St rai n

ter 2 :
C ha p
e N otes
Lectur

Compiled by:
Richie Catherine Supremo-Lood
2.1 Introduction
So far, we have dealt with the strength of structural member. Here, we study an
equally important topic of mechanics - deformations, or strains.

Strain – is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body.

Two types of strain:
1. normal strain, which characterizes dimensional changes
2. shear strain, which describes distortion (changes in angles).

Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of materials.

Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical properties of a
material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost importance in design.
Use force-deformation relationships in conjunction with equilibrium analysis to
solve statically indeterminate problems.
2.2 Axial Deformation;
Stress-Strain Diagram
The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be
considered when designing machine parts or structures.

The stiffness of a material is often equally important; properties

such as hardness, toughness, and ductility. These properties are
determined by laboratory tests.

Many materials, particularly metals, have established standards

that describe the test procedures in detail.

We will confine our attention to only one of the tests - the tensile
test of steel - and use its results to illustrate several important
concepts of material behavior.
2.2.1 Normal (Axial) Strain
The elongation δ may be caused by an applied axial force, or an
expansion due to an increase in temperature, or even a force and a
temperature increase acting simultaneously.

Strain describes the geometry of deformation. The normal strain

ε(lowercase Greek epsilon) is defined as the elongation per unit length.
Therefore, the normal strain in the bar in the axial direction, also known as
the axial strain, is
equation (1)
 2.2.1 Normal (Axial) Strain
If the bar deforms uniformly, then Eq. (1) expression should be viewed as the
average axial strain. Note that normal strain, being elongation per unit length, is a
dimensionless quantity. However, “units” such as in/in or mm/mm are frequently
used for normal strain.

If the deformation is not uniform, we let O be a point in the bar located at the
distance χ from the fixed end. We define the axial strain at point O as

equation (2)
 2.2.1 Normal (Axial) Strain

We note that if the distribution of the axial strain ε is known, the elongation of the
can be computed from

equation (3)

For uniform strain distribution, Eq. 3 yields δ= ε L, which agrees with Eq.(1).

The results are also applicable to compression. By convention, compression

(shortening) carries a negative sign.
2.2.2 Tension Test
In the standard tension test, the specimen shown in the figure is placed in
the grips of a testing machine. The grips are designed so that the load P
applied by the machine is axial. Two gage marks are scribed on the
specimen to define the gage length L.

These marks are loaded away from the ends to avoid the load effects
caused by the grips and to ensure that the stress and strain are uniform in
the material between the marks. The testing machine elongates the
specimen at a slow, constant rate until the specimen ruptures.
 2.2.2 Tension Test
During the test, continuous readings are taken of the
applied load and the elongation of the gage length.
These data are then converted to stress and strain.

The stress is obtained from σ=P/A, where P is the load

and A represents the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen.

The strain is computed from ε =δ/L, where δ is the

elongation between the gage marks and L is the
original gage length. There results are referred to as
nominal stress and nominal strain.

As the bar is being stretched, its cross-sectional area is

reduced and the length between the gage marks
increases.

Dividing the load by the actual (current) area of the

specimen, we get the true stress. Similarly, the true strain Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard
is obtained by dividing the elongation δ by the current tension test on a structural steel specimen.
gage length.
2.2.2 Tension Test
As seen in the figure, the stress-strain diagram is a straight line from the
origin O to a point called the proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation
of Hooke’s law : Stress is proportional to strain; that is,

equation (4)

where E is material property known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s

modulus.

The units of E are the same as the units of, Pa or psi.

For steel, E =29×106 psi, or 200 GPa, approximately.

Note that Hooke’s law does not apply to the entire diagram; its validity
ends at the proportional limit. Beyond this point, stress is no longer
proportional to strain.
 2.2.2 Tension Test
Elastic Limit A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded,
the material returns to its original shape when the load is
removed. The stress beyond which the material is no longer
elastic. The permanent deformation that remains after the
removal of the load is called the permanent set. The elastic limit
is slightly larger than the proportional limit.
Yield Point The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes
almost horizontal is called the yield point, and the
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress or yield strength.
Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable elongation of the
material without a corresponding increase in load. Indeed, the
load may actually decrease while the yielding occurs.
However, the phenomenon of yielding is unique to structural
steel. Other grades of steel, steel alloys, and other material do
not yield, as indicated by the stress-strain curves of the materials
shown in the figure on the left.
After repeated loading, these residual stresses are removed and
Stress-strain diagrams for various materials the stress- strain curves become practically straight lines.
that fail without significant yielding.
 2.2.2 Tension Test
For materials that do not have a well-defined
yield point, yield stress is determined by the
offset method.
This method consists of drawing a line parallel to
the initial tangent of the stress-strain curve; this
line starts at a prescribed offset strain, usually 0.2
% ( ε = 0.002 ).
The intersection of this line with the stress-strain
curve, is called the yield point at 0.2 % offset.

Ultimate Stress The ultimate stress or ultimate

strength, as it is often called, is the highest stress
Determining the yield point by the 2% offset
method.
on the stress-strain curve.
2.2.2 Tension Test Failed tensile test specimen howing
necking, or narrowing, of the cross section.

Rupture Stress The rupture strength is the stress at

which failure occurs. The nominal rupture
strength is computed by dividing the load at
rupture by the original cross-sectional area. The
true rupture strength is calculated using the
reduced area of the cross section where the
fracture occurred.

The difference in the two values results from a

phenomenon known as necking. As failure
approaches, the material stretches very rapidly,
causing the cross section to narrow, as shown in
the figure above. However, the ultimate
strength is commonly used as the maximum
stress that the material can carry.
 2.2.3 Working Stress and Factor
of Safety
The working stress σ, also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe axial stress used
in design.
In most design, the working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range.
However, because the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, it is customary
to base the working stress on either the yield stress σyp or the ultimate stress σult, divided by
a suitable number N, called the factor of safety. Thus,

equation (5)

The yield point is selected as the basis for determining σw in structural steel because it is
the stress at which a prohibitively large permanent set may occur. For other material, the
working stress is usually based on the ultimate strength.
 2.3 Axially Loaded Bars Axially loaded bar.

The stress caused by P is below the proportional limit, so that Hooke`s law σ= E·ε is
applicable. Because the bar deforms uniformly, the axial strain is ε = (δ/L).
Therefore, the elongation of the bar is equation (6)

If the strain (or stress) in the bar is not uniform then Eq. (6) is invalid.

In the case where the axial strain varies with the x-coordinate, the elongation of the
bar can be obtained by integration, as stated in Eq. (3) δ = ∫OL εdx . Using ε =σ/E= P/
(EA). Where P is the internal axial force, we get
equation (7)

Eq. (7) reduces to Eq. (6) only if P, E, and A are constants.

 2.3 Axially Loaded Bars
Notes on Computation of Deformation

The magnitude of the internal force P in Eqs. (6) and (7) must be found equilibrium
analysis. Note that a positive (tensile) P results in positive δ(elongation);

In the U.S. Customary system, E is expressed in psi (lb/in2), so that the units of the other
variables should be P [lb], L [in.], and A [in2]. In the SI system, where E is in Pa (N/m2),
the consistent units are P[N], L[m], and [m2].

As long as the axial stress is in the elastic range, the elongation (or shortening) of a bar
is very small compared to its length. This property can be utilized to simplify the
computation of displacements in structure containing axially loaded bars, such as
trusses.
Sample Problem 1.
The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the figure.
Determine the change in the length of the shaft caused by these loads.
Use E = 29×106 psi for steel.
 Sample Problem 2.

The cross section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB bas a constant thickness
of 20 mm, but its width varies as shown in the figure. Calculate the
elongation of the bar due to the 100 kN axial load Use E = 200 GPa.
 Sample Problem 3.

The rigid bar BC in the figure is

supported by the steel rod AC of
cross-sectional area 0.25 in2.

Find the vertical displacement of point

C caused by the 2000-lb load. Use
E=29×106 psi for steel.
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
a. Uniaxial loading; poisson’s ratio

As illustrated in the figure below, in 1811, Poisson showed that the ratio of
the transverse strain to the axial strain is constant for stresses within the
proportional limit. This constant, called poisson’s ratio, is denoted by
ν(lowercase Greek nu).
For uniaxial loading in the x-direction,
as in the figure, Poisson ratio is;
ν=-εt /εx
where εt is the transverse strain.
 2.4 Generalized
Hooke’s Law
The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction causes a negative
strain(contraction) in the transverse directions.

The transverse strain εt is uniform throughout the cross section and is the same in any direction in the
plane of the cross section. Therefore, we have for uniaxial loading

εy = εz =-νεx equation (8)

Poisson’s ratio ν is a dimensionless quantity that ranges

between 0.25 and 0.33 for metals.
Using σχ=E ε χ in Eq.(8) yields the generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading (σy=σz=0):

Equation (9)
 2.4 Generalized
Hooke’s Law
b. Multiaxial loading

Biaxial Loading Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for uniaxial
loading to biaxial and triaxial loadings, Consider in the figure below. The strains
caused by σχ along are given in Eqs. (9). Similarly, the strains due to σy are εy=σy / E
and εχ= εz = -νσy / E.

Stresses acting on a material element in

biaxial loading.
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
b. Multiaxial loading (cont.)

Using superposition, we write the combined effect of the two normal stresses as

Equation (10)

which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in the xy-plane (σz = 0).

The first two of Eqs. (10) can be inverted to express the

stresses in terms of the strains:

Equation (11)
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
b. Multiaxial loading (cont.)

Two-dimensional views of the stresses and the resulting deformation in the xy-
plane are shown in the figure below. Note that Eqs.(10) show that for biaxial
loading εz is not zero ;that is, the strain is triaxial rather than biaxial.

Equation (10)

Two dimensional Deformation of

view of stresses. the element.
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
Triaxial Loading Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading in the figure below is
obtained by adding the contribution of σz , εz=σz / E and εx = εy = -νσz / E , to
the strains in Eqs. (10), which yields;

Eqn. (12)

Equations (8)-(12) are valid for both tensile

and compressive effects. It is only necessary
to assign positive signs to elongations and
tensile stresses

Stresses acting on a material element in

triaxial loading.
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
c. Shear Loading

Shear stress causes the

deformation shown in the figure.
The lengths of the sides of the
element do not change, but the
element undergoes a distortion
from a rectangle to a
parallelogram. The shear strain,
which measures the amount of
distortion, is the angle
Deformation of a material element caused by shear stress.
γ(lowercase Greek gamma),
always expressed in radians.
 2.4 Generalized Hooke’s Law
c. Shear Loading (cont.)

It can be shown that the relationship between shear stress τ and shear strain γ is
linear within the elastic range; that is,

τ=Gγ equation (13)

Which is Hooke’s law for shear. The material constant G is called the shear modulus
of elasticity (or simply shear modulus), or the modulus of rigidity. The shear modulus
has the same units as the modulus of elasticity ( Pa or psi ).

The shear modulus of elasticity G is related to the modulus of elasticity E and

poisson’s ratio ν by

equation (14)
 Sample Problem 1

The 50-mm-diameter rubber rod is

placed in a hole with rigid, lubricated
walls. There is no clearance between
the rod and the sides of the hole.

Determine the change in the length of

the rod when the 8-kN load is applied.
Use E = 40 MPa and ν= 0.45 for rubber.
 Sample Problem 2

A solid aluminum shaft of 80 mm diameter fits concentrically

in a hollow steel tube. Compute the minimum internal
diameter of the steel tube so that no contact pressure exists
when the aluminum shaft carries an axial compressive load of
400 kN.
1
Assume v = and Eal = 70GPa.
3
 Sample Problem 3
A rectangular steel block is 3 in long in the x direction, 2 in
long in the y direction, and 4 in long in the z direction. The
block is subjected to a triaxial loading consisting of three
uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x
direction, 60 kips compression in the y direction, and 54 kips
tension in the z direction. If v = 0.30 and E = 29x106psi ,
determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x
direction that would produce the same deformation in the y
direction as the original loading.
Sample Problem 4
 Sample Problem 5
A rectangular block of a material with 62 mm
a modulus of rigidity G = 630MPa is 200 mm
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the 50 mm
upper plate is subjected to a
horizontal force P. Knowing that the
upper plate moves through 1mm
under the action of the force,
determine (a) the average shearing
strain in the material, (b) the force P
exerted on the upper plate.
 Sample Problem 6

Two blocks of rubber, each of

width w = 60 mm, are
bounded to rigid support and
to the movable plate AB.
Knowing that a force of
magnitude P = 19 kN causing
a deflection δ = 3 mm,
determine the modulus of
rigidity of the rubber used.
 2.5 Statically Indeterminate
Problems
If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including
support reactions) that act on a body, these forces are said to be statically
determinate.

In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal

to the number of independent equilibrium equations.

If the number of unknown forces exceeds the number of independent equilibrium

equations, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate.

A statically indeterminate problem always has geometric restrictions imposed on its

deformation. The mathematical expressions of these restrictions known as the
compatibility equations, provide us with the additional equations needed to solve
the problem.
 2.5 Statically Indeterminate
Problems
Because the source of the compatibility equations is deformation, these equations
contain as unknowns either strains or elongations. Use Hooke’s law to express the
deformation measures in terms of stresses or forces. The equations of equilibrium and
compatibility can then be solved for the unknown forces (force-displacement
equation).

Procedure for Solving Statically Indeterminate Problem

Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is
often helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the
deformations.
Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations
in terms of forces (or stresses)
Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces (force-
displacement equation).
Sample Problem 3a

The concrete post in the figure is reinforced

axially with four symmetrically placed steel
bars, each of cross-sectional area 600 mm2.

Compute the stress in each material when

the 1000-kN axial load is applied.

The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel

and 14 GPa for concrete.
 P

Sample Problem 3b

The concrete post in the figure is reinforced

axially with four symmetrically placed steel
bars, each of cross-sectional area 600 mm2.

The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel

and 14 GPa for concrete.

Assume that the allowable stress for steel is

120 MPa and for concrete is 6MPa,
determine the maximum safe axial load P
that may be applied.
Sample Problem 4

The figure shows a rigid bar that is

supported by a pin at A and two
rods, one made of steel and the
other of bronze. Neglecting the
weight of the bar, compute the
stress in each rod caused by the
50-kN load.
2.6 Thermal Stresses
An increase in temperature results in expansion, whereas a temperature decrease produces
contraction. This deformation is isotropic (the same in every direction) and proportional to
the temperature change.

It follows that the associated strain, called thermal strain, is

εT = α(ΔT) equation (15)

Where the constant α is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal

expansion, and ΔT is the temperature change. The coefficient of thermal expansion
represents the normal strain caused by a one-degree change in temperature.

ΔT is taken to be positive when the temperature increases, and negative when the
temperature decreases. Thus, in Eq. (15), positive ΔT produces positive strain (elongation) and
negative ΔT produces negative strain (contraction).
2.6 Thermal Stresses
The units of α are 1/°C(per degree Celsius) in the SI system, and 1/°F (per degree Fahrenheit)
in the U.S. Customary system. Typical values ofα are 23×106 /°C (13×106 /°F) for aluminum
and 12×106 /°C(6.5×106 /°F) for steel.

If the temperature change is uniform throughout the body, the thermal strain ε T is also
uniform. Consequently, the change δT in any dimension L of the body is given by

δT =εTL=α(ΔT)L equation (16)

If thermal deformation is permitted to occur freely (by using expansion joints or roller
supports), no internal forces will be induced in the body-there will be strain, but no stress.

In cases where the deformation of a body is restricted, either totally or partially, internal
forces will develop that oppose the thermal expansion or contraction. The stresses caused by
these internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
2.6 Thermal Stresses
The forces that result from temperature Procedure for Deriving Compatibility Equations
changes cannot be determined by Remove all constraints from the body so that the
equilibrium analysis alone; that is, these thermal deformation can occur freely (this
procedure is sometimes referred to as “relaxing
forces are statically indeterminate.
the supports”). Show the thermal deformation on
a sketch using an exaggerated scale.
The analysis of thermal stresses follows Apply the forces that are necessary to restore the
the same principles that we used in Art. specified conditions of constraint. Add the
2.5: equilibrium, compatibility, and deformations caused by these forces to the
Hooke’s law. sketch that was drawn in the previous step.
(Draw the magnitudes of the deformations so
The only difference here is that we must that they are compatible with the geometric
constrains.)
now include thermal expansion in the
By inspection of the sketch, write the relationships
analysis of deformation. between the thermal deformations. And the
δT =εTL=α(ΔT)L deformations due to the constraint forces.
 Sample Problem 5

The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 mm2 in cross-sectional area, is secured
between two walls as shown in the figure. If the rod is stress-free at 20 °C, compute
the stress when the temperature has dropped to -20°C. Assume that (1) the walls do
not move and (2) the walls move together a distance = 0.5 mm. Use α=
11.7×10-6 /°C and E =200 GPa.
A = 1200mm 2

2.5 m
 Sample Problem 6
The figure below shows a homogeneous, rigid
block weighing 12 kips that is supported by
three symmetrically placed rods.

The lower ends of the rods were at the same

level before the block was attached.

Determine the stress in each rod after the

block is attached and the temperature of all
bars increases by 100 °F. Use the following
data:
Sample Problem 7

The figure below shows a homogeneous,

rigid block weighing 12 kips that is supported
by three symmetrically placed rods.

The lower ends of the rods were at the same

level before the block was attached.

determine the temperature increase that

would cause the entire weight of the block
to be carried by the steel rods.