Enhanced Oil Recovery

Introduction:-
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) refers to any method used to increase
the recovery of oil from a reservoir above that which would be obtained
through by primary recovery. In primary production, oil is displaced to the
production well by natural reservoir energy. Sources of natural reservoir
energy are fluid and rock expansion, solution gas drive, gravity drainage,
and the influx of water from aquifer.
In secondary method the recovery was increased by ( water and gas injection )
and these logically know as" secondary recovery methods ".
In tertiary method the recovery involves injecting other gases (such as carbon
dioxide), or heat (steam or hot water) to stimulate oil and gas flow to produce
remaining fluids that were not extracted during primary or secondary recovery
phases.
The definition of Enhanced Oil Recovery methods as used by the oil and gas
regulatory bodies is production of crude oil from reservoirs through actions
taken to increase primary reservoir drive via pressure maintenance,
waterflooding, gas injection, miscible fluid displacement, microemulsion
flooding, CO2 injection, polymer flooding or related methods.

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Enhanced Oil Recovery

Factors Common to all Enhanced Recovery Methods:-

The efficiency of an enhanced recovery method depends on:

a- The reservoir characteristics.
 Average depth.
 Structure, in particular the dip of the bed.
 Degree of homogeneity.
 Petrophysical properties (permeability, capillary pressure,
wettability).
b- The nature of the displacing and displaced fluids.
 Fluid viscosity.
c- The arrangement of production and injection wells.
 Injection to production wells location.

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Injection well location

The location of the injectors depends on Reservoir geology, Reservoir

type, Volume of HC- bearing rock and Economics.
The Location Can Follow the Following Categories:-
1. Central and Peripheral Flooding: this type of injection occurs in the
following cases:
Reservoir with a gas-cap: in which gas injection is taking place, the
injection wells are normally grouped in a cluster around the top of the
anticline as shown in figure.

Anticline reservoir with an underlying aquifer : in which water

injection is taking place. In this case the injection will form a ring around
the reservoir as shown in figure.Anticline reservoir with an underlying
aquifer

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Monocline reservoir with gas-cap or aquifer undergoing gas or

water injection. The injectors are grouped in one or more lines located
towards the based of the reservoir in the case of water injection, towards the
top in the case of gas injection as shown in figure.

Water flooding:-

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Water flooding is a secondary-recovery method by which water is

injected into a reservoir to obtain additional oil recovery through movement
of reservoir oil to a producing well, after the reservoir has approached its
economically productive limit by primary-recovery methods.

The objective of water flooding (water injection):-

 Maintain the reservoir pressure.

 Dispose of the brine producer with the oil.
 Increasing the oil recovery.

Source and Treatment of injected water:

1. Source of injected water:

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 Fresh water source: can be obtained from surface water held

in rivers or lakes and water trapped by shallow wells.
 Salt water source: can be obtained from seawater and brine
water produced with oil.

2. Treatment of injected water:

The objectives of water treatment are:

 To avoid plugging the reservoir.
 To avoid the corrosion of the injection system.
 To avoid the swelling of shale's.

Why water is used as an injection fluid?

1. It is inexpensive.
2. It is easy to obtain, treat and inject.
3. It has many advantages over the other material.
4. It works quite well in displacing oil.

Advantages of water injection:

1. The water is relatively inexpensive and predictable to use.
2. Water flooding can be expected to recover 50 to 60 percent
of the original oil in place.
3. The remaining oil will consist of about 20 to 40 percent
residual oil in the water-swept region.
4. The capital cost of water injection is lower than another any
method.
Disadvantages of water injection:
1. Cannot displace all of the oil from a formation.
2. Water is immiscible with oil.
3. When water and oil come into contact, the resulting interfacial
tension and capillary create a resistance to fluid flow.
4. Water tends to channel through pores of higher permeability, bypassing
oil accumulations in lower –permeability areas
5. The trapped oil cannot be displaced by additional injection of water
because of the strength of capillary forces.

Gas injection:-

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Gas injection has been used to maintain reservoir pressure at some

selected level or to supplement natural reservoir energy to a lesser degree by
reinjection of a portion of the produced gas. Complete or partial pressure-
maintenance operations can result in increased hydrocarbon recovery and
improved reservoir production characteristics.
Gas injection an oil reservoir takes place either into a gas-cap if one exists,
or directly into the oil zone.
The injected gas is practically always of a hydrocarbon base. Air injection
has been attempted, but has many disadvantages (well corrosion, oil
oxidization and risk explosion).

Gas injection into a gas- cap:

When a gas-cap originally exists in a reservoir, or when one has been
formed by segregation during primary production, gas injection helps to
maintain the reservoir pressure while forcing gas into oil zone and driving
the oil towards the production wells.

Gas injection into oil zone:

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When gas injection takes place in a reservoir without a gas-cap the injected
gas flows radially from the injection wells, driving the oil to wards the
production well.

Source and Treatment of injected gas:

1. Source of injected gas:
 Separator gas.
 Gas from nearby fields.
 Inert or flue gases.
2. Treatment of injected gas:
The gas may contain the following impurities:
H2S, Co2, O2 and water vapor.
The objectives of gas treatment are:
 To avoid damaging the reservoir (plug off).
 To avoid the corrosion of the injection system.

Miscible displacement:-

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Hydrocarbon miscible flooding consists of injecting light hydrocarbons

through the reservoir to form a miscible flood. Three different methods are
used. One method uses about 5% PV slug of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
such as propane, followed by natural gas or gas and water. A second
method, called Enriched (Condensing) Gas Drive, consists of injecting a 10
—20% PV slug of natural gas that is enriched with ethane through hexane
(C2 to C6), followed by lean gas (dry, mostly methane) and possibly water.
The enriching components are transferred from the gas to the oil. The third
method, called High Pressure (Vaporizing) Gas Drive. Consists of injecting
lean gas at high pressure to vaporize C2 — C6 components from the crude
oil being displaced.

Mechanisms:

Hydrocarbon miscible flooding recovers crude oil by:

 Generating miscibility (in the condensing and vaporizing gas drive).

 Increasing the oil volume (swelling).
 Decreasing the viscosity of the oil.

1. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) miscible slug: -

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Miscible slug displacement usually refers to the injection of some

liquid solvent that is miscible upon first contact with the resident crude oil.
Specifically, the process uses a slug of propane or other LPG (2 to 5% PV
[pore volume]) tailed by natural gas, inert gas, and/or water. The solvent,
if designed correctly, should bank oil and water ahead of it and completely
displace all contacted oil.

Advantage of miscible slug injection:

1. All contacted oil is totally displaced.

2. Low pressures are needed for miscibility.
3. The process is applicable in a wide range of reservoirs.
4. It can be used as a secondary or tertiary process.

Disadvantage of miscible slug injection:

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1. Process involves poor sweep efficiency, is best applied in steeply

dipping beds.
2. Sizing of slug is difficult due to dispersion.
3. Slug materials are expensive.

2. Enriched gas miscible process:-

In the enriched gas process, a slug of methane enriched with ethane,
propane, or butane (10 to 20% PV) and tailed by lean gas and/or water is
injected into the reservoir. As the injected gas contacts virgin reservoir oil,
the enriching components are stripped from the injected gas and absorbed
into the oil. Continued injection of fresh enriched gas and the stripping of
the light ends around the well bore form a zone rich in C2 to C4. One
hopes that, if the injected gas is rich enough and in sufficient quantity, the
enriched oil band around the well bore at one point will become miscible
with the injected gas.

Advantage of enriched gas injection:-

1. The enriched gas process displaces essentially all residual oil contacted.
2. Miscibility can be regained if lost in the reservoir.
3. This process is lower cost than the propane slug process.
4. It develops miscibility at lower pressures than lean gas drive.
5. Large slug sizes minimize slug design problems.

Disadvantage of enriched gas injection:-

1. The process has poor sweep efficiency.

2. Gravity override occurs in thick formations.
3. Gas costs are high.
4. Viscous fingering leads to slug dissipation.

3. High pressure lean gas miscible process:-

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The lean gas process involves the continuous injection of high

pressure methane, ethane, nitrogen, or flue gas into the reservoir. This
process, like enriched gas, involves multiple contacts between reservoir oil
and lean gas before a miscible bank is formed.

Advantage of lean gas injection:-

1. The lean gas process provides a displacement efficiency approaching 100%.
2. Lean gas is less expensive than propane or enriched gas.
3. The process can regenerate miscibility if lost.
4. No slug sizing problems due to continuous injection occur.
5. Gas can be cycled and reinjected.

Disadvantage of lean gas injection:-

1. The process has limited applicability because reservoir oil must be rich in
C2-C6 components.
2. It involves high injection pressures.
3. Areal sweep efficiency and gravity segregation are poor.
4. Cost of natural gas is high; substitute gases require higher injection
pressure.

4. Carbon Dioxide Process:-

Carbon dioxide flooding is carried out by injecting large quantities of
CO2 (15% or more of the hydrocarbon PV) into the reservoir. Although CO 2
is not truly miscible with the crude oil, the CO 2 extracts the light-to-
intermediate the Components from the oil, and, if the pressure is high
enough, develops miscibility to displace the crude oil from the reservoir.

Mechanisms:-
CO2 recovers crude oil by:
 Generation of miscibi1ity.
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 Swelling the crude oil.

 Lowering the Viscosity of the oil.
 Lowering the interfacial tension between the oil and the C02—oil
phase in the near—miscible regions.

Advantages of Carbon Dioxide Process:-

1. Miscibility can be attained at low pressures.
2. Displacement efficiency is high in miscible cases.
3. This process aids recovery by solution gas drive.
4. It is useful ova a wider range of crude oils than hydrocarbon
injection methods.
5. Miscibility can be regenerated if lost.

Disadvantages of Carbon Dioxide Process:-

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1. CO2 is expensive to transport and not always available.

2. Poor sweep and gravity segregation can result under certain
conditions.
3. Corrosion is increased.
4. Special handling and recycling of produced gas is necessary.

Thermal processes:-
Thermal recovery generally refers to processes for recovering oil from
underground formations by use of heat.
The heat may be supplied externally by injecting a hot fluid such as steam
or hot water into the formations, or it may be generated internally by
combustion. In combustion, the fuel is supplied by the oil in place and the

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Oxidant is injected into the formations in the form of air or other oxygen-
containing fluids.
The most commonly used thermal recovery processes are steam injection
processes and in-situ combustion.
The common factor in all thermal methods is the increase in temperature of
part of the reservoir.
Thermal methods of enhanced oil recovery introduce heat into a reservoir to
lower the viscosity of the oil and facilitate its flow. These methods are used
primarily whit high viscosity and high density crud oils that respond poorly
to other recovery methods.

1.Steam Soak Injection:-

The process may involve steam soak, where high quality steam is
injected into a well at high injection rates. The well is then shut in, allowing
the steam to soak the area around the well bore. After a few days the well is
put back on production until the producing oil rate declines to economic
limits. The cycle is then repeated a number of times until no further
response to steam are observed.

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Advantage of steam soak injection:-

1- Steam injection is a proved production technique where no other method
may be feasible.
2- Steam generators can be fueled by produced oil or by gas or coal.
3- Front-end costs are moderate compared to chemical methods.
4- Displacement efficiency is high, recovering up to 60% of the original oil
in place for steam drive.

Disadvantage of steam soak injection:-

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1- Ultimate recovery for steam soak is low, up to 10% of the original oil in
place.
2- The process is limited by depth due to heat losses and high steam
pressure.
3- Sand production is common.
4- Emulsion handling of produced fluids is necessary.
5- Good quality boiler-feed water is not always available.
6- Steam generator emission cause air quality problems.

2.Steam Drive Injection:-

This process employs continuous injection of steam, usually at
lower rates than steam soak, into wells designated as injectors, which are
critically placed as to distance and direction from production wells.

Mechanisms:

Steam recovers crud oil by:

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 Heating the crude oil and reducing its viscosity.

 Supplying pressure to drive oil to the producing well.

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Advantages of steam drive injection:-

1- Successful with heavy oil.
2- Recovery 50% to 60% of OOIP.
3- Produced oil used for fuel.

Disadvantages of steam drive injection:-

1- Close spacing required.
2- Depth limitation due to heat loss.
3- Availability of good-quality boiler-feed water.
4- Early steam breakthrough gives low efficiency.
5- Shallow depths dictate low injection pressure.
6- Sand control.
7- Emulsions.

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3. In Situ Combustion:-
In situ combustion also relies on crude oil viscosity reduction,
expansion, distillation, and solvent extraction by the addition of heat to
improve recovery. In contrast to steam injection, heat is generated within
the reservoir rather than at the surface and is transported down the well
bore to the sand face.

Mechanisms:
In situ combustion recovers crud oil by:
 The application of heat which is transferred downstream by
conduction and convection, thus lowering the viscosity of the crud.
 Burning coke that is produced from the heavy ends of the crude oil.
 The pressure supplied to the reservoir by the injected air.

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Advantage of In situ combustion injection:-

1. In situ combustion is applicable to a wide variety of reservoirs up to 40°
API.
2. The process involves more efficient heat generation than steam injection.
3. Displacement efficiency is high although some oil is burned.
4. Air is readily available.
5. The process may produce oil that is lighter than original oil.

Disadvantage of In situ combustion injection:-

1. Design problems exist in controlling flame front.
2. Producing equipment can be damaged by heat.
3. Corrosion and emulsion handling are necessary.
4. Compression costs are high.
5. Gravity segregation may be a problem.

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6. Noxious gas may be formed due to combustion.

Chemical flooding:-
Chemical flooding is any isothermal EOR process whose primary goals
are to recover oil by (1) reducing the mobility of the displacing agent
(mobility control process), and/or (2) lowering the oil/water interfacial
tension.

1.Polymer flooding:-
Polymer floods are improved water floods that provide increased
displacement efficiency by increasing fluid viscosities.
The polymers are hydrated in water and form long chain molecules with
molecular weight in the millions. The two most often used materials in
polymer flooding are Polysaccharide and Polyacry-lamides.

Mechanisms:

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Polymers improve the recovery by:-

 Increase the viscosity of water.
 Decrease the mobility of water.
 Contacting a larger volume of the reservoir.

Advantage of Polymer flooding:

1- Reduce residual oil saturation far below that attained by water flood.
2- Areal and sweep efficiency are increased.
3- Polymers are nontoxic and noncorrosive.
4- Polymer floods require similar production technology as water flood.
5- Use of polymers reduces producing water – oil ratio.

Disadvantage of Polymer flooding:

1- Polymers are degradable either by chemical, bacterial, or shearing
action.
2- Polyacrylamides require special surface handling.
3- Polysaccharides require filtration and bactericides.
4- Incremental oil recoveries may not warrant the extra front- end
expense of polymer

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2.Caustic flooding:-
Caustic or alkaline injection employs an in situ emulsification process.
Caustic soda, sodium silicate, sodium carbonate, or sodium hydroxide is
added to the injection water and mixes with residual oil in the reservoir. The
crude oil must contain natural organic acids; most common are the
naphthenic acids. As the alkaline- injected water and acidic crude react,
soaps are produced at the oil-water interface.

Mechanisms:
Caustic flooding recovers crude oil by:
 A reduction of interfacial tension resulting from the produced
surfactants.
 Changing wettability from oil-wet to water-wet.
 Changing wettability from water-wet to oil-wet.
 Emulsification and entrainment of oil.

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 Emulsification and entrainment of oil to aid in mobility control.

 Solubilization of rigid oil films at oil-wet interfaces.

Advantage of Caustic flooding:-

1- The process is relatively in expensive to apply.
2- Mobility control is better than in gas injection processes.
3- The process is applicable to a wide range of crude oil.
4- Conversion with water flooding to caustic flooding is easy.

Disadvantage of Caustic flooding:-

1- Corrosion potential may require coating of all piping, tanks and tubing.
2- The process is not well suited for carbonate reservoirs.
3- Gypsum or anhydrite may precipitate in production well bores.

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3.Surfactant (micellar polymer flooding):-

These substances are any surface—active chemical agent, commonly

called surfactant which, is injected into the reservoir. The surfactant
lowers interfacial tension between reservoir oil and the displacing water.
Commonly used are petroleum sulfonates and alcohols. Surfactants
sometimes can be prepared in the field by sulfonating a petroleum
fraction.

Mechanisms:
Surfactant / micellar polymer recovers crude oil by:
 Lowering the interfacial tension between oil and water.
 Solubilization of oil.
 Emulsification of oil and water.

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 Mobility enhancement.

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Advantages of surfactant:-

1. This process involves high unit displacement and Areal sweep

efficiency.
2. Production technology is similar to water flooding.
3. Gravity segregation is usually unimportant.
4. The process is applicable to wide range of reservoirs.

Disadvantage of surfactant:-
1Front-end chemical costs are high.
2. Performance prediction is poor due to mixing and dispersion of slug
material.
3. Slug design process is sophisticated.

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 Enhanced Oil Recovery

Application Criteria For EOR Methods:-

1. The Technical Criteria

Technical screening guides for matching enhanced recovery methods to

different reservoirs have been evaluated and presented, along with brief
descriptions of each method. we conclude:

1. The tables of the screening criteria show that there is a choice of

enhanced recovery methods applicable to all cruds, from the very lightest to
the heaviest oils or tar sands.

Miscible

Hydrocarbon nitrogen Carbon dioxide

Gravity , API >35 >35 >26
OIL PROPERTY

Viscosity, cp <10 <10 <15

Composition High % of High % of High % of C5-

C2-C7 C1-C7 C12

Oil Saturation >30% PV >30% PV >30% PV

Formation Type Sand stone or Sand stone Sand stone or

RESERVOIR

carbonate or carbonate carbonate

Net Thickness, ft Thin unless Thin unless Thin unless
dipping dipping dipping
Average N.C. N.C. N.C.
Permeability, md
Depth, ft >2000 LPG >4500 >2000
>5000(H.P.GAS)

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Temperature, Fº N.C. N.C. N.C.

RACT
CHA

Chemical flooding:

surfactant polymer alkaline

Gravity , API >25 >25 13-35
OIL PROPERTY

Viscosity, cp <30 <150 <200

Composition Light N.C. Some organic acids

Intermediate
Oil Saturation >30% PV >10% PV Above water flood
Mobile oil residual
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS

Formation Type Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone

preferred preferred preferred
Net Thickness, ft >10 N.C. N.C.

Average >20 >10 >20

Permeability, md
Depth, ft <8000 <9000 <9000

Temperature, Fº <175 <200 <200

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Thermal process:

combustion Steam flood

Gravity , API <40(10-25normally) <25
OIL PROPERTY

Viscosity, cp <1000 >20

Composition Some asphaltic N.C.

component
Oil Saturation >40-50% PV >40-50% PV
RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS

Formation Type Sand or sand stone Sand or sand stone with

with high porosity high porosity
Net Thickness, ft >10 >20

Average >100 >200

Permeability, md
Depth, ft >500 300-500

Temperature, Fº >150 N.C.

N.C. Not critical

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2. light oil with viscosities of less than 10 cp may be recovered by

hydrocarbon miscible, nitrogen, flue gas, or carbon dioxide flooding if the
reservoir is deep enough and meets certain other criteria.

3. intermediate range oils with relatively low viscosities can be recovered

with the three chemical methods: polymer, alkaline or surfactant flooding.
These use water as the main injection fluid, and permeability should be
greater than 10 or 20 md; depth is not usually a problem expect as it relates
to temperature.

4. for heavy oils, with viscosities of more than 150-200cp, heat needs to be
added to the reservoir by in-situ combustion or steam drive.

5. The technical screening guides are only the first step for matching the
best recovery method to a given reservoir. The final decision will invariably
depend on the economic evaluation of each individual reservoir situation.

2. The Economic Criteria:

The various elements to be considered being:

 The cost of studies and laboratory work.

 The cost of drilling additional wells.
 The cost of converting producers into injectors.
 The capital and operating costs of the surface equipment: pumps,
lines, tanks, filters, etc.
 The cost of injected material.

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