Significant Figures

• All non-zero numbers ARE significant.

198.2 → 4 sign.
• Zeros between two non-zero digits ARE significant.
202 → 3 sign.
• Leading zeros are NOT significant.
0.003 → 1 sign.
• Trailing zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant.
0.0030 → 2 sign.
• Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown ARE significant.
123.0 → 4 sign.
Significant Figures
• Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are NOT significant.
1230 → 3 sign.
• For a number in scientific notation: N x 10x, all digits comprising N ARE significant by
the first 6 rules; "10" and "x" are NOT significant.
1.52 x 10²² → 3 sign.

• ± least decimal places

• x / least significant figures
Significant Figures
• 0.0050 2 significant figures
• 1.010 4 significant figures
• 900 1 significant figure
• 900.0 4 significant figure
• 0.009 1 significant figure
System of Real Numbers
• System of Real Numbers (C)

Real (R) Imaginary (I)

Ex. −1 or i

Rational (Q) Irrational (H)

π, 2, non-repeating decimals

Integers (Z) Fractions, repeating decimals

Natural Numbers (N) Negative integers

Whole Numbers (W) Zero (0)

Last digit of a number raised to nth power
• Find the last digit of 7295 x 3158
For 7295
Step 1. Identify the pattern of the last digit Therefore, four (4) counts
71 = 7
72 = 49 If raised to 1, then the answer is 7
73 = 343 If raised to 2, then the answer is 9
74 = 2401 If raised to 3, then the answer is 3
75 = 16807 If raised to 4, then the answer is 1
76 = 117649
77 = 823543 Step 2. Then, let “n” be divided by the
78 = 5764801 number of counts, which is four
295/4 = 73 r. 3
Therefore, last digit of 7295 is 3.
Last digit of a number raised to nth power
• Find the last digit of 7295 x 3158
For 3158
Step 1. Identify the pattern of the last digit Therefore, four (4) counts
31 = 3
32 = 9 If raised to 1, then the answer is 3
33 = 27 If raised to 2, then the answer is 9
34 = 81 If raised to 3, then the answer is 7
35 = 243 If raised to 4, then the answer is 1
36 = 729
37 = 2187 Step 2. Then, let “n” be divided by the
38 = 6561 number of counts, which is four
158/4 = 39 r. 2
Therefore, last digit of 3158 is 9.
Last digit of a number raised to nth power
• Find the last digit of 7295 x 3158
For 7295 = 3 and For 3158 = 9

3 x 9 = 27 , last digit is 7.
Algebraic Expressions
• For Addition

Word Problem Algebraic Expression

The sum of 3 and a number 3+n or n+3
7 more than a number n+7
A number plus 2 n+2
A number increased by 8 n+8
Add 9 to a number n+9
Joe is 9 years older than Drew who n+9
is “n” years old
Jenna’s salary is raised by 1000 s+1000
Algebraic Expressions
• For Subtraction

Word Problem Algebraic Expression

A number minus 6 n-6
9 less than a number n-9
Subtract 10 from a number n-10
A number decreased by 5 n-5
Joe is 9 years younger than n-9
Drew who is “n years old
Jenna’s salary is lowered by s-1000
1000
Algebraic Expressions
• For Multiplication

Word Problem Algebraic Expression

5 times a number 5n
The product of 3 and a number 3n
Twice a number 2n
A number doubled 2n
A number multiplied by 8 8n
2/3 of a number 2n/3
Algebraic Expressions
• For Division

Word Problem Algebraic Expression

A number divided by 2 n/2
4 divided into a number n/4
The quotient of a and b a/b
The ratio of a and b a/b
Factor Theorem
• Factor Theorem: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
C = (±X1) (±X2)
Let f(±X1 or 2), equation must be equal to 0
Example: Identify the factors of x2 + x -12 = 0
Let C = (±4) (±3) or (±2) (±6) or (±1) (±12)
Use (+4):
(4)2 + (4) – 12 = 8 NO
Use (-4):
(-4)2 +(-4) – 12 = 0 YES, -4 is a factor
Then use +3; (3)2 +(3) – 12 = 0
Factors, -4 and 3
Sum or Product of Roots
• Sum or Product of Roots: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
𝐵
Sum = -
𝐴
𝐶
Product = (-1)n *
𝐴

Example 1: What is the sum of the roots of 9x2 - 3x -12 = 0

Let B = -3
Let A = 9
(−3) 1
Therefore, Sum = - =
9 3
Sum or Product of Roots
• Sum or Product of Roots: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
𝐵
Sum = -
𝐴
𝐶
Product = (-1)n *
𝐴

Example 2: What is the product of the roots of 9x2 - 3x -12 = 0

Let C = -12
Let A = 9
Let n = 2
−12 4
Therefore, Product = (-1)2 * =−
9 3
Remainder Theorem
• Remainder Theorem: f(x) / (Ax – B)
𝐵
Remainder = f( )
𝐴
• Or through synthetic division
• Depressed equation → equation formed after synthetic div.

• Example: Determine the remainder when x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 is divided by (x + 2)

f(x) = x2 + 3x + 4 = 0
(Ax – B) = (x + 2)
Let A = 1
Let B = -2
Remainder Theorem
• Remainder Theorem: f(x) / (Ax – B)
𝐵
Remainder = f( )
𝐴
Let A = 1 Let B = -2
𝐵 𝐵
Then x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 → ( )2 + 3( ) + 4
𝐴 𝐴
−2 2 −2
Remainder =( ) + 3( ) + 4
1 1
=2
Remainder Theorem
• Remainder Theorem: Synthetic Division
x2 + 3x + 4

x+2 -2 1 3 4
-2 -2
multiply 1 1 2

2
Therefore, R = 2 or
𝑥+2
Binomial Expansion
• rth term = nC(r-1)(ax)n-(r-1) (by)(r-1)

• Properties of Binomial Expansion

o The total number of terms in the expansion of (x+y)n are (n+1)
o The sum of exponents of x and y is always n.
o The binomial coefficients which are equidistant from the beginning and from the ending
are equal.
Binomial Expansion
• rth term = nC(r-1)(ax)n-(r-1) (by)(r-1)
o The binomial coefficients which are equidistant from the beginning and from the ending
are equal.

Example 1: Expand (4x + 2y)3

1 (4x)3 3(4x)2 (2y)1 3(4x)1 (2y)2 1 (2y)3

= 64x3 + 96x2y + 48xy2 + 8y3

Binomial Expansion
• rth term = nC(r-1)(ax)n-(r-1) (by)(r-1)

3 𝑎
Example 2: In the expression (𝑥 + )10 , what is the term involving 𝑥 2
𝑥
Therefore,
𝑎
nC(r-1)(ax)n-(r-1) (by)(r-1) → 10C(r-1)(𝑥 3 )10-(r-1) ( )(r-1)
𝑥

𝑥2 =
𝑎
(𝑥 3 )10-(r-1) ( )(r-1) Coefficient Equate to 𝑥 2
𝑥
𝑥2 = 𝑥 33−3𝑟 (𝑥 −1 )(r-1) (𝑎)(r-1)
2 = (33-3r) + (-r+1)
Therefore r = 8
Binomial Expansion
• rth term = nC(r-1)(ax)n-(r-1) (by)(r-1)

3 𝑎
Example: In the expression (𝑥 + )10 , what is the term involving 𝑥 2
𝑥
Note that r = 8
𝑎
Going back to the formula → 10C(8-1)(𝑥 3 )10-(8-1) ( )(8-1)
𝑥
𝑎
Simplifying, 10C7(𝑥 3 )3( )(7)
𝑥
Therefore, 120𝑥 9 𝑎7 𝑥 −7
Answer is, 120𝒙𝟐 𝒂𝟕
Sum of the Coefficients
• Sum of the Coefficients: (ax ± by)n
S.o.C. = f(1)n - f(0)n

Example: Determine the sum of the coefficients of (4x + 5y - 4)4

Let f(1) - f(0) → (4(1) + 5(1) - 4)4 - (-4)4
S.o.C. =369
Sum of the Exponents
• Sum of the Exponents: (axm ± byn)P
𝑃
S.o.E. = (m+n)( )(1+P)
2
S.o.E. = (SoE inside)[(P+r-1)Cr] for multiple variables
C → combination, r = no. of terms, including the constant, if any
Example 1: Determing the S.o.E. of the equation (x2 + y3)6
𝑃
S.o.E = (m+n)( )(1+P)
2
6
S.o.E = (2+3)( )(1+6)
2
S.o.E = 105
Sum of the Exponents
• Sum of the Exponents: (axm ± byn)P
𝑃
S.o.E. = (m+n)( )(1+P)
2
S.o.E. = (SoE inside)[(P+r-1)Cr] for multiple variables
C → combination, r = no. of terms, including the constant, if any
Example 2: Determing the S.o.E. of the equation (x2 + y3+z+4)5
S.o.E = (SoE inside)[(P+r-1)Cr]
S.o.E = (2 + 3 +1)[(5+4-1)C(4)] Note of the parentheses
S.o.E = (6)[70]
S.o.E = 420
Quadratic Equation
• Quadratic Equation: Ax2 + Bx + C = 0
• Quadratic Formula:

Discriminant : B2 – 4AC
B2 – 4AC = 0 Only one root (real and equal)
B2 – 4AC > 0 Roots are real and unequal
B2 – 4AC < 0 Roots are imaginary and unequal
Negative Reciprocal of Quadratic Roots
• Negative Reciprocal of Quadratic Roots
Example: (x+2)(x-5)
1 1
N.R.o.Q.R.→ (x- ) (x+ )
2 5
Laws of Exponents (Index Law)
• xn = x⋅x⋅x...(n factors) 𝑥 𝑥𝑛
• ( )𝑛 =
𝑦 𝑦𝑛
• xm⋅xn=xm+n
• x−n = 1/xn and 1/x−n=xn
• (xm)n=xmn
• x0=1, provided x≠0.
• (xyz)n=xnynzn
• (xm)1/n=(x1/n)m=xm/n
𝑥𝑚
• =xm−n • xm/n=
𝑛
𝑥𝑚
𝑦𝑛

• If xm=xn, then m=n provided x≠0.

Example: Can you determine the value of “r” in the equations 2r-1 and 8r-5 ?
Solution: 2r-1 = 8r-5
2r-1 = 23(r-5)
r – 1 = 3(r-5)
r=7
Properties of Logarithms
• If y=ax, then logay=x. ← Definition of logarithm
• logaxy=logax+logay • If logax=logay, then x=y.
𝑥
• log 𝑎 = logax−logay • If logax=y, then x=antilogay.
𝑦
• logaxn = nlogax
• logaa=1 • Log 329.65 = 2.5180
• loga1=0 = 2 + 0.5180
• log10x=logx ← Common logarithm • 2 is the characteristic.
• logex=lnx ← Naperian or natural logarithm • 0.5180 is the mantissa.
log 𝑥 ln 𝑥
• logyx= = ← Change base rule
log 𝑦 ln 𝑦
Properties of Radicals
𝑛
• 𝑥 = x1/n
𝑛
• 𝑥 𝑚 = ( 𝑛 𝑥 )𝑚 = xm/n
𝑛
• 𝑥 𝑛
𝑦= 𝑛
𝑥𝑦
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥
• 𝑛 𝑦 =
𝑦
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚𝑛
1 1
• 𝑛
𝑥 𝑚
𝑥= x1/n ⋅x1/m = 𝑥 ( Τ𝑛+ Τ𝑚) = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑥 (𝑚+𝑛)
𝑛 𝑚−𝑛
𝑥 ( 1Τ − 1Τ ) 𝑚𝑛
• 𝑚 = x1/n ÷x1/m = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑥 (𝑚−𝑛)
𝑥
• ( 𝑛 𝑥)𝑛 =x
DISMISS
Arithmetic Progression
• Arithmetic Progression - succeeding terms have a common difference
• Nth term: an = a1 + (n-1)d or mode 3-2; ŷ
x-hat = “what term has this value?”
𝑛
• Sum: Sn = (a1 + an ) or mode 3-3; ŷ Note: Calcu input is by sum
2
• mean = (a + b)/2
• Sn = (a1 + a2 + … + an-1)
• an = Sn – (Sn-1)
Where a1 = first term
an = nth term
n = number of terms
d = common difference
d = a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = …
Arithmetic Progression
• Arithmetic Progression - succeeding terms have a common difference
• Nth term: an = a1 + (n-1)d or mode 3-2; ŷ
x-hat = “what term has this value?”

Example 1: Find the 16th term of the arithmetic sequence: 4, 7, 10

an = 4 + (16 – 1)(3)
X y
an = 49
1 4
2 7
3 10
Arithmetic Progression
• Arithmetic Progression - succeeding terms have a common difference
𝑛
• Sum: Sn = (a1 + an ) or mode 3-3; ŷ Note: Calcu input is by sum
2

Example 2: Determine the sum of the first 12 terms of the arithmetic sequence: 3, 8, 13
12
Sn = (3 + 58 )
2
Sn = 366 X y
1 3
2 3+8
3 3+8+13
Geometric Progression
• Geometric Progression - succeeding terms have a common ratio
• an = a1rn-1 or mode 3-6
• Sn = a1 (1-rn) / (1-r)
• Mean = 𝑎𝑏

• (Gmean)2 = (Amean) (Hmean)

Where r = common ratio

r = a2 / a1 = a3 /a1 = …
Geometric Progression
• Geometric Progression - succeeding terms have a common ratio
• an = a1rn-1 or mode 3-6

Example 1: Find the 8th term of the sequence 4, 8, 16

an = 4(2)8-1 X y
an = 512 1 4
2 8
3 16
Geometric Progression
• Geometric Progression - succeeding terms have a common ratio
• Sn = a1 (1-rn) / (1-r)

Example 2: Find the sum of the first seven terms of the sequence: 9, -6, 4
2 2
Sn = 9 (1-(- )7) / (1- - )
3 3
463
Sn =
81
Infinite Geometric Series
• Infinite Geometric Series - geometric progression where the number of terms is
extremely large or infinite
• If r>1 , the sum of all terms is infinite
• If r<1, the sum of all terms is
𝑎1
𝑆=
1−𝑟
Example: Find the sum of the infinite geometric series 1/3, -2/9, 4/27, -8/81
1/3
𝑆= 2
1−(−3)

𝑆 = 1/5
Harmonic Progression
• Harmonic Progression - a sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an arithmetic
progression
• “reciprocal” of arithmetic
• Mean = 2pq / ( p + q )

Example: Compute the 15 term of the harmonic sequence ¼, 1/7, 1/10

an = a1 + (n-1)d
an = 4 + (15-1)*3
an = 46
Therefore, 1/46
Angles
• Complementary: σ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 90°
• Supplementary: σ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 180°
• Explementary/Conjugate: σ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 360°
• Coterminal: 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 360°

Example: The supplement of angle A is thrice of the angle A. Determine the angle.
A + y = 180
y = 3A y
A
A = 45
Sexagesimal, Centesimal, Artillery Unit
• 1 rotation = 2π radians
= 360° Sexagesimal
= 400 grads Centesimal
= 6400 mils Artillery/Distance Judgment

Example: Convert 250 grads to Artillery units

6400 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
x 250 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 = 4000 mils
400 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
• Reciprocal Relations:
sin 𝜃 = 1/ csc 𝜃
cosθ = 1/secθ
tan θ = 1/ cotθ

• Quotient Relations
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
• Cofunction Identities
sin θ = cos (90-θ)
cos θ = sin (90-θ)
tan θ = cot (90-θ)
csc θ = sec (90-θ)
sec θ = csc (90-θ)
cot θ = tan (90-θ)

• Pythagorean Identities
sin2(t) + cos2(t) = 1
tan2(t) + 1 = sec2(t)
1 + cot2(t) = csc2(t)
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
• Sum and Difference of Two Angles
sin(α + β) = sin(α) cos(β) + cos(α) sin(β)
sin(α – β) = sin(α) cos(β) – cos(α) sin(β)
cos(α + β) = cos(α) cos(β) – sin(α) sin(β)
cos(α – β) = cos(α) cos(β) + sin(α) sin(β)

• Double Angle Identities

sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)

cos(2x) = cos2(x) – sin2(x)

= 1 – 2 sin2(x)
= 2 cos2(x) – 1
2 tan 𝑥
• tan 2𝑥 =
1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
• Half Angle Identities
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
tan 𝑡 −cot 𝑡
• Example: Determine the identity (or simplify) of
sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑦 𝑥
𝑥
−𝑦
𝑦 𝑥
𝑟
∗𝑟

𝑦2 −𝑥²
𝑥𝑦
𝑥𝑦
𝑟²

𝑦 2 − 𝑥² 𝑟²
∗
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
tan 𝑡 −cot 𝑡
• Example: Determine the identity (or simplify) of
sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑦 2 − 𝑥² 𝑟²
∗
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑦

𝑦 2 𝑟² − 𝑥²𝑟²
𝑥²𝑦²

𝑦 2 𝑟² 𝑥²𝑟²
-
𝑥²𝑦² 𝑥²𝑦²
Trigonometric Identities, Cofunction,
Pythagorean, Half Angle Identities
tan 𝑡 −cot 𝑡
• Example: Determine the identity (or simplify) of
sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑦 2 𝑟² 𝑥²𝑟²
-
𝑥²𝑦² 𝑥²𝑦²
𝑟² 𝑟²
-
𝑥² 𝑦²

Sec²t - csc²t
Unit Circle
exsecθ = secθ – 1
excsc θ = csc θ – 1
versin θ = 1 – cos θ
vercos θ = 1 + cos θ
coversin θ = 1 – sin θ
covercos θ = 1 + sin θ
haversin θ = ( 1 – cosθ) / 2
haexsec θ = (secθ – 1) /2
Unit Circle
Example: Determine exsecθ if cos 𝜃 = 0.1736

Note that exsecθ = secθ – 1

And secθ = 1 / cosθ
Therefore
1
exsecθ = –1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
exsecθ = –1
0.1736
= 4.76
Variation
1
• inversely: x = (k)
𝑦
• directly: x = (k)y
• jointly: x = (k)yz

Example: X is jointly proportional with y and z. X is equal to 96 when y is equal to 32 and z

is equal to 5. Determine the new value of x when y = 33 and z = 6.
x = (k)yz
96 = (k)(32)(5)
Therefore k = 0.6
xnew = (k) (ynew)(znew)
xnew = 0.6*33*6 = 118.8
GCF/LCD
• GCF – having “smallest” exponents
• LCD – having “largest” exponents

Example 1: Determine the GCF of 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 and 𝑥 3 𝑦 4 𝑧 2

Ans: 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧 2

Example 2: Determine the LCD of 𝑥 3 𝑦 4 and 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 2

Ans: 𝑥 3 𝑦 4 𝑧 2
Temperature
• Celsius → Fahrenheit:
F = 1.8C + 32
• Fahrenheit → Celsius:
C = (F – 32) / 1.8
• Celsius → Kelvin:
K = C + 273.15
• Fahrenheit → Rankine:
R = F + 459.67

• Average room temperature = 20 °C

• Average body temperature = 37 °C
• Absolute zero temperature = 0 K
Temperature
Example: Convert 32 °C into Rankine

Order of conversion: C to F to R
C to F: (32 * 1.8) + 32
= 89.6 °F
F to R: 89.6 + 459.67
= 549.27 °R
DISMISS
Absolute Values
• Consider ± to the equation encased by vertical bars

Example: 2𝑥 − 5 < 3

Consider + : 2x – 5 = 3
x=4
Consider - : -(2x – 5) = 3
x=1
Answer: x = 4, 1
Graphs of Circular Function
𝑠𝑖𝑛
• y = A 𝑜𝑟 (B(x + C)) + D
𝑐𝑜𝑠
• A = amplitude (is the height from the center line to the peak or to the trough)
2𝜋
• = period (goes from one peak to the next)
𝐵
𝐵
• = frequency
2𝜋
Graphs of Circular Function
𝑠𝑖𝑛
• y = A 𝑜𝑟 (B(x + C)) + D
𝑐𝑜𝑠
• A = amplitude (is the height from the center line to the peak or to the trough)
2𝜋
• = period (goes from one peak to the next)
𝐵
𝐵
• = frequency (how often something happens per unit of time)
2𝜋
• “simplified” C = phase shift (how far the function is shifted horizontally
from the usual position)
• D = vertical transition (how far the function is shifted vertically from the usual position)
Graphs of Circular Function
Example: Determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and vertical transition of the
equation 2 sin(4(x − 0.5)) + 3.

amplitude A = 2
period 2π/B = 2π/4 = π/2
phase shift = −0.5 (or 0.5 to the right)
vertical shift D = 3
Exponential Growth/Rate or Population
• Pf = Pie ± rt
• + increase
• - decrease or decay

Example 1: A radio active element follows the law of exponential change and has a half-life
of 38 hours. How long will it take for 90% of the radioactivity of the element to be
dissipated ?
0.5Pi = Pie r(38)

0.5 = e r(38)
ln(0.5) = r(38)
r = -0.01824
Exponential Growth/Rate or Population
• Pf = Pie ± rt
• + increase
• - decrease or decay

Example 1: A radio active element follows the law of exponential change and has a half-life
of 38 hours. How long will it take for 90% of the radioactivity of the element to be
dissipated ?
r = -0.01824
(1-0.9)Pi = Pie r(38)

0.1 = e -0.01824(t)

ln(0.1) = -0.01824(t)
t = 126.238 hrs.
Exponential Growth/Rate or Population
• Pf = Pie ± rt
• + increase
• - decrease or decay

Example 1: A radio active element follows the law of exponential change and has a half-life
of 38 hours. how long will it take for 90% of the radioactivity of the element to be
dissipated ?
Or mode 3-5
X (time) Y (% retained)
0 1
38 0.5
Then, 0.1x-hat
DISMISS
NCE 420 – CE CORRELATION
COURSE
MATH / ALGEBRA / GEOMETRY
Newton’s Law of Cooling
• T = (To – tsurround)e−kt + tsurround
• T = temperature at time t
• To = initial temp. of the object
• k = cooling rate
• tsurround = temp. surrounded by air
Newton’s Law of Cooling
• T = (To – tsurround)e−kt + tsurround

Example: A cheesecake is taken out of the oven with an ideal internal temperature
of 165​°F, and is placed into a 35​°F refrigerator. After 10 minutes, the cheesecake has
cooled to 150​°F. If we must wait until the cheesecake has cooled to 70​°F before we
eat it, how long will we have to wait?
150 = (165 – 35)e−k(10) +35
0.8846 = e −k(10)
ln(0.8846) = -k(10)
k = 0.01226
Newton’s Law of Cooling
• T = (To – tsurround)e−kt + tsurround

Example: A cheesecake is taken out of the oven with an ideal internal temperature
of 165​°​F, and is placed into a 35∘F refrigerator. After 10 minutes, the cheesecake
has cooled to 150​°F. If we must wait until the cheesecake has cooled to 70​°F before
we eat it, how long will we have to wait?
k = 0.01226
70 = (165 – 35)e−0.01226t + 35
0.2692 = e−0.01226t
ln(0.2692) = -0.01226t
t = 107.04 minutes
Loudness of Sound
𝐼
• LDecibel = 10 log( )
𝐼𝑜
• 10 → Threshold hearing for the average human ear
• I = intensity of a sound in watts per square meter
• Io = reference intensity level
Example: What is the intensity of sound at the pain level of 120dB? Compare it to
that of a whisper at 20dB.
𝐼
120 dB= 10 log( )
10−12
12 = log(𝐼) - log(10−12 )
0 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (I)
100 = 𝐼
I=1
Loudness of Sound
𝐼
• LDecibel = 10 log( )
𝐼𝑜

Example: What is the intensity of sound at the pain level of 120dB? Compare it to
that of a whisper at 20dB.
𝐼
20 dB= 10 log( )
10−12
2 dB= log(𝐼) - log(10−12 )
-10 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (I)
10−10 = 𝐼
𝐼120𝑑𝐵 / 𝐼20𝑑𝐵 = 1010
Therefore, the intensity of sound at pain level (120dB) is 1010 times that of a
whisper at 20dB.
Richter scale
𝐼
• M = log( )
𝐼𝑜
• I = intensity of the earthquake (measured by the amplitude of a seismograph
reading taken 100 km from the epicenter of the earthquake)
• Io = reference intensity level or intensity of a ''standard earthquake'‘
Richter scale
𝐼
• M = log( )
𝐼𝑜

Example: Early in the century the earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on the
Richter scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America
that was four time stronger. What was the magnitude of the earthquake in South
American?
𝐼𝑆.𝐹.
8.3 = log( ) → Magnitude in S.F.
𝐼𝑜
𝐼
𝑀𝑆.𝐴. = log ( 𝑆.𝐴. )
𝐼𝑜
4𝐼𝑆.𝐹.
𝑀𝑆.𝐴. = log ( )
𝐼𝑜
Richter scale
𝐼
• M = log( )
𝐼𝑜

Example: Early in the century the earthquake in San Francisco registered 8.3 on the
Richter scale. In the same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America
that was four time stronger. What was the magnitude of the earthquake in South
American?
4𝐼𝑆.𝐹.
𝑀𝑆.𝐴. = log ( )
𝐼𝑜 8.3
𝐼
𝑀𝑆.𝐴. = log (4) + log( 𝑆.𝐹. )
𝐼𝑜
𝑀𝑆.𝐴. = 8.902
Volume of Parallelepiped / Tetrahedron
corners represented by vectors
• Volume of Parallelepiped = Determinant
• Volume of Tetrahedron = (1/6)Determinant

Example 1. Find the volume of the parallelepiped. a = (1, 2, 3), b = (-1, 1, 2), c = (2, 1, 4)
Mode 6-1-1
Shift-4-7-shift-4-3
Ans. 9
Volume of Parallelepiped / Tetrahedron
corners represented by vectors
• Volume of Parallelepiped = Determinant
• Volume of Tetrahedron = (1/6)Determinant

Example 2. Find the volume of the tetrahedron. a = (1, 2, 3), b = (-1, 1, 2), c = (2, 1, 4)
Mode 6-1-1
Shift-4-7-shift-4-3
Ans. (1/6)*9 = 1.5
Angle between 2 planes
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐴 ·𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐵
• = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐴 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐵
𝐴1 𝐴2 +𝐵1 𝐵2 +𝐶1 𝐶2
•
𝐴1 2 +𝐵1 2 +𝐶1 2 𝑥 𝐴2 2 +𝐵2 2 +𝐶2 2

Example 1. Find the angle between 2x – 3y +4z = 5 and 3x + 5y – 2z = 7

Let VecA = 2, -3, 4
Let VecB = 3, 5, -2
Mode 8-1-1, shift-5-2-2-1
Shift-5-3, Shift-5-7, shift-5-4
Ans. 120.80°
Angle between 2 planes
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐴 ·𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐵
• = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐴 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐵
𝐴1 𝐴2 +𝐵1 𝐵2 +𝐶1 𝐶2
•
𝐴1 2 +𝐵1 2 +𝐶1 2 𝑥 𝐴2 2 +𝐵2 2 +𝐶2 2

Example 1. Find the angle between 2x – 3y +4z = 5 and 3x + 5y – 2z = 7

Using ALPHA in calculators:
𝐴𝐵+𝐶𝐷+𝐸𝐹
Cos^-1( )
𝐴2 +𝐶 2 +𝐸 2 𝑥 𝐵2 +𝐷 2 +𝐹 2
Let A=2 B=3
C = -3 D = 5
E = 4 F = -2 Ans: 120.80
Direction vector of a Line (intersection of two
planes)
• 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐴 𝑥 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝐵

Example 1. Find the direction vector of the line intersected by 2x – 3y +4z = 5 and
3x + 5y – 2z = 7
Let VecA = 2, -3, 4
Let VecB = 3, 5, -2
Shift-5-3, multiply, shift-5-4
Ans: (-14, 16, 19)
General Polygon Formulas
• 𝑆𝐼∠ = 180(n-2)
• 𝑆𝐸∠ = 360
𝑛(𝑛−3)
• No. of diagonals =
2
𝑛(𝑛−3) 𝑛(𝑛−1)
• No. of lines = + 𝑛 or
2 2
180(𝑛−2)
• 𝐼∠ =
𝑛
• P = ns
𝑛𝑠²
• A= 180
4tan( 𝑛 )
180
= nr²tan( )
𝑛
= 0.5P*r ;r = apothem or radius of inscribed circle
General Polygon Formulas
𝑛𝑠² S = 12
• A= 180
4tan( )
𝑛
180
=nr²tan(
𝑛
) r = 8.258
= 0.5P*r ;r = apothem or radius of inscribed circle
Example. Determine the Area using the three formulas.
(5)(12)²
A= 180 = 247.75
4tan( 5 )
180
= 5(8.258)²tan( ) = 247.73
5
=0.5(12 * 5)*8.258 = 247.74
Names of Polygon
• 3 triangle (trigon) • 30 triacontagon
• 4 quadrilateral (tetragon) • 50 pentacontagon
• 5 pentagon • 100 hectagon
• 6 hexagon • 1000 chilliagon
• 7 heptagon • 10,000 myriagon
• 8 octagon • 106 megagon
• 9 nonagon (enneagon) • 10100 googolgon
• 10 decagon • ∞ apiragon
• 11 undecagon (hendecagon)
• 12 dodecagon
• 15 pentadecagon (pentakaidecagon)
• 20 icosagon
Names of Polygon
Prefix (with or without “kai”) Suffix
• 20 Icosa • 1 henagon
• 30 Triaconta • 2 digon
• 40 Tetraconta • 3 trigon
• 50 Pentaconta • 4 tetragon
• 60 hexaconta • 5 pentagon
• 70 Heptaconta • 6 hexagon
• 80 Octaconta • 7 heptagon
• 90 Enneaconta • 8 octagon
• 9 enneagon

Example: 249 dihecta tetraconta enneagon

Example: 825 octahecta icosi pentagon
Names of Polygon
Quadrilaterals
Parallelogram a
• A = 0.5d1d2sinα
= absin𝜃
= bh
b

Example: The diagonals of a parallelogram measures 31 cm and 45 cm. If they

intersect at an angle of 48 degrees, determine the area of the parallelogram.
A = 518.34
DISMISS
Quadrilaterals
Rhombus
• A = 0.5d1d2sinα ; α = 90
= b²sin𝜃
= bh

Example: Sides of the rhombus measure 56 mm. If one of its interior angles measure
129 degrees, calculate the area of the rhombus.
A = 56² * sin 129
A = 2437.13
Quadrilaterals
Trapezoid
• A = 0.5(a + b)h
𝑏2 − 𝑎²
= 1 1
2(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽)
𝑏−𝑎
• H=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

Example: Base angles of a trapezoid measure 79° and 36° deg, respectively. If the
parallel sides of the trapezoid measures 46 m and 31 m, determine the area of the
area of the trapezoid.
A = 367.66
Quadrilaterals
b
General Quadrilaterals
• P=a+b+c+d c
a
• A = 0.5d1d2sinα
= area of two triangles
d

= 𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑏 𝑠 − 𝑐 𝑠 − 𝑑 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝛷
; Bretschneider’s Formula
Wherein “s” = (a + b + c + d)/2
Φ = (A + C)/2 = (B + D)/2
Quadrilaterals b
c
General Quadrilaterals a

A= 𝑠 − 𝑎 𝑠 − 𝑏 𝑠 − 𝑐 𝑠 − 𝑑 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝛷
d

Example: Given the sides of a quadrilateral: 36 mm, 24, 50.91, and 60 mm. The sum
of two opposite interior angles is 225°. Calculate the are of the parallelogram.
s = (36 + 24 + 50.91 + 60)/2 = 85.455
𝛷 = 225/2 = 112.5
A = 1511.97
Quadrilaterals
Cyclic Quadrilaterals
- Quadrilaterals inscribed in circle
• AQ = 0.5d1d2sinα
= 0.5(ac + bd)sinα
• Note:ac + bd = d1d2
α = any angle between the diagonals
A + C = 180°
B+ D = 180°
• AQ = 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏 𝑠−𝑐 𝑠−𝑑 Brahmagupta’s
Quadrilaterals
Cyclic Quadrilaterals
𝑎𝑏+𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
• AQ =
4𝑅

• Note:
When dealing with half circles, take note that it is always 90° from a side to one
adjacent diagonal
Quadrilaterals
Cyclic Quadrilaterals
AQ = 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏 𝑠−𝑐 𝑠−𝑑

Example: A quadrilateral having an area of 260 square meter is inscribed in a circle.

Three of its sides measure 24 m, 16 m, and 10m, consecutively. Compute for the
length of the fourth side.
Use Brahmagupta’s Formula
x = (24+16+10+x)/2 or (25x + 0.5x)
260² = (25+.5x-24)(25+.5x-16)(25+.5x-10)(25+.5x-x)
x = 17.67
Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals with incircles
- Quadrilateral circumscribed about a circle
• a+c=b+d
• AQ = 𝑎𝑐𝑏𝑑 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛Φ
= rs
Wherein “s” = (a + b + c + d)/2
Φ = (A + C)/2 = (B + D)/2
Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals with incircles
• a+c=b+d
5.3

Example: Find the area. Let 𝛷 = 85°

Circles
Inscribed / Peripheral Angle
• as long as the “vertices” lie in the circle
Circles
Inscribed / Peripheral Angle

Example: Two chords of a circle AB and BC intersects at an angle 52°. Calculate

the central angle of arc AC.

Ans. 104° 52°

C

A
DISMISS
Circles
Inscribed Triangle
𝑎𝑐
• D=
ℎ
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

Example: Determine the diameter of a circle circumscribed about the triangle for
which A = 43 degrees, and a = 65 m.

65
D=
𝑠𝑖𝑛43
= 95.31
Circles R

Circle inside a sector

𝜃 𝑟
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =
2 𝑅−𝑟

Example: A circle of radius 15 cm is inscribed in a sector of radius 75 cm. Calculate

the area of the sector.
𝜃 15
𝑠𝑖𝑛 =
2 75 −15
𝜃 = 28.955°
Asector = π(75)² *(28.955/360)
= 1421.33 sq. cm
Circles
Intersecting Chords / Cross - chords
• (OA)(OC) = (OB)(OD)
ෲ + 𝐵𝐶)
• α = 0.5(𝐴𝐷 ෲ
• ∠ABD = ∠ACD ෲ
; from 𝐴𝐷
• ∠BAC = ∠BDC ෲ
; from 𝐵𝐶

Example: Two chords of a circle AC and BD intersect at point O inside the circle. If
OA = 42 m, OC = 84 m, and OD = 63 m, determine the measure of OB.
OB = 42*84 / 63
= 56
Circles
Intersecting secants / secant – secant
• (OB)(OA) = (OC)(OD)
ෲ - 𝐵𝐶)
• 𝜃 = 0.5(𝐴𝐷 ෲ
= 0.5(α2 – α1)
Circles
Intersecting secants / secant – secant

Example: Determine OC if OA = 156, AB = 60, CD = 108.

156(60+156) = x(x+108)
x = 137.34
B
A
O

D
Circles
Intersecting secant and tangent
• (OB)(OA) = (OC)²
ෲ - 𝐵𝐶)
• 𝜃 = 0.5(𝐴𝐶 ෲ
= 0.5(α2 – α1)
Example: Determine 𝜃 if the chord AC = 9 m, OB = 8.36, and BA = 9.79.
OC²=8.6(8.36+9.79)
OC = 12.32
Cos law: 9² = (8.36+9.79)² + 12.32² - 2(8.36+9.79)(12.32)cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 26.507°
Circles
Intersecting tangents
• 𝜃 = 0.5(α2 – α1)

Example: Two tangents OA and OB to a circle intersect at point O. If the area of the
smaller sector intercepted by the arc AB is 35% the area of the circle, determine the
measure of angle BOA.
360° x 35 percent = 126
𝜃 = [180 – (126/2 + 90 )] x 2
𝜃 = 54
Circles
Common internal tangent
• Pythagorean:
a² = t² + (r2 + r1) ²

Example: Circles O and P have a common internal tangent. The radius of circle O is
3 and the radius of circle P is 2. If the distance between their centers is 13, find the
length of the common tangent.
t² = 13² - (3 + 2)²
t = 12
Circles
Common external tangent
• Pythagorean:
a² = t² + (r2 - r1) ²

Example: Find the length of the common external tangent if two circle with R1 = 5
and R2 = 3 are tangent to each other.
t² = (5 + 3)² - (5 – 3)²
t = 7.75
Triangles
• a+b>c
• cmax = a + (b – 1)
• cmin = a - (b – 1)
• P=a+b+c
• S = (a + b + c)/2
• A = 0.5bh
= 0.5absin𝜃
= 𝑠 𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑏 𝑠−𝑐 Heron’s formula
Triangles
Example: Determine the area of a triangle with sides 7, 9, and 16.
S = (7 + 9 +16)/2
S = 16
16 16 − 7 16 − 9 16 − 16
Cannot be!
a+b>c
Triangles
Viviani’s Theorem
ℎ² 3
• A=
3

Wherein h = sum of distances from a point

inside an equilateral triangle to the three
sides (perpendicular distance)
Triangles
Viviani’s Theorem
ℎ² 3
• A=
3

Example: Point P lies inside a triangle with perpendicular distance to each sides,
measured as, 2.269, 4.705, and 1.687 m. Determine the area of the triangle.
(2.269+4.705+1.687)² 3
A=
3
= 43.30
Triangles A

Medians (Centroid)
1 b c
• ( )AT = AAOC = AAOB = ACOB
3
1
• Ma = ( ) 2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑎²
2
= or by cosine law
C B
a
1. Determine angles using cos law
2. Cos law again to determine the median
 A

Triangles c b

Medians (Centroid)
B a C

Example: The sides of a triangle measure 33.48 m, 44.64 m, and 66.96 m.

Determine the length of the median to the longest side of the triangle.
1
Ma = ( ) 2𝑏 2 + 2𝑐 2 − 𝑎²
2
1
Ma = ( ) 2 ∗ 33.482 + 2 ∗ 44.642 −66.96²
2
= 20.88
Triangles
Medians (Centroid)
Example: The sides of a triangle measure 33.48 m, 44.64 m, and 66.96 m.
Determine the length of the median to the longest side of the triangle.
1. Determine angles using cos law
C = 117.28°, A = 26.38°, B = 36.34° a b

2. Cos law again to determine the median

c
m² = 33.48² + (66.96/2)² -2(33.48)(66.96/2)cos36.34 °
m = 20.88
Triangles
Angle Bisector (Incenter)
• Inscribed circle
• Line vertex to center of circle automatically bisects the angle
• AT = rs

1. Cos law to get angle

2. Half angles, analyze/determine other angles
3. Sine Law
Triangles
Angle Bisector (Incenter)

Example: The sides of a triangle AB = 19.35 m , BC = 23.22 m, CA = 30.96 m.

Determine the distance from the point of intersection to the side AB.
S= 36.765
A = 224.37
AT = rs
r = 6.103
Triangles
Perpendicular Bisector (Circumcenter)
• Circumscribed circle
• Line vertex to center of circle is the radius
𝑎𝑏𝑐
• AT =
4𝑅
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
• D= = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

1. Cos law to get angles

2. Get “sub” angles in each vertex utilizing the “automatic 90° bisector”
Triangles
Perpendicular Bisector (Circumcenter)

Example: Sides of the triangle = 42.9, 64.35, 72.93. Calculate the distance from the
intersection of the perpendicular bisectors to the vertices.
S= 90.09
A = 1370.33
𝑎𝑏𝑐
AT =
4𝑅
R = 36.73
Triangles
Altitude (Orthocenter)

Example: A triangle AVC has sides AB = 185.6, BC = 232, and CA = 278.4.

Calculate the altitude to the longest side of the triangle.
S= 348
A = 21360.74
A= 0.5bh
A=0.5(278.4)(h)
h= 153.45
Triangles
Escribed Circle
• AT = r(s – c)
= heron’s formula

Example: The sides of the triangle = 573.24, 632.25, 649.11. Compute for the radius
of the circle which is escribed outside the triangle if it is tangent to the shortest side.
S= 927.3
A = 164159.919
A = r(S-573.24)
r = 463.65
DISMISS
Integration
Area bounded by curves
𝑏
• A = ‫𝑥 𝑎׬‬2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑦 ; x in terms of y
Integration Application
(18, 3)
Area bounded by curves
𝑏
• A = ‫𝑥 𝑎׬‬2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑦 ; x in terms of y
(2, 1)
Find the area of the region to the left of the parabola x = 2y²,
to the right of y- axis, and between y = 1 and y = 3.
1. Identify the intersection points
2. Identify the equation
3
• A= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) dy dy
1

3. Make sure all variables are in terms of dx or dy

Let 𝑥2 be the parabola boundary, in x = 2y², use 2y²
Let 𝑥1 be the y – axis boundary, x = 0
3
Therefore: ‫׬‬1 2y² − 0 𝑑𝑦 = 17.33 sq. units.
Integration Application
(11, 3)
Area bounded by curves
𝑏
• A = ‫𝑥 𝑎׬‬2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑦 ; x in terms of y
Find the region bounded by the parabola x = y² + 2,
and the line y = x - 8.
1. Identify the intersection points
(6, -2)
2. Identify the equation
3
• A= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) dy
-2

3. Make sure all variables are in terms of dx or dy

Let 𝑥2 be the parabola boundary, in x = y² + 2, use y² + 2
Let 𝑥1 be the line boundary, y = x – 8, use y + 8
3
Therefore: ‫׬‬−2 (y² + 2) − (y + 8) 𝑑𝑦 = -20.833 sq. units.
Integration
Fixed end moments (Uniform Distributed/Varying Loads)
𝑥 𝑃𝑎𝑏²
• 𝑀 = ‫ 𝑥׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 for ; both fixed ends
1 𝐿²
𝑥
• Using limits 0 to x: ‫׬‬0
• a = (𝑑1 + x)
• b = L - (𝑑1 + x)

𝑥
• Actual limits: ‫ 𝑥׬‬2
1
• a=x
• b=L-x

𝑥 𝑃𝑎𝑏(𝐿 + 𝑏)
• 𝑀 = ‫ 𝑥׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 ; for propped beams
1 2𝐿²
Integration Application
Fixed end moments (Uniform Distributed/Varying Loads)
Example: Determine the FEMAB if beam has both fixed ends, L = 10 m, with
uniform varying load from left to right fixed supports, 0 to 20 kN/m.
𝑥2 𝑃𝑎𝑏²
𝑀= ‫𝐿 𝑥׬‬² 𝑑𝑥
1 20 kN/m
10 2𝑥 𝑥(10 −𝑥)²
𝑀= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 A 10 m B
10²

20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑦
=𝑥
Answer: 66.67 kN 10 𝑚
Integration Application
Fixed end moments (Uniform Distributed/Varying Loads)
Example: Determine the FEMAB if beam has both fixed ends, L = 10 m, with
increasing uniform varying load 3 m from the left to the right fixed support, 0 to 20
kN/m. Use limits 0 to x.
𝑥 𝑃𝑎𝑏² 20 kN/m
𝑀 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
𝐿²
20𝑥 A B
7 ( 7 )(3+𝑥)(10 −(3+𝑥))² 3m 7m
𝑀= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
10² 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑦
=𝑥
7𝑚

Answer: 33.16 kN
Integration Application
Fixed end moments (Uniform Distributed/Varying Loads)
Example: Determine the FEMAB if beam has both fixed ends, L = 10 m, with
increasing uniform varying load 3 m from the left to the right fixed support, 0 to 20
kN/m. Use “actual” limits.
20 kN/m
𝑥 𝑃𝑎𝑏²
𝑀 = ‫ 𝑥׬‬2 𝑑𝑥 A 3m 7m B
1 𝐿²
20(𝑥 −3)
10 ( 7
)(𝑥)(10 −𝑥)² 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑦
= 𝑥−3
𝑀 = ‫׬‬3 𝑑𝑥 7𝑚
10²

Answer: 33.16 kN
Integration Application
Fixed end moments (Uniform Distributed/Varying Loads)
Example: Determine the FEMAB if beam has both fixed ends, L = 14 m, with
increasing uniform varying load 4 m from the left support to the middle of the beam,
followed by decreasing uniform varying load from the middle to 4 meters away
from the right support. W = 0 to 13 kN/m. 13 kN/m
13 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 𝑦
𝑥 𝑃𝑎𝑏² =𝑥
3𝑚
𝑀= ‫׬‬0 𝐿² 𝑑𝑥 A 4m 3m 3m 4m B
13𝑥
3 ( 3 )(𝑥+4)(14 −(𝑥+4))² 3 (13)(𝑥+7)(14 −(𝑥+7))²
𝑀= ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
14² 14²
13𝑥
3 ( 3 )(𝑥+7)(14 −(𝑥+7))²
- ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
14² − =
M = 37.687 + 50.7895 - 22.316
Answer: 66.16 kN
DISMISS
 Module 5: Horizontal Curves

Prepared by: Engr. Adrian D. Viloria

TOPIC: Horizontal Curves
Horizontal Curves

Types of Horizontal Curves

• Simple
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of the
circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the
“flatter” the curve.
• Compound
Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves curving in the same direction and joined
together.
• Reverse
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together but curving in opposite
directions. For safety reasons, the surveyor should not use this curve unless absolutely
necessary.
• Spiral
The spiral is a curve with varying radius used on railroads and some modern highways.
It provides a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or between simple curves in
a compound curve.
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Compound Curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Compound Curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Compound Curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Reversed Curves

2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Reversed Curves

2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Reversed Curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Example: A 4-degree simple curve has an angle of intersection of 54°. The PC of the curve is at station 34 + 523.

Determine the length of the long chord.

Answer: 260.12 m

Determine the length of the curve.

Answer: 270 m

Determine the station of PI.

Answer: 34 + 668.97

Determine the station of PT.

Answer: 34 + 793
END
Simple curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Simple curves
2πR 20
• =
360° 𝐷
Simple curves
Example: A 4-degree simple curve has an angle of intersection of 54°. The PC of the
curve is at station 34 + 523.
Determine the length of the long chord.
Answer: 260.12 m

Determine the length of the curve.

Answer: 270 m

Determine the station of the midpoint of the curve.

Answer: 34 + 658

The deflection angle of the 20-m chord of a simple curve measures 2.65°.
Find the radius of the curve.
Answer: 216.29 m
Vertical Parabolic Curve
• 𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑔1 𝐿𝑇
• 𝑆1 = 𝑔2 − 𝑔1
𝑔2 − 𝑔1 𝑟
• = Δ
𝐿𝑇 𝐿Δ
𝑔 −𝑔
• H = 𝐿𝑇 2 8 1
• Grade Diagram:
• Area = change in elevation
Vertical Parabolic Curve
Example: Vertical Parabolic Curve: Symmetrical
A descending grade of 4.2% intersects an ascending grade of 3% at station 10 + 488
of elevation 102.8 m. These two grade lines are connected by a 260 m parabolic
curve. If the outside diameter of the pipe to be installed is 950 mm and the top of the
culvert is 30 cm below the road, what is the invert elevation?
Answer: 103.83 m
Vertical Parabolic Curve
Example: Vertical Parabolic Curve: Symmetrical
A vertical parabolic sag curve has tangent grades of -1.2% and 0.6%. If the grade
changes uniformly at 0.18% per 20 m, find the length of the curve.

Answer: 200 m
Sight Distance
𝐴𝑉𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝ℎ ²
• Lmin = 0.6𝑉𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝ℎ or 395
• A = 𝑔2 − 𝑔1 in percent
• Stopping Sight Distance, SSD = 𝑉𝑚/𝑠 𝑡 + 𝐵𝐷
𝑉𝑚/𝑠 ²
• Braking Distance, BD = 2𝑔(𝑓±𝐺)
• f = friction factor
• ±G = Grade in decimal
Sight Distance
• Summit/Crest (Sight Distance, SD)
𝐴(𝑆𝐷)²
• SD < L: L= ,in meters
100( 2ℎ1 + 2ℎ2 )²
200( ℎ1 + ℎ2 )²
• SD > L: L = 2SD - 𝐴

• When not stated: ℎ1 = 3.5 ft, ℎ2 = 2 ft

• L: length of vertical curve, m or ft.

• SD: sight distance, m or ft.
• A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
• h1: height of eye above roadway, ft (3.5ft)
• h2: height of object above roadway surface, ft (2ft)
Sight Distance
• Sag Curve (Sight Distance, SD)
𝐴(𝑆𝐷)²
• SD < L: L = 200(𝑆𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽+𝐻) ,in meters
200(𝑆𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽+𝐻)
• SD > L: L = 2SD - 𝐴

• When not stated: 𝐻 = 2 ft, 𝛽= 1°

• L: length of sag vertical curve, m or ft

• SD: light beam distance, m or ft
• A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
• 𝛽: angle of light beam intersects the surface of the roadway, degree (assumed 1°)
• H: head light height, (assumed 2ft)
Sight Distance
Example: Sight Distance: Vertical Summit Curves
A 5% grade intersects a -3.4% grade at station 1 + 990 of elevation 42.3 m. Design a
vertical summit parabolic curve connecting two tangent grades to conform with the
following safe stopping sight distance specifications. Design velocity = 60.01 kph,
height of driver's eye from the road pavement = 1.37 m, height of an object over the
pavement ahead = 100 mm, perception-reaction time = 0.75 sec., and coefficient of
friction between the road pavement and the tires = 0.15.

Evaluate the stopping sight distance.

Answer: 83.32 m
Determine the length of the curve.
Answer: 131.92 m
Determine the elevation of the highest point on the curve.
Answer: 40.97 m
Sight Distance
Example: Sight Distance: Vertical Sag Curves
The length of the sag parabolic curve is 130 m. with a design speed of 100 kph. The
back tangent has a slope of -2.5%.

Determine the slope of forward tangent.

Answer: 2.635 %
Determine the length of the sight distance.

Answer: 115.18 m
Sight Distance
• Horizontal Curve (Sight Distance, SD)
(𝑆𝐷)²
• SD < L: R= Approximate
8𝑀
(𝑆𝐷)
R =𝜃 Accurate ,in meters
𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝐿 (2𝑆𝐷 −𝐿)
• SD > L: R= 8𝑀

• L: length of horizontal curve, m or ft Top view

• SD: Sight distance, m or ft
• M: Middle ordinate (assumed 2ft)
Sight Distance
Example: Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
A sound wall is to be constructed at the edge of shoulder, along the inside of a
horizontal curve of an urban freeway. The inside lane is 3.8 m wide, with a shoulder
of 1.2 m. The radius of curvature, measured up to the outer edge of the shoulder is
45 m. Determine the accurate sight distance of this section of the curve with the
sound wall in meters.

Answer: 34.73 m
Sight Distance
Example: Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
The clearance to an obstruction is 9 m. and the desirable sight distance when
rounding a horizontal curve is 180 m determine the minimum radius of the
horizontal curve.

Answer: 450 m
Sight Distance
Example: Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves
The clearance to an obstruction is 40 m. and the desirable sight distance when
rounding a horizontal curve is 600 m determine the minimum radius of the
horizontal curve if the length of curve is 550 m.

Answer: 1117.19 m
Dismiss
Annuity
- a fixed sum of money paid to someone each year, typically for the rest of their life.
• Ordinary Annuity – payments are made at the end of the period
• Annuity Due – payments are made at the beginning of the period
Ordinary Annuity
𝑟 = 1+𝑖 −2

1− 1+𝑖 −𝑁 1− 1+𝑖 −𝑁
𝑃=𝐴 ; Uniform series present worth factor =
𝑖 𝑖
−1+ 1+𝑖 𝑁 −1+ 1+𝑖 𝑁
𝐹=𝐴 ; Uniform series compound amount factor =
𝑖 𝑖
or

𝐹 =𝑃 1+𝑖 𝑁
Ordinary Annuity
Example: How much must be deposited at 6% each year-end for a period of 6 years in order to accumulate P5,000 on the date
of the last deposit?
Ordinary Annuity
Example: A piece of machinery can be bought for P10,000 cash, or for P2,000 down and payments of P750 per year-end for
15 years. What is the annual interest rate for the time payments.
Annuity Due
𝑟 = 1+𝑖 −1

1− 1+𝑖 − 𝑁−1
𝑃=𝐴 +1 ;
𝑖
−1+ 1+𝑖 𝑁+1
𝐹=𝐴 −1 ;
𝑖
Annuity Due
Example: A man loan an amount of P100,000 at a local commercial bank at 10% compounded annually. How much is his
monthly payment if he is required to pay at the beginning of the first day of the month for a period of 30 years.
Depreciation
The monetary value of an asset decreases over time due to use, wear and tear or obsolescence.
▪ Annual depreciation, d
▪ 𝐷𝑚 = depreciation in “m” years
▪ 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = book value of the property at “m” time
▪ n = economic life
Depreciation
• Straight Line Method
𝐹𝐶 −𝑆𝑉
• 𝑑= 𝑛
• 𝐷𝑚 = 𝑑(𝑚)
• 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐷𝑚

• Sinking Fund Method

𝐹𝐶 −𝑆𝑉 𝑖
• 𝑑= 1+𝑖 𝑛 −1
𝑑 1+𝑖 𝑚 −1
• 𝐷𝑚 = 𝑖
• 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐷𝑚

• Sum of the Years Method

𝑛
• Sum = 2 𝑛 + 1
𝑛−𝑚+1
• 𝑑 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝑆𝑉 ∗ 𝑠𝑢𝑚
2𝑛−𝑚+1
• 𝐷𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝑆𝑉 ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑢𝑚
• 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐷𝑚
Depreciation
• Declining Balance / Constant Percentage Method
𝑛 𝑆𝑉
• 𝑘=1 − 𝐹𝐶

• 𝑑 = 𝐹𝐶 1 − 𝑘 𝑚−1 ∗ 𝑘
• 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 1 − 𝑘 𝑚
• 𝐷𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 − 𝐵𝑉𝑚

• Double Declining Balance Method

2
• 𝑑= 𝐵𝑉𝑚
𝑛
2 𝑚
• 𝐵𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐶 1 − 𝑛
Depreciation
Example: The original cost of a certain equipment is P150,000, has a life of 8 years with a salvage value of P9,000. How
much is the depreciation on the 5th year if the constant percentage of declining value is used?