume, with no
intermolecular forces.

Charles' - Gay Lussac law: In this one, we maintain the pressure constant and we change the
temperature and volume. "At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is a linear
function of temperature".
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Gay - Lussac's law: In this one, we maintain the volume constant and we change the
temperature and pressure. "At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of gas is a linear
function of temperature"

Boyle - Mariotte's law: This is the one used in the experiment. In this one, we maintain the
temperature constant and we change the volume and pressure. "For a fixed mass of an ideal gas
at cosntant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is a constant".

Variables:
Independent variable: The independent variable in this experiment is the volume of air we put
into the gas container because we get to chose how the amount of gas we want to have. We
measure this variable in mL.

Dependent variable: The dependent variable in this experiment is the pressure as it changes
depending on the changes in the volume. We measure this variable in hPa.

Control variable: In this case, we were told to maintain the temperature as stable as possible
and so we kept it within 21ºC and 21,5ºC. This variable is measured in ºC. Another one is the
atmospheric pressure (as it is the pressure we always start with). This variable is measured in
hPa. The initial amount of air we have (65 mL if we want to test the positive pressure values and
20 mL if we want to test the negative ones).

Work in thermodynamic processes:

As stated previously, pressure, temperature and volume are considered state variables and are
used to define the particular state of the system.Work and Heat are called transfer variables.
These describe changes in the state. They do not describe the state. We know how to describe the
work done on a system.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Procedure:
In order to obtain positive pressure values:

• Turn the clamping handle until it reaches the 65 mL.

• Open the crank handle so that air, composed mainly of oxygen but mostly of nitrogen,
can come in.
• Once you have the 65 mL of air, close the crank handle.
• Start turning the clamping handle and stop every 2 mL, in order to measure the results as
accurately as possible.
• As said before, stop every 2 mL and write down the corresponding volume, pressure and
temperature.
• Make a table with the corresponding data.

In order to obtain negative pressure values:

• Turn the clamping handle until it reaches the 20 mL though it should already be there.
• Open the crank handle so that air can come in.
• Once you have the 20 mL of air, close the crank handle.
• Start turning the clamping handle and stop every 2 mL, writing down the corresponding
volume, pressure (remember that you should obtain negative values) and temperature.
• Make a table with the corresponding data.

Conclusion:
The experiment we carried out actually served as a demonstration of Boyle's-Mariotte Law
which stated that for a fixed mass of an ideal gas at a constant temperature, the product of
pressure and volume is a constant (P·V=K) .Finally, during this lab session we tried to carry out
an adiabatic process, which is why we attempt to keep the heat be constant.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 10

To study the steam motor and energy conversion test bench and draw the flow
diagram

Apparatus :
Steam motor and energy conversion test bench

Introduction :
Energy transfer is the movement of energy from one location to another. For example, when
electricity moves from a wall plug, through a charger, to a battery.Energy transformation is when
energy changes from one form to another – like in a hydroelectric dam that transforms the kinetic
energy of water into electrical energy.

While energy can be transferred or transformed, the total amount of energy does not change -–
this is called energy conservation.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

• Steam energy is converted to mechanical energy.

• It is based on rankine cycle.

Rankine cycle:

The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into
mechanical work while undergoing phase change.

Pump: Compression of the fluid to high pressure using a pump (this takes work)

Boiler: The compressed fluid is heated to the final temperature (which is at boiling point),
therefore, a phase change occurs from liquid to vapor.

Turbine: Expansion of the vapor in the turbine.

Condenser: Condensation of the vapor in the condenser (where the waste heat goes to the final
heat sink (the atmosphere or a large body of water (ex. lake or river).
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Steam motor:
A steam motor is a form of steam engine used for light locomotives.[1] They represented one of
the final developments of the steam locomotive, in the final decades of the widespread use of
steam power.

Principle:
The principle of the steam motor is to use the developments of the high-speed steam engine, and
to apply them to light locomotives. Rather than a large conventional locomotive having only two
cylinders, rotating at the speed of the driving wheels, the steam motor uses several small
cylinders geared to run at high speeds. With all other factors remaining the same, doubling the
speed of a piston engine doubles its power. The steam motor allowed small, light engines to be
used. As many of the engine's performance losses remain constant, or are also related to the
engine size, these small engines could also be more efficient overall.

Essential features
All steam motors had the following characteristics:

Small size
Motors were of a standard size, according to the manufacturer's product line. Where greater
power was required, multiple motors were used, one per axle or bogie.

Enclosed crankshaft lubrication

The crankshaft and often the valve gear, was enclosed within a crankcase that contained an oil
pump. This provided a generous supply of lubrication and also excluded dirt.

Geared drive
This allows a high crankshaft speed, encouraging efficiency.[1] Although not all geared steam
locomotives made use of this, particularly the US designs such as the Shay and the Climax, it
was an essential part of the steam motor concept.

Flow diagram:
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Conclusion:
Energy transfer is the movement of energy from one location to another. For example, when
electricity moves from a wall plug, through a charger, to a battery.Energy transformation is when
energy changes from one form to another – like in a hydroelectric dam that transforms the kinetic
energy of water into electrical energy.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 11
To use the Marcet boiler equipment to find out the relationship between
temperature and pressure for the steam

Apparatus:
➢ Marcet boiler

Purpose:
In This experiment a Marcet boiler was used to conduct the relationship between a saturated
pressure and temperature of water in the range of 0-14 bar indicating in the gauge and also to
determine the temperature of a body when being heated or cooled. When the temperature
increases pressure also increases in this case the relationship between pressure and temperature is
directly proportional. Assumption was made that the temperature is uniform throughout the
boiler and the outside surface temperature of the boiler is the same as the steam temperature.
Theoretically, the values from the steam table should almost be the same with the recorded
values. In this case, if the values are not the same then this is due to error that was made in the
experiment.
Introduction
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and in relation in other form of work and energy between a
system and its surrounding; in this case the property in the system will change.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Generally ideal gas obeys the equation of state which is showed below.

PV= nRT
When energy is increased in the water .the molecules in the water that is increasing will enable
the molecules to escape from the surface until it is in equilibrium (boiling point). The state of
equilibrium depends on the pressure in the surface of the water. When the pressure is low it is
easier for the molecules to leave the water with less energy.

The Marcet boiler is used to investigate the relationship pressure and temperature in saturated
steam for comparison with the steam table .the experiment slope (dT/dp) is obtained water at
saturated temperature

Theory
The Marcet boiler is used to investigate the between pressure and temperature of saturated steam,
in equilibrium with water, at all pressures between atmospheric and a 14bar An ideal gas can be
characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and absolute
temperature (T). The relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory and is
called the Ideal Gas law. The ideal gas law was originally determined empirically and is simply.

And

hf + hfg = hg ƒž hf

as vg >> vf

In which, vf = specific volume of saturated liquid

vg = specific volume of saturated vapor

hf = enthalpy of saturated liquid

hg = enthalpy of saturated vapor

hfg = latent heat of vaporization

Procedure

• Fill up water half the height of the boiler.

• Ensure the valve is opened.
• Connect the boiler to the electrical switch.
• The boiler is heated up to 100°c and the steam will come out of the open valve.
• Close the valve after 1 minutes to ensure that the air in the boiler is out and continues
heating.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

• When the pressure start rising , start the stop watch.

• Record all the temperature readings at different pressure with time.
• Pressure must not exceed 14 bar
Conclusion
In the experiment, it shows theory that temperature and pressure is relatively proportional in
balance with water.

Disgracing some negligible faults, this experiment can be consider successful, to improve the
result of the experiment, it should be carried out at room temperature switching off all the air-
conditions, and also by repeating the experiment and taking the average value. If some insulation
were kept on the Marcet boiler to reduce heat loss, the experiment could be more accurate
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No # 12
Familiarize with the working and importance of thermostat valve, also compute the
operation of thermostat.

Objective:
➢ Study of thermostat valve.

Equipment:
➢ Thermostat valve.

Thermostat valve:
A device that automatically regulates temperature, or that activates adevice when the temperature
reaches a certain point.A thermostat is a temperature-responsive coolant flow control valve,It
controls the temperature and amount of coolant entering theradiator. Most thermostats are
located on the top and front of an engine.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Components

• Main spring
• Small spring
• Main valve
• Bypass valve
• Charge cylinder
• Seal

Thermostat valves consist of three main elements:

• Setting section with knob, reference spring and setting scale.

• Valve body with orifice, closing cone and sealing elements.
• Hermetically sealed thermostatic element with sensor, bellows and charge.

Construction of thermostat valve:

The thermostat valve has a complete metal frame. On the top we can see the main spring which
opens up the when temperature exceeds limit. Keep in mind that this valve opens up with the
help of main spring which is attached to the main body of thermostat valve.

There is also a seal which, when desired temperature is achieved ,opens up. Then finally comes
the charge cylinder. This cylinder contains wax inside which has a significant role in the working
of the thermostat valve. This charge cylinder is surrounded by main spring

Working of thermostat valve:

• The thermostat, in the beginning is closed as the temperature of water is still low and
has not exceeded the required limit.
• As the engine runs the temperature of water rises.
• If the temperature doesnot reaches the desired limit, the water returns back to the engine
through hoses but as the temperature exceeds the desired limit , the wax inside the
charge cylinder melts and expands.
• This causes the seal to be opened with high pressure, which then leads to the opening of
main valve.
• When the main valve is opened , the hot water flows through toward radiator for
cooling.

Importance:
• Thermostat is an important part of car cooling system. the vehicle’s thermostat performs
a similar function to the thermostat in your home.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
• At home, you set your thermostat to maintain a comfortable temperature range. When
your home gets too hot, the air conditioning kicks on and when it gets too cool, the
heater turns on.
• Now your engine also has an optimal temperature range: warm enough to run efficiently
and not so hot as to cause engine damage. Your car thermostat is a valve between the
engine and the radiator.
• When you first start a cold engine, the valve (thermostat) is closed, allowing the coolant
surrounding the engine to warm up to the proper operating temperature. As the coolant
gets hotter, the thermostat opens, allowing coolant to flow through to the radiator to be
cooled.

The thermostat then opens and closes to keep the engine within a certain temperature range.

Conclusion:
A device that automatically regulates temperature, or that activates adevice when the temperature
reaches a certain point.A thermostat is a temperature-responsive coolant flow control valve,It
controls the temperature and amount of coolant entering theradiator. Most thermostats are
located on the top and front of an engine.
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029

Experiment No #13
To Calculate the power and flow rate of Phelton Wheel Turbine.

Objective:
To investigate the performance of the Pelton Wheel turbine with different range of power and
flowrates.

Apparatus :
• Phelton Wheel Turbine.

Theory:
Pelton Wheel turbine is an impulse type of hydraulic turbine. The total drop in pressure ofthe
fluid takes place in stationary nozzles. A proportion of the kinetic energy of a highvelocity jet is
converted into mechanical work delivered to the shaft, the remainder beingdissipated by fluid
friction and partly retained as kinetic energy of fluid leaving the cups.The fluid transfers its
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
momentum to buckets mounted on the circumference of a wheel.Pelton Wheel or impulse type
hydraulic turbine is used in hydroelectric scheme when thehead available exceeds about 300m.
The turbine is supplied with water under high headthrough a long conduit called penstock.The
water is then accelerated through a nozzle anddischarge at high-speed free jet at atmospheric
pressure, which then impinges the cascade of impulse buckets.

Control Volume

Consider Pelton Wheel rotating in an anti-clockwise direction with an angular velocity ω due to
the combined action of an incident water jet and a clock wise resisting moment. We take a
control volume that is moving at a constant velocity withthe bucket on the Pelton Wheel .

The velocity of the incident jet relative to the bucket is given by: -

Vr1 = V1 – U
= V1 - ω R
Where R is the mean radius of the wheel.Since the incident and emergent jets are both exposed
to atmospheric pressure, themagnitude of the emergent jet will be only slightly less than the
frictional resistance whichcan be allowed for by introducing a frictional resistance coefficient k1
so that: -

| Vr2 | = K1.Vr1

The jet will be deflected so that the emergent jet is at an acute angle θ to the incident jet.The
change in the component of relative velocity in the plane of the wheel (i.e. in the lineof the
incident jet) will be: -

∆Vr = Vr1 + Vr2 Cos θ

= Vr1 (1 + k1 Cos θ )

= (V1 – U) (1 + k1Cos θ )

Which can be written as:

∆Vr = (V1 – U) (1 + c)

Flow discharge:

The discharge through the nozzle, Q from an inlet height H at pressure P is given by:

H = P/ρg

Q = AnV1
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Where An is the nozzle opening area. But,

V1 = Cv √2gH

Hence ,

Q = AnCv√2gH

Power Output

Using the force-momentum equation, the force, F exerted on the bucket by the water jet isgiven
by:

F = ρQ∆Vr

The torque acting on the shaft of the Pelton Wheel is then:

Ʈ= FR

= ρQ∆VrR

And the power output, Wout is:

Wout = Ʈ ω

= ρQ∆VrU

Substituting for ∆Vr gives:

Wout = ρUQ (V1 – U) (1 + k1Cos θ )

Efficiency :

The input hydraulic power, Win to the Pelton Wheel is the product of the inlet pressure andflow
rate

.Win = PQ

= ρgHQ

and the efficiency of the Pelton Wheel is

η = Wout/ Win

= U∆V / gH
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Procedures
In this experiment, we will fix the flow rate and gradually varying the brake load from zero load
to a maximum load. The speed is influenced by the coefficient of friction between the band and
the shaft pulley, which is influenced by temperature; therefore, it is necessar condition to wait for
the speed to stabilize before taking readings. The torque produced can be then determined
knowing the force applied and the wheel speed. The experiment will be repeated for 3 different
flow rates (3 different pressure values).

• Zero the tension gauge at no load.

• Prepare the friction band and weight hanger (weighing 350g) of the friction
dynamometer.
• Make sure that the suction valve and volumetric measuring valve are open (in line).
• Fully open the bench flow-regulating valve.
• Switch on the Hydraulic Bench pump.
• Slowly increases the pump speed regulator until maximum (the ‘white-line’ pointed to
the downward direction).
• Adjust the nozzle spear valve until the inlet pressure reads approximately 0.8 bar.
• Wait until the condition has stabilized.
• Record the weight (i.e. 350g) and the reading of the tension gauge.
• Using the non-contact optical tachometer, measure the speed of rotation of the wheel in
rpm. Point the light beam to a position least affected by the water in order to obtain better
accuracy. At low speed, the variation in the reading will be quite significant
• Add another 100 grams weight and repeat steps 8 to 10.
• Repeat 11 in the step of 100 grams until the wheel stall (the wheel stop rotating).
• Remove all the weight from the hanger.
• Measure the flow rate. To measure the flow rate, close the volumetric measuring valve
and note the time taken for the water to fill a certain volume using the scale (take
10liters).
• Open back the volumetric measuring valve.
• Adjust the nozzle spear valve until the inlet pressure is approximately 1.0 bar and repeat
steps 8 to 15.
• Adjust the nozzle spear valve until the inlet pressure is approximately 1.2 bar and repeat
steps 8 to 15.
• Switch off the hydraulic bench pump
Usman Ali
UW-19-ME-BSC-029
Conclusion:
This experiment was carried out with an acceptable level of accuracy. It was generally a success
as the results obtained were useful for the analysis of the properties of the machine. From the
experimental results, it became possible for the real picture of the operational basis of the
machine to be displayed in such a way that the characteristics of the turbine were visible in the
graphical analysis used.