Technical

Temporary Works Toolkit | Part 14 thestructuralengineer.org

Temporary Works Toolkit

Part 14: The Temporary Works Toolkit is a series
of articles aimed primarily at assisting the
permanent works designer with temporary

Lifting, moving works issues. Buildability – sometimes

referred to now as ‘construction method
engineering’ – is not a new concept and one

and jacking always recognised as vital to the realisation

of one’s ideas; it ought to be at the forefront
of an engineer’s mind.

www.twforum.org.uk

already on site, especially if an existing  Will load be transmitted through two, three
Jim Tod
structure is being replaced. or four points?
Associate, Tony Gee & Partners LLP, Manchester, UK  Off-site prefabrication may allow an  How will the load be supported after
improvement in programme delivery, e.g. placing?
Introduction working on different parts of the project ● Will it be supported immediately, without

This article provides a brief introduction to concurrently. the need for grout to set?
some of the construction techniques of lifting,  Building off site provides protection from the ● It must be lined and levelled accurately.

moving and jacking that may be needed to environment during fabrication. ● Temporary supports must have

build more challenging permanent works, adequate strength and stability for all
particularly when installing large or heavy However, off-site prefabrication increases ongoing environmental and construction
prefabricated elements. the size and weight of elements that need to loads, e.g. accidental impact, wind
The article discusses cranes, self-propelled be transported and installed. and hydrostatic concrete loads, until
modular transporters (SPMTs), slides and incorporated into the permanent works.
launches, and jacking, with the pros and cons Key questions  What are the site conditions?
of each technique considered. Whenever something needs to be lifted, tilted, ● What are the ground conditions,

pushed or pulled, there are some common topography and foundation

Building off site questions that should be asked: requirements?
There is a growing trend for off-site  What is the size, weight and position of the ● Are there constraints from adjacent sites,

prefabrication, with a number of reasons why centre of gravity (CoG)? such as headroom near airports, over
building off site may be preferable to building ● The point of application of the lift must railways or near nuclear facilities?
in situ: pass through the CoG, or movement will ● What is the route of transportation?

 It may be safer to build elsewhere, e.g. to take place; the load will slew, twist or Delivery by road may impose limitations,
avoid building at height or over water. rotate. although this is less of a problem if
 Off-site prefabrication will reduce the  What are the direction, distance and height delivering by river or sea.
amount of temporary works required on site. to be moved? Are there changes in direction ● On-site assembly of subassemblies

 There may not be foundations and working of travel and slope or fall? constructed off site may be required.
space available beneath the structure, e.g. in  Does the load have to be tilted?  How many items need to be moved, e.g.
rivers, over valleys, on poor ground, or above  What is the construction of the load to be one-off move or multiple items?
roads, railways, sewers and tunnels. moved?  Is speed critical (both programme duration
 The construction may cause disruption to ● What is its strength and rigidity? and velocity)?
adjacent sites, e.g. when working near or ● How is it supported before moving?  Are there environmental constraints, e.g.
over railways. ● What is the relative movement between weather, tide, season?
 There may be unsuitable or no working supports?  What provides the failsafe in case of
space, e.g. on a congested city centre site. ● What is the location of attachment malfunction?
 There may be a limited period of access to points?  Is there any novelty in the design of
the site, e.g. rail possession, tidal working. ● What is the maximum reaction at each the permanent works which makes its
 There may be obstructions, e.g. something attachment point? temporary support particularly difficult

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S Figure 1
Examples of
mobile crane
(e.g. the current fashion for structures – the supports nearest the load have the
with apparently unsupported cantilever highest reaction and those furthest away take
sections)? a smaller share.
When unladen, the counterweight pulls the
For safe and efficient construction, the crane ‘backwards’ and the supports under the
methodology should always be considered counterweight have the highest load.
as part of the permanent works design (see The arrangement of supports is typically in
Part 13 of this series1). Planning the method a square so that the lifting duties are equal in
of construction can be complex. There all directions.
will always be more than one way to build The largest of cranes have a ‘superlift’ – an
something; some ways will be more efficient additional counterweight comprising a rear
in terms of cost, resources and programme boom connected to separate kentledge,
(while maintaining the requirements of safety which can be substantially heavier than the
and quality of the completed works) than lifted item. To avoid this pulling the crane over

BALFOUR BEATTY
others. backwards, it is set down on the ground when
The goal is to find the most effective not in use.
and efficient way. This aim for efficient Pros and cons of cranes are presented in
constructability also drives innovation in Table 1.
supply, installation, material technology and
construction plant. All other things being a) Newbury Racecourse rail bridge, Berkshire: 550Te Mobile cranes
crane with 150Te superlift, 185Te outrigger load, lifting
equal, this will give the best means of meeting 96Te at 33m Mobile cranes (Figure 1) include wheeled
the client’s requirements, whether they be telescopic boom cranes, rail cranes, mobile
lowest built price, quickest programme or tower cranes, crawler cranes (Figure 2),
least disruption to stakeholders. (The lowest- loader cranes (‘HIABs’), telescopic forklifts
price permanent works solution may not and spider cranes.
be the cheapest, fastest, least disruptive or Wheeled cranes are usually road going,
safest to build.) can make their own way to site and, generally,
take less time to rig. Larger mobile cranes are
Cranes delivered in several vehicles and rigged on
J MURPHY & SONS

In the 1970s, a 30Te mobile crane would have site. Crawler cranes have to be delivered to
been considered large. Today, a 120Te mobile site on transport, then rigged.
crane would not be unusual and mobile Crawler cranes can travel with a load on
cranes up to 1200Te are available for hire. the end of the hook. Mobile cranes usually
Construction techniques have changed and cannot travel, or if they can, have very
b) Richmond Street bridge, Ashton-under-Lyne: 800Te
developed with the size of crane available, crane with 300Te superlift, 245Te outrigger load, lifting
reduced duties.
and the demand for bigger and further lifts 12Te at 66m Rail-mounted cranes are very specialist
has driven the development of larger cranes. pieces of equipment. The support positions
There are a number of types of crane, are not symmetrical so lifting duties vary with
including: jib direction.
 mobile cranes Mobile and crawler cranes require access
 crawler cranes to the site and land around the structure from
 hoists which to work. In heavily built-up areas, or on
SKANSKA BAM, SEVERFIELD

 derrick cranes; shear legs large-span bridges, this is not available so

 tower cranes, which can be: other solutions are used, e.g. hoists, derricks
● static and tower cranes.
● mobile
● rail mounted Hoists
 portal cranes Hoists attached to runway beams supported by
 ring cranes. a scaffold set over the construction have long

Most cranes consist of a hook block, jib, N Figure 2

Crawler cranes performing tandem lift for Ordsall
Chord rail bridge, Manchester: 1350Te and 750Te
been used to lift pieces into place. A historical
article in the Proceedings of the Institution of
winch, slewing ring, counterweight, chassis crawler cranes tracking and slewing with 600Te Civil Engineers shows this method being used
load; track bearing pressures 600Te/m2; 600Te
supported on wheels, tracks or outriggers, superlift to build Nelson’s Column in London (Figure 3)2.
and foundations.
Cranes with a jib and counterweight rely TABLE 1: PROS AND CONS OF CRANES
on overturning and restoring moments.
Pros Cons
When lifting an object, the crane tips forward
onto the supports (e.g. outriggers, wheels Most commonly used solution – benchmark Can’t be used in high winds
or tracks) closest to the load. To prevent against which other solutions are compared Foundations required – can be quite large
overturning, a counterweight provides a larger
restoring moment. The centre of gravity of Headroom restrictions – near flightpaths or
the whole arrangement moves ‘forwards’ when lifting under something

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Temporary Works Toolkit | Part 14 thestructuralengineer.org

 Figure 4
Derrick
crane, Queensferry
Crossing, Edinburgh
and the counterweight moment
opposes the wind moment.
Depending on space and
ground conditions, tower
crane foundations can
be mass-gravity bases or
piled, the piles resisting the

TRANSPORT FOR SCOTLAND

compression and tension
produced by the overturning
moments. Tower crane bases
are often incorporated within
the footprint of the permanent
structure – inside lift shafts is a
favourite place.
Where the crane oversails
sensitive areas, e.g. nuclear
sites or railways, it may be a
requirement to down-rate the
ICE PUBLISHING

crane capacity.
Mast height can be extended
as the height of construction
increases. As construction
N Figure 3
Scaffolding used to erect Nelson’s
Column, London, 18442
progresses, the extended
mast can be guyed back to the
structure, to limit the moments
Derricks and forces imposed on the
The term ‘derrick’ refers to any crane foundations.
consisting of a mast which projects over
the load and is tied back to a foundation. Tandem lifts
Derricks have been used on the segmental A tandem lift is a procedure
construction of cantilever structures, e.g. arch whereby two cranes are
PA

suspension bridges. The crane is attached to used to lift one object

the abutment and used to lift the components (Fig. 2). It is used when a single crane would
of the next section into position. When this not have sufficient capacity to carry out the N Figure 5
Shear legs used to lift London Eye into position
part of the structure is secure, the crane is lift. Another common application is when
dismantled, moved forwards and re-erected an object is being lifted from horizontal to structure – integrating tower crane bases
at the end of the structure. This technique vertical, e.g. diaphragm wall reinforcement into building foundations, or on top of plunge
is still used today for the construction of cages. Tandem lifts are more complex and columns, and tying tower crane masts into
balanced cantilevered bridges, such as the require more planning than normal lifts. building cores (see Part 131).
Queensferry Crossing, Edinburgh (Figure 4).
Crane foundations Self-propelled modular transporters
Shear legs Special software is used by crane suppliers to SPMTs are road-going wheeled vehicles that
Shear legs, related to the derrick, have accurately calculate the outrigger loads and can support very heavy loads (Figure 7). SPMTs
two legs forming an A-frame. Shear legs in track bearing pressures. were developed in the 1980s by the offshore
combination with strand jacks were used to Big cranes need big foundations. For industry to move very heavy loads through
great effect when raising the London Eye example, a 750Te mobile crane lifting 50Te limited site access and place them to a vertical
observation wheel (Figure 5). at 41.5m has an outrigger load of 140Te. A and horizontal accuracy of a few millimetres.
1350Te crawler crane lifting 400Te at 48m An SPMT module comprises four, six or eight
Tower cranes has a maximum track pressure in excess axle lines of wheels, usually with four wheels
Tower cranes incorporate a mast (Figure 6). of 500kN/m2. Allowable ground bearing to each line. A module is typically around 2.4m
Jib types include horizontal (trolley and flat pressure for poor ground is less than 50kN/ wide, although modules up to 3m wide are
top), luffing, goose neck and jack knife. m2 and engineered fill is around 200kN/m2, available. Axle lines are at around 1.5m centres,
Such cranes are designed for operating so substantial temporary foundations may be so a four-line module is 5–6m long and a
duties at working wind and out-of-service required. six-line is 8–9m. The module height is around
conditions. To reduce the effects of the Consideration should be given to what 1.2m. Modules can be connected together
out-of-service wind moment, it is common parts of the permanent works will be transversely and longitudinally.
to permit the jib to blow in the wind like a affected by the crane foundations. This could Each wheel is driven by its own hydraulic
weather vane. The length of jib with the be proximity to buried services, existing motor and can rotate, allowing the SPMT
greatest wind moment rotates downwind, so foundations or existing basements, or how to be steered in any direction. The wheels
the counterweight faces the prevailing wind the crane foundations will affect the new have independent hydraulically adjustable

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thestructuralengineer.org Part 14 | Temporary Works Toolkit

suspension of around 600mm. Power is

provided by a modular power pack. SPMTs
are controlled by a single operator. In
operation, the fully laden module can travel at
around 3mph.
Proprietary modular steel frames fitted
on top of SPMTs can make up the height
between the transporter and underside of the
load. Hydraulic jacks and climbing assemblies
can be fitted to provide further vertical
adjustment.
Depending on manufacturer and
configuration, each axle line has a capacity
from 24Te to 44Te with ground bearing
pressures from 7Te/m2 to 12Te/m2. Because
of the plan dimensions of the transporter, the

MERSEY GATEWAY CJV

zone of influence can be quite deep.
Pros and cons of SPMTs are given in  Figure 6
Mersey Gateway tower crane
lifting 4Te at 80m radius over
Table 2. 120m high; approach viaduct
moveable scaffold system in
foreground, main span deck
When would you use an SPMT? form traveller in background
Uses include bridge removal, installation
or replacement during a (rail or road)
possession, e.g. to build a new bridge off S Figure 7
Self-propelled modular transporter, A6 Manchester Airport Relief Road: 45m span, 1300Te bridge deck, 350Te
ballast, 300Te sills, 1950Te total. Very precise positioning allowed sill units to be stressed down onto anchors in
line outside possession and then, during a pre-constructed foundations
possession, remove the old bridge by SPMT
and drop it onto a support, pick up the new

CARILLION MORGAN SINDALL, STOCKPORT METROPOLITAN BOROUGH

bridge and drive it into position.
This technique has replaced the bridge
slide techniques that were commonly used in
the past (Figure 8)3.

Slides and launches

Slides and launches are still common
methods of installing structures. To
differentiate between a slide and a launch:
 a slide uses a slide track; temporary
supports are aligned in the direction of travel

COUNCIL & NETWORK RAIL

and the structure is supported over the full
distance of travel (Figure 9)
 a launch has a static leading temporary
support position and the structure
cantilevers over the top of it (Figure 10).

Slides
At its simplest, a slide requires a slide path, TABLE 2: PROS AND CONS OF SPMTs
motive power and a means of steering.
Typically, the slide path is made from a steel Pros Cons
track fixed to support steelwork or a concrete
Smaller footprint than crane Can’t cross obstacles, water
foundation. The contact point between the
load and slide track can be machinery moving Not affected by high winds Can’t accommodate big changes in level
skates or steel fabricated skid coated with a Low headroom means can transport Can’t tilt something from 0° to 90°
low-friction material. underneath something
Motive power can be a push from behind
with a hydraulic jack mounted between the Bearing pressures low Need good road surface – no soft spots
shoe and track, or a pull from a draw bar, wire Do away with slide path temporary works Ground deflections may affect buried services
strand or wire rope, powered by a hydraulic Better at getting item into correct position
jack or mechanical winch mounted to the end
of the slide track. May require a temporary road – but road
Table 3 presents pros and cons of slides. cheaper than slide track

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ICE PUBLISHING
N Figure 8
Launching of Pennair Bridge, India, 18683: 510m
railway viaduct, comprising 24 spans of 19.5m; S Figure 9
Bridge slide on North Kent Line during rail
cut into the piston and a threaded collar.
Once the lift is complete, the collar can be
speed of launch 128m in nine hours possession: 110m span, 9500t (including
abutments, piers, bridge deck ballast and wound down on the jack so locking off the
track), 50 m slide, 40° skew
When would you use a slide? load.
Slides are used when size, space or lack of Arrangements of packing used with the
a suitable roadway mean that an SPMT is jacks enable the load to be raised more than
suitable. the stroke of the jack (jacking and packing).

VINCI CONSTRUCTION
Launches Monitoring
Launching requires the structure (usually It is important to monitor jack pressure and
a bridge) to have adequate strength and structure movement. Pressure gauges can
stability to cantilever into space over its last be attached to individual jacks or banks of
support. In the temporary condition, the jacks connected by a common manifold.
structure must cope with the high reversed Movement can be monitored by surveying
bending moments, high coexistent bending Types of hydraulic jacks techniques, dial gauges with direct analogue
moments and shear forces, and remain A flat jack comprises two pressed steel discs readout, or electronically by a wide variety of
balanced. welded around the perimeter. These are transducers. It is also possible to monitor the
A launch requires a launching surface of low height, cheap and can be filled with change in strain of structural members during
(rollers), motive power and guidance. The resin to form permanent packs. Uses include the operation. The jacking operation should
leading edge of the bridge can be pulled from preloading lintels supporting new openings be carried out sufficiently slowly that the
an anchor point in front, on the landing side in old buildings, preloading bearings under monitoring system can be read and the data
of the span, or the rear of the bridge can bridges and in underpinning. understood.
be pulled from the launch side. Winches or Most jacks have an outer cylinder and inner
strand jacks can be used. Small structures, piston. A flexible seal between the piston Controlling the jacking operation
say up to 40m, can be pushed across by and cylinder stops the oil escaping. Some There are a number of methods to operate
bulldozers. have bearing seals to provide transverse and control the jacks. These include:
Table 4 presents pros and cons of load transfer through the piston and into  open circuit
launches. the cylinder. A jack that can be hydraulically  open circuit with steering jacks
powered when extending only is known as  incremental operation
When would you use a launch? a single-acting jack. A double-acting jack  synchronised pumps
Launches are still a popular way to build steel can also be powered when retracting. These  computer control.
and concrete segmental bridges when the are used to accurately control the position
spans are larger than can be erected with a of a piston, apply a pulling force or speedily The most appropriate method will depend
crane or an SPMT. retract a piston. on the structure and what needs to be
Jacks with a hole down the centre of the achieved and it is best to seek expert advice.
Jacking piston and cylinder are called hollow ram
A jack is a device which applies or removes jacks; these are useful for pulling bars. Single Hazards and pitfalls
load from a structure. The simplest jack and double-acting variants are available. The Potential hazards include:
is a wedge driven into a gap. A more strand jack is a specially adapted variation of  overloading the structure
sophisticated version is two opposing the hollow ram jack.  overloading the jack, especially if placing
wedges driven together. A screw jack acts as Hydraulic jacks can have a screw thread load on top
a tapered wedge wrapped around a cylinder.
Screw jacks and folding wedge jacks are still TABLE 3: PROS AND CONS OF SLIDES
commonly used, but for the heaviest loads
hydraulic jacks are now used. Pros Cons

Hydraulic jacks Have smaller footprint than SPMTs Expense

A hydraulic circuit is a closed system Can move bigger structures than SPMTs If sliding down hill, a brake is required
containing fluid, usually oil, water or a water/ Can be used when access isn’t possible Load can lurch or crab during pulling – modern
glycol mix. Oil is used more commonly with SPMTs proprietary jack-slide systems minimise this
because it is inert and has low compressibility. problem and operate well
For permanently filling flat jacks, resin can Can be used when there is an obstruction that
be used. an SPMT can’t cross (e.g. river)

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TABLE 4: PROS AND CONS OF LAUNCHES

programme – to construct the works.
Pros Cons At the end of the construction period,
Still popular way to build bridges Piers need to be in place all the temporary works are removed and
the structure is left complete and self-
Moment, deflection and reaction reduced by Strength and stability of structure
supporting. Once the temporary works are
using lighter nose Not good for lattice structure, bottom chord stripped away, little evidence is left of the
has to take compression, local shear and local methods used to support and build the
bending structure. It’s a bit like a conjuring trick,
Big cantilever deflection leaving future generations to ponder, ‘How
on earth did they manage to build that?’
Area on site required for counterbalance
This is one of the things I like about being
a temporary works engineer.
one jack sticking so that it
attracts all the load.
REFERENCES

Other techniques
It is possible to build large E1) McBride D. (2017) ‘Temporary Works
Toolkit. Part 13: The importance of
structures in situ. The
understanding construction methodology’,
techniques being used to build The Structural Engineer, 95 (7), pp. 32–36
ALE & TRANSPORT FOR SCOTLAND

the Mersey Gateway bridge

in northwest England include E2) Grissell T. (1844) ‘Account of the
travelling formwork systems scaffolding used in erecting the “Nelson
(Fig. 6) that can launch Column”, Trafalgar Square’, Min. Proc. ICE,
3, pp. 203–205
themselves from pier to pier
and allow an entire 70m span
E3) Stoney E.W. (1870) ‘Description of the
to be built at a time in situ. Pennair Bridge, Madras Railway, N.W. Line’,
It is also worth mentioning Min. Proc. ICE, 29, pp. 382–397
Ove Arup’s concrete
Kingsgate footbridge in E4) Construction (Design and Management)
N Figure 10
Launching of Queensferry Crossing road bridge:
543m long viaduct, total weight of both girders
Durham, which was built on dry land parallel Regulations 2015, SI 2015/51
3150Te to the river, then rotated into place.
E5) Lifting Operations and Lifting
Equipment Regulations 1998, SI 1998/2307
 running out of stroke when lifting or lowering Legislation
– take elastic shortening, foundation Work described here will be covered by a E6) Provision and Use of Work Equipment
settlement and deflection of the structure number of sets of regulations; in the UK, Regulations 1998, SI 1998/2306
being jacked into account these are primarily CDM 20154, LOLER5
 under-capacity when lifting; the structure and PUWER6.
will just not lift
 leaks – consider what could happen if there Conclusion HAVE YOUR SAY
was a sudden release of oil (burst hose) Lifting, moving and jacking is an immense
To comment on this article:
 blockages – make sure oil is entering and subject. The challenge for the contractor
Eemail Verulam at tse@istructe.org
leaving all the jacks. When lifting, avoid one is to come up with the best method – safe, Etweet @IStructE #TheStructuralEngineer
jack lagging behind; when lowering, avoid most efficient, least disruptive, best use of

heStructuralE
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TheStructuralEngineer | August 2017 31

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 Technical
Temporary Works Toolkit | Part 14 thestructuralengineer.org

FURTHER READING

The following publications and websites EConstruction Plant-hire Association EUS Department of Transportation
provide further guidance on the techniques (2011) TCIG 1101: The Climbing of Tower Federal Highway Administration (2017) Self
discussed in this article: Cranes, London: CPA Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMTs)
[Online] Available at: www.fhwa.dot.gov/
CRANES EConstruction Plant-hire Association bridge/abc/spmts.cfm (Accessed: July
EBritish Standards Institution (1998–2017) (2007) TCIG 0701: Safe Use of Top Slew 2017)
BS 7121 Code of practice for safe use of Tower Cranes, London: CPA
cranes, London: BSI SLIDES AND LAUNCHES
EConstruction Plant-hire Association ECIRIA (1977) R068: Lateral movement of
EBritish Standards Institution (2012–16) (2010) TCIG 0601: Safe Use of Self Erecting heavy loads, London: CIRIA
BS EN 13001 Cranes, London: BSI Tower Cranes, London: CPA
EUS Department of Transportation
EBritish Standards Institution (2007) SPMTs Federal Highway Administration website
BS EN 1993-6:2007 Eurocode 3. Design EEuropean Association of Abnormal (2017) [Online] Available at: www.fhwa.dot.
of steel structures. Crane supporting Road Transport and Mobile Cranes (2016) gov (Accessed: July 2017)
structures, London: BSI Best Practice Guide for Self-Propelled
Modular Transporters [Online] Available at: EConcrete Bridge Development Group
ESkinner H., Watson T., Dunkley R. and http://estaeurope.eu/media/downloads/ (2005) TP9: Fast construction – segmental
Blackmore P. (2016) CIRIA C654: Tower ESTA_A4versie_DEFdigitalHR-pages.pdf and launched bridges, Camberley: CBDG
crane stability, London: CIRIA (Accessed: July 2017)
EConcrete Bridge Development Group
ELloyd D. (ed.) (2003) CIRIA C703D: Crane EOversize Baltic (2009) Everything (2007) CPS13: Incrementally launched
stability on site, 2nd ed., London: CIRIA about self propelled modular trailers concrete bridges, Camberley: CBDG
(SPMT) [Online] Available at: www.
EConstruction Plant-hire Association transportoversize.eu/en/articles/id/4139/ EConcrete Bridge Development Group
(2014) CPA 1402: Requirements for Tower (Accessed: July 2017) (2007) CPS14: Jacked box underbridges
Cranes Alongside Railways Controlled by using the Ropkins system, Camberley:
Network Rail, London: CPA CBDG

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32 August 2017 | TheStructuralEngineer

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