Descriptive geometry is the science of graphic representation and solution of space problems.

The
fundamentals of descriptive geometry are based on the principles of orthographic projection. In
descriptive geometry, more complex drawing methods are used to solve problems than those usually
encountered in basic engineering graphics.

Decriptive geometry methods are solutions that are not obtainable in the usual six primary views of
orthographic drawing.

It should also be noted that descriptive geometry can be an additional tool in understanding three
dimensional drawing concepts using CAD. Even though various CAD software are very powerful in
making it possible to do complex 3D drawings, descriptive geometry insures the individual additional
freedom to be successful in solving design problems.

In this section of the program there are fourteen areas of descriptive geometry we cover in class. Below
are examples of a few of those sections.

Below are multiple auxiliary views students were required to solve from the given top and front views.

Students had to establish the line of sight, introduce the necessary folding lines and transfer distance(s) to
each new view.

Below is a completed problem of intersections of planes and solids.

Lines in one surface were selected and their piercing points with the other surface were found.

Additional cutting surfaces were introduced, cutting pairs of lines from the given surfaces. The point of
intersection of the lines of one pair was a point common to the given surfaces and was therefore on their
line of intersection.

Once the intersections were solved, visibility of the plane and pyramid had to be completed
Below the students were required to solve for the angle between the line and plane.

NOTE: The angle formed by two intersecting planes is called a dihedral angle. The true size
of the dihedral angle is observed when each of the given planes appear in an edge view.
When a view shows a point view of a line common to two planes, the line of intersection
produces an edge view of each of the planes.

The method used below is called the PLANE METHOD.

Descriptive geometry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Descriptive geometry builds on a practice, evolved over centuries, of displaying two images of an object,
one as seen in one direction and a second image as seen from a direction 90° rotated (e.g., a "front" and a
"side" view). Gaspard Monge is the father of descriptive geometry. He developed a graphical protocol
which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane.

Using Monge's protocols allows an imaginary object to be drawn so that it may be 3-D modeled. That is,
all geometric aspects of the imaginary object are accounted for in true size/to-scale and shape, and then
imaged as seen from any direction of space; all on a two-dimensional drawing surface.

Descriptive geometry uses the image-creating technique of imaginary, parallel projectors emanating from
an imaginary object and intersecting an imaginary plane of projection at right angles. The cumulative
points of intersections create the desired image. See orthographic projection, Multiviews Without
Rotation.
Contents [hide]
1 Protocols
2 Heuristics
2.1 The direction to best view:
3 General solutions
4 See also

[edit]

Protocols
Project two images of an object into mutually perpendicular, arbitrary directions. Each image view
accommodates three dimensions of space, two dimensions displayed as full-scale, mutually-perpendicular
axes and one as an invisible (point view) axis receding into the image space (depth). Each of the two
adjacent image views shares a full-scale view of one of the three dimensions of space.
Either of these images may serve as the beginning point for a third projected view. The third view may
begin a fourth projection, and on ad infinitum. These sequential projections each represent a circuitous,
90° turn in space in order to view the object from a different direction.
Each new projection utilizes a dimension in full scale that appears as point-view dimension in the
previous view. To achieve the full-scale view of this dimension and accommodate it within the new view
requires one to ignore the previous view and proceed to the second previous view where this dimension
appears in full-scale.
Each new view may be created by projecting into any of an infinite number of directions, perpendicular to
the previous direction of projection. (Envision the many directions of the spokes of a wagon wheel each
perpendicular to the direction of the axle.) The result is one of stepping circuitously about an object in 90°
turns and viewing the object from each step. Each new view is added as an additional view to an
orthographic projection layout display and appears in an "unfolding of the glass box model".

Aside from the Orthographic, six standard principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side; Top; Bottom;
Rear), descriptive geometry strives to yield three basic solution views: the true length of a line (i.e., full
size, not foreshortened), the point view (end view) of a line, and the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to
scale, or not foreshortened). These often serve to determine the direction of projection for the subsequent
view. By the 90° circuitous stepping process, projecting in any direction from the point view of a line
yields its true length view; projecting in a direction parallel to a true length line view yields its point view,
projecting the point view of any line on a plane yields the plane's edge view; projecting in a direction
perpendicular to the edge view of a plane will yield the true shape (to scale) view. These various views
may be called upon to help solve engineering problems posed by solid-geometry principles.
[edit]

Heuristics

There is heuristic value to studying descriptive geometry. It promotes visualization and spatial analytical
abilities. It promotes intuitive ability to recognize the direction of viewing for best presenting a geometric
problem for solution. Representative examples:
[edit]

The direction to best view:

Two skew lines (pipes, perhaps) in general positions in order to determine the location of their shortest
connector (common perpendicular).
Two skew lines (pipes) in general positions such that their shortest connector is seen in full scale.
Two skew lines in general positions such the shortest connector parallel to a given plane is seen in full
scale (say, to determine the position and the dimension of the shortest connector at a constant distance
from a radiating surface).
A plane surface such that a hole drilled perpendicular may is seen in full scale, as if looking through the
hole (say, to test for clearances with other drilled holes).
A plane equidistant from two skew lines in general positions (say, to confirm safe radiation distance?).
The shortest distance from a point to a plane (say, to locate the most economical position for bracing).
The line of intersection between two surfaces, including curved surfaces (say, for the most economical
sizing of sections?)
The true size of the angle between two planes.

A standard for presenting computer-modeling views analogous to orthographic, sequential projections has
not yet been adopted. One candidate for such is presented in the illustrations below. The images in the
illustrations were created using three-dimensional, engineering computer graphics.

Three-dimensional, computer modeling produces virtual space "behind the tube", as it were, and may
produce any view of a model from any direction within this virtual space. It does so without the need for
adjacent orthographic views and therefore renders the circuitous, stepping protocol of Descriptive
Geometry as obsolete.
[edit]

General solutions

General solutions are a class of solutions within descriptive geometry that contain all possible solutions to
a problem. The general solution is represented by a single, three-dimensional object, usually a cone, the
directions of the elements of which are the desired direction of viewing (projection) for any of an infinite
number of solution views.

For example: To find the general solution such that two, unequal length, skew lines in general positions
(say, rockets in flight?) appear:
Equal length
Equal length and parallel
Equal length and perpendicular (say, for ideal targeting of at least one)
Equal to lengths of a specified ratio
others.

In the examples, the general solution for each desired characteristic solution is a cone, each element of
which produces one of an infinite number of solution views. When two or more characteristics of, say
those listed above, are desired (and for which a solution exists) projecting in the direction of either of the
two elements of intersections (one element, if cones are tangent) between the two cones produces the
desired solution view. If the cones do not intersect a solution does not exist. The examples below are
annotated to show the descriptive geometric principles used in the solutions. TL = True-Length; EV =
Edge View.

Figs. 1-3, below, demonstrate (1) Descriptive geometry, general solutions and (2) simultaneously, a
potential standard for presenting such solutions in orthographic, multiview, layout formats.

The potential standard employs two, adjacent, standard, orthographic views (here, Front and Top) with a
standard "folding line" between. As there is no subsequent need to 'circuitously step' 90° around the
object, in standard, two-step sequences in order to arrive at a solution view (it is possible to go directly to
the solution view), this shorter protocol is accounted for in the layout. Where the one step protocol
replaces the two-step protocol, "double folding" lines are used. In other words, when one crosses the
double lines he is not making a circuitous,90° turn but a non-orthodirectional turn directly to the solution
view. As most engineering computer graphics packages automatically generates the six principal views of
the glass box model, as well as an isometric view, these views are sometimes added out of heuristic
curiosity.

Figure 1: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appearing perpendicular

Figure 2: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear equal length

Figure 3: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear in specified length ratio

[edit]
TECH 511
Historical Development of Graphics

Sometime between the years 12,000 B.C. and 10,000 B.C., man had reached the stage of drawing pictures
on the walls of his cave.

Chaldea:
Perhaps the earliest known drawing in existence is the plan view design of a fortress drawn by the
Chaldean engineer Girdea and engraved upon a stone tablet.

Egypt:
Ancient Egyptian stonemasons made plans for the pyramids and other buildings on papyrus, slab of
limestone and sometimes wood.

Geometry of the Greeks:

The ancient Greeks played a very important role in the Thales, the discovery of the circle theorem, 600
B.C.; Pythagoras, the Pythagorian theorem of a right triangle, 525 B.C.; Enclid, 300 B.C.; and
Archimedes, 250 B.C.

The Architecture of the Parthenon:

The architects of this temple were Ictinus and Callicrates. These men had made a type of perspective by
the use of foreshortening and converging parallel lines in their drawings.

The Architecture of Vitruvius Pollio:

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect first century B.C. His ten-volume treatise, De Architecture.
This treatise was a detailed analysis of the form, function and proportion of the
rediscovered in the fifteenth century and was immediately recognized as the architectural bible until the
nineteenth century. Compasses and defined elevation and perspective.
During the time of Christ, the techniques of drawing advanced rather slowly and basically on an
individual basis until the fifteenth century.

The Renaissance:
Renaissance (1300-1500). The classic civilizations were rediscovered, studied and imitated.

The Non-Mathematical Approach to Drawing

Giotto and Duccio:

Both of them made great advancements toward the clarity of perspective drawing with the use of
symmetry, converging lines and foreshortening.

Masaccio:
He is remembered for his improving of the aerial perspective technique.

The Mathematical Approach to Drawing.

Brunelleschi:
He was well known for his demonstration of the theoretical principles governing the laws of perspective
drawing.

Alberti:
Alberti wrote a treatise, della Pittura and defined, in mathematical terms, the principles of perspective in
painting.

Francesca:
Was most noted for his mastery of space and volume, his delicate color sense, and his unemotional
protrayal of figures. Two important theoretical works on perspective and the mathematical figures.

Da Vinci:
Leonardo’s drawings and sketches were very easily understood because of his excellent use of
perspective, and for this reason he taught others his methods for several years.

Durer:
Durer (1471-1528) was credited with the first basic knowledge of orthographic projection and
scientifically formulated in 1795 in a book written by Gaspard Monge.
Desarques:
Was a French mathematician, whose interest in graphics stemmed from problems he faces as a military
engineer. Desarques is regarded as one of the founders of modern projective geometry.

Monge:
Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) is considered the "father of descriptive geometry." Young Monge used the
graphical method in solving design problems related to fortifications and battlements while a military
student in Mezieres, France. He was scolded by his headmaster for not solving a problem by the usual,
long, tedious mathematical process traditionally used for problems of this type. After studying at the
military school, Monge taught mathematics and physics at the Polytechnic School in France. It was during
that period Monge developed the principles of projection that are today the basis of our engineering
drawing. These principles of projection were recognized to be of such military importance that Monge
was compelled to keep his secret until 1795 following which they became an important part of
engineering and technical education in France, Germany and later in the United States. His work,
Descriptive geometry, was the first consciously formulated exposition of the science of orthographic
projection and descriptive geometry. Sylvestre Lacriux discovered the principles of projection
independently about the same time as Monge. Jean Pierre Hackette added new material to Monge’s
descriptive geometry and published a book on this subject in 1822.

Zoeller:
The year 1807 marked the beginning of engineering drawing classes in this country, when Christian
Zoeller was appointed as instructor of drawing at the United States Military Academy.

Crozet:
Monge’s principles of descriptive geometry were brought to the United States in 1816 from France by
Claude Crozet, a professor at the U.S. Military Academy. He had no textbook on the subject, and
descriptive geometry could not by taught orally. It was here at this time, that Crozet, by the aid of a
carpenter and a painter, introduced the blackboard and the chalk. In 1821, Crozet published the first text
on the subject of descriptive geometry in the English language.

The first half of the 19th century might well be called a formative period in the development of
engineering drawing.

Alteneder’s Drafting Instruments:

the establishment in 1850 of the pioneer American factory for the manufacture of drawing instruments by
the Alteneder family—Theo.

Blueprint Process:
In 1876 the blueprint process was introduced in this country at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition.
Up to this time "draughtmanship" was more or less an art expressing itself in fine lines, shading both by
lines and by washes, ornate borders, fancy lettering and the use of colors. These techniques became
unnecessary after the introduction of blueprinting. The art of "draughting" was completely lost and the
technology of "drafting" was discovered. This was the beginning of modern engineering and technical
drawing.
The Golden Age of Drafting:
The first half of the 20th century could be characterized as the golden age of drafting. The modern
technology of drafting was firmly recognized, and the applications of the graphic technology was found in
engineering, design, manufacturing, production, architecture, etc. Engineering, technical and vocational
training in the area of drafting was greatly increased.

Drafting Standards:
In all of the drawing books there has been a tendency to standardize the characters of the graphic language
and to give industry, engineering, and science a uniform, effective graphic representation. The American
National standards Institute (ANSI), along with the American Society for Engineering Education, the
Society of Automotive Engineers, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, has been at work
since 1926 to establish standards for drafting and to bring such standards into agreement.

Computer Graphics:

1950- First computer-driven display attached to MIT’s Whirlwind I computer to generate simple pictures.
Late 1950’s MIT’s TX-0and TX-2- interactive computing became feasible and interest in computer
graphics began to increase rapidly.

1962- Ivan E. Sutherland’s PhD thesis "Sketchpad: A Man-machine graphical communication system"
proved that interactive computer graphics was a viable, useful, and exciting field of research.

Mid-1960’s- Large computer graphics research projects were begun at MIT, GM, Bell Telephone labs,
and Lockheed Aircraft. D. T. Ross of MIT developed an advanced compiler language for graphics
programming. S. A. Coons, also at MIT, and J. C. Ferguson at Boeing, began work in sculptured surfaces.
GM developed their DAC-1 system and other companies, such as Douglas, Lockheed, and McDonnell,
also made significant developments.

1970’s- research began to produce intereactive computer graphics systems. Developments in the
mathematics of parametric geometry was developed by Coons (bicubic patches) and Bezier (special
surfaces). Wireframe and polygonal modeling schemes began to develop.

About 1980- Apple and IBM PC’s popularized the use of bitmap graphics. This resulted in an explosion
of easy-to-use and inexpensive graphics-based applications.

1981- VersaCad, a PC-based CAD system.

1982-
1983- AutoCAD developed by Autodesk .

Mid 1980’s- proliferation of CAD software.