UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING STRESS: NATURE,

SYMPTOMS AND SOURCES*

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Stress: Nature and Concept
1.2.1 Approaches to stress
1.2.2 Types of stress
1.3 Occupational or Job Stress
1.4 Symptoms of Stress
1.5 Sources of Stress
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 Glossary
1.8 References
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
 Explain the nature and concept of stress;
 Describe occupational or job stress; and
 Discuss the symptoms and sources of stress.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Sumina was eldest child in her family and was a bright student. She wanted to become
a doctor when she grew up. However, her mother fell very sick and Samina had to
leave her studies and take care of her ailing mother and three younger siblings.
Subsequent to death of her mother, Samina was not same as before. She started
falling sick often and doctors could find no physiological reasons for her sickness.

*
Contributed by Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU,
New Delhi
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She also lost interest in her studies and in fact did not even bother to appear for her
examination.

Ravi was sure that he will be promoted to senior manager’s post after this years
performance appraisal. He had worked very hard and felt that he deserved the
promotion. However, as the news with regard to promotions in his department was
announced, he was shocked to see that he was not promoted. Ravi felt very frustrated
after this news as he felt that his work and sincerity were not appreciated by his
superiors. He lost interest in his job and his productivity started declining. The
frustration experienced by him also affected his family relationship and he started
having fights with his spouse. This led to further frustration and anger and Ravi
ended up having a psychological breakdown.

Above are two different examples of individuals, who experience stress in one way or
other in their lives. A very negative and tragic life experience of losing a parent led
Samina to experiencing stress that affected her physiological well-being; and stress as
a result of frustration experienced by Ravi led to become psychologically distress and
experiencing a psychological breakdown. The two examples also imply that there are
various reasons why a person may experience stress and the symptoms of stress as
displayed by the individuals also vary. Though, one thing can be stated clearly, that is,
if stress is not identified and managed in time or on regular basis it can have
detrimental effects on the individual, his/ her functioning and productivity, which can
also have a negative impact on the significant people in their lives like parents,
spouse, children, friends and even colleagues. Stress has a negative impact on both
psychological and physiological well-being of a person and thus, needs to be dealt
with adequately using suitable intervention strategies. Though, before the techniques
of stress management are discussed, it is important to understand what is stress, its
nature, symptoms and sources.
In the present Unit we will make an attempt to discuss the concept of stress; and will
also focus on the symptoms and sources of stress.

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1.2 STRESS: CONCEPT AND NATURE

After reading the above examples you may have developed some idea about what is
stress. Though, in the present section of this unit we will discuss about the concept
and nature of stress so as to develop a better understanding about this term.

The terms stress has been derived from ‘stringere’, that is a latin word and means ‘to
draw tight’ (Cox, 1978). It has, today, become a very commonly used term in every
context whether school, workplace, day to day life and so on. We often come across
people who say that they are stressed or experiencing stress in their lives. We
ourselves often experience it. Stress as such is like salt and pepper and a life without
stress would be without motivation, as stress often motivates us to work in certain
direction. Thus, stress is not altogether negative and does have numerous advantages.
Though, if goes beyond the optimal level of an individual, where the individual finds
it exceedingly difficult to cope with it then it can have detrimental effects on the well-
being (both psychological and physiological) and performance and productivity of an
individual.

The origins of stress can mainly be traced to physical sciences (Schafer, 1998) and
during 17th century it was exceedingly used to denote affiliations and hardships
experienced by individuals and during 18th century it came to be described mainly in
terms of pressure, strain or force (Cartwright and Cooper, 1997). The initial
conceptualisation of stress mainly focused on stress as an external stimulus. Though
later, it came to be described as a response of an individual to certain disturbances.
The study carried out by Cannon can be mentioned in this context, where he mainly
studied the fight and flight reaction. The focus of the study by Cannon was on the
effect that stress has on animal as well as individual. Cannon also observed
physiological changes in the participants of his study and he termed these changes as
displayed by individuals under stress.
Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the body to certain demand that is
made on it and he further stated that this response was non-specific. In 1946, Selye
put forth three stages (General Adaptation Syndrome) that are experienced by an
individual when he/ she is in a situation that is stressful. the first stage was stated by
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him as that of ‘alarm reaction’ that is denoted by a decreased resistance that is
followed by a countershock where the defence mechanisms of an individual are
activated. In the second stage, that is ‘resistance’, where the adaptation is maximum
and the equilibrium is restored. Though if the stress is still experienced and the
defence mechanism is inactive then the individual will experience the third and last
stage. The last stage is that of ‘exhaustion’ where there is a collapse of adaptive
mechanisms (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997).

Baum et al. (1981) have defined stress as a “process in which environmental events or
forces, called, stressors, threatens an organism’s existence and wellbeing”. While
discussing the concept of stress it is also important to understand the term stressor that
can be described as situation, event, person or anything that leads to the stress
response. Gerrig and Zimbardo (2005) defined stressor as a stimulus event that places
a demand on an organism for some kind of adaptive response” At a given point of
time an individual may have various stressors in his/ her life. It could be an upcoming
official event, an impending report, examination and so on. Stressors can also
described as varied external and internal stimuli that may lead to stress. Stressors can
be categories in to physical, psychological, environmental, social and as life events.
Schafer (1998) defined stress as “arousal of mind and body in response to demands
made on them”.

Both the above definitions focus on the demand and an individual’s response to the
same. Thus the onus here is on the response of the individual. Though the first
definition focuses only on body the second definition brings in the important aspect
that of mind, implying that stress is a response of both body as well as mind.

Yet another definition of stress was given by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). They
define stress as “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that
is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his/ her resources and endangering
his/ her wellbeing”. This definition emphasises the relationship between person and
the environment, though here the stress is presented in a negative light and as we just
discussed earlier, stress is not always negative and may have its own advantages.
Lazarus and Folkman put forth the transactional model of stress and coping that
focuses on how an event is interpreted or appraised by an individual, which in turn

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will determine the stress experienced by the individual. This model, highlights that
stress and coping with stress as being interrelated processes.

Truxillo et al. (2016) defined stress as “the body’s reaction to a change that requires a
physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response”. This definition has further
elaborated the response as being physical, mental or emotional in nature.

1.2.1 Approaches to stress

Stress can also be understood in a better way with the help of the following four
approaches (Nelson et al, 2012):

i) The Medical Approach/ The Homeostasis Approach: Cannon initially termed

stress as the emergency response and further elaborated that stress had its source
in the fighting emotions (Nelson et al, 2012). As was discussed earlier, Cannon
put forth the fight or flight response with regard to stress. According to Cannon
stress was an outcome of an environmental demand that was external and that led
to an imbalance in the natural steady state of an individual. He further stated that
body encompasses natural defence mechanisms that play a role in maintaining the
homeostasis or the natural steady state of an individual. Cannon was also
interested in sympathetic nervous system that was significant in activation of an
individual when in stressful situation.

ii) The Cognitive appraisal Approach: This approach is with reference to the
perspective put forth by Lazarus. Lazarus not only believed that stress was as a
result os an interaction between the individual and the environment, but he also
focused on the cognitive appraisal that is carried out by an individual while
determining whether a situation/ event is stressful or not. He further stated that
individual differenced exists in the way in which the cognitive appraisal is carried
out. Thus, same situation may be seen as stressful by one individual, whereas,
another individual may not appraise it as stressful.

iii) The Person-Environment Approach: This approach was put forth by Robert
Kahn, in which he highlights how stress is created as a result of confusing and
conflicting expectations from an individual when he/she is in a social role. Kahn
emphasised the social psychology of stress through this model (Nelson, 2012). In
this model he also refers to the fit between individual and environment and he
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 indicates that a good individual and environment fit is an outcome of consistency
between the role expectations and the skills and abilities of an individual. Thus
when the role expectations are confusing or in conflict with the individuals skills
and abilities, stress will result.

iv) The Psychoanalytic Approach: The explanation of stress by Levinson is based

on the psychoanalytic theory by Freud. According to Levinson, two main
elements of personality, namely, ego ideal and self image interact with each other
and lead to stress. Ego ideal can be described as expression of an individual’s
perfect self, where as self image is the way an individual perceives himself/
herself (negatively or positively). Stress thus is an outcome of the gap between
the ego ideal and self image. Thus this approach mainly focuses on how stress can
results due to the unconscious personality factors in an individual.

1.2.2 Types of Stress

Stress can also be categorised in to different types as follows:
i) Eustress: Stress can also be good stress that is explained as ‘Eustress’. Eustress
can be defined as “good stress, caused by a positive response to a desired stressor,
such as a wedding or a new job” (Truxillo et al., 2016).
ii) Neustress: When stress us not helpful nor harmful, it can be described as
neustress (Schafer, 1998).
iii) Distress: This is the third category as stress, that most people commonly relate
stress with. Distress occurs when the arousal experienced by the individual is very
high or very low (Schafer, 1998).

1.3 OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

In the previous section we discussed about the concept and nature of stress in general.
However, in the present unit our focus will specifically be on occupational or job
stress. Thus, it becomes inevitable that we also try to understand stress in this context.
Understanding occupational or job stress is also relevant as stress can have a negative
impact on the well-being, productivity and performance of an employee. Two
significant concepts that need to be discussed while explaining occupational or job

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stress are job stressor and job strain. We discussed about stressors earlier and job
stressor is a related concept.

Job stressor can be defined as “a condition or situation may work that requires an
adaptive response on the part of the employee” (Spector, 2012). And job strain can be
described as “a negative reaction by an employee in a stressor, such as anger, anxiety
or physical symptom such as a headache” (Spector, 2012).

Strain can be further categorised in to psychological reactions, physical reactions and

behavioural reactions. The examples of psychological reactions are anger, anxiety,
frustration, dissatisfaction. The examples of physical reactions include headache,
pounding of heart, stomach upset and so on. The examples of behavioural reactions
are substance use and abuse, accidents and accident proneness and so on.
Further, it can also be said that job stressors can lead to job strain, though the process
as such is not automatic but also encompasses the perception and appraisal of the job
stressors by the employee (Spector, 2012). Thus, as an employee comes across a job
stressor, he/ she first perceives, appraises it as threatening and as a result he/ she may
experience short term or long term strain. Short term strain is a strain that takes place
immediately, whereas, a long term strain occurs when the threat is severe in nature
and thus has a long term effect on the employee.

Yet another related concept that can be discussed her is that of job burnout. According
to Spector (2012), burnout can be described as “a distressed psychological state that
an employee might experience after being on the job for a period of time”. According
to Pareek (1982) some of the factors that contribute to burnout include, the stress level
and type of experienced by the employee, personality traits of the employee, the
nature of the job and role that the employee needs to play, the non-work life and
lifestyle of the employee, role style, coping strategies and also organisational climate
(as cited in Pestonjee, 1999).

Burnout Stress Syndrome (BOSS) can also be discussed here that was observed by
Paine (1982) and described as “the consequence of high levels of job stress, personal
frustration, and inadequate coping skills, having major personal, organisational and
social costs, and these costs are probably increasing” [as cited in Pestonjee, 1999]. It
can be seen from the above description of BOSS that burnout in a way a severe for of

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stress and can have detrimental effects personal and social life of an individual and
may have a negative effect on the productivity and performance of the individual as
well. It is thus an outcome of stress, with which the individual was not able to cope
adequately and thus has resulted in the individual experiencing fatigue, irritation, lack
of effectiveness and various health related issues and problems.

The three main components of burnout include emotional exhaustion including

fatigue, depersonalisation including hostility towards others and lack of care or
concern towards others and decrease in personal accomplishment including lower
levels of motivation and ineffective performance (Spector, 2012).

Five stages of burnout can also be discussed (Pestonjee, 1999), they are described as
follows:
i) Honeymoon stage: As an employee takes up a new job he/ she is excited and
enthusiastic about it. However, dysfunction may creep in when an individuals
reserves of energy get depleted as he/ she is coping with the challenges of the
new environment that he/ she finds himself/ herself in and the strategies that
employee used to cope with the stress experienced fail or are not useful in the
coping process.
ii) Full shortage stage: The employee will experience the feelings of loss,
exhaustion and even confusion. He/ she may also display lack of job
satisfaction, sleep disturbances, ineffectiveness and fatigue. The employee
may also engage in unhealthy coping strategies or escape activities.
iii) Chronic symptom stage: The employee at this stage may also display varied
physiological symptoms that call for immediate attention. He/ she may
experience extreme physical fatigue. Depression or may display some physical
illness as well.
iv) Crisis stage: When the physiological symptoms and the feelings discussed in
the previous stage continue then the crisis stage begins. The employee here
may develop pessimism, escape mentality and may also suffer from varied
health related issues including sleep disturbances, ulcers, high blood pressure
and so on.

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 v) Hitting the wall stage: This is the last stage and here the employee may
experience complete exhaustion which can have grave impact on the
productivity and performance of the employee.

Stress and Performance

Decreased performance, job dissatisfaction and even absenteeism can be related with
stress (Miner, 1992). While discussing about relationship between stress and
performance, the hypothesis related to the inverted- U can be discussed. The
diagrammatic representation of Inverted- U is given in figure 1.1. As can be seen in
the figure as the stress increases, the performance also increases, however at certain
point where stress continues to increase, the performance is affected and goes down.
Thus, it can be said that stress plays an important role in performance, but as it goes
beyond certain optimal level, the performance will get negatively affected.

Responsibilities
Role Stressors
Interpersonal
Conflicts

Physical Stressors
condition
School/ Work
Environment

Life Events Emotional

Labour

Figure 1.1: Showing various Stressors

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Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Explain the main approaches to stress.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
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2) What are the five stages of burnout?
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1.4 SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

Stress can have an impact on various aspects of life that include behaviour, cognition,
emotions as well as physical health. Though stress will have a different effect on
different individuals and each individual will react to stress in a different way, there
are certain symptoms that can be related with stress. These are discussed as follows:
i) Behavioural symptoms: The behavioural symptoms of stress include
deterioration in performance effectiveness, indulgence in substance use, prone
to accidents, nervous mannerism, poor time management, displaying checking
rituals, changes in appetite, procrastination, eating faster, even talking or
walking faster, impaired speech and so on.

ii) Cognitive symptoms: The cognitive symptoms related to stress include

worrying constantly, experiencing racing thoughts, lack of organisation in
thinking, forgetting, not able to focus, lack of judgement or poor judgement
and also pessimism.

iii) Emotional symptoms: the emotional symptoms include, displaying

frustration, getting irritated or agitated easily, feelings of worthlessness,
feeling lonely and even depressed.

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iv) Physical symptoms: The physical symptoms of stress include, low levels of
energy, stomach upset, headaches and migraines, pain and aches, chest pain,
rapid heartbeats, lack of sleep, dryness in mouth, experiencing tension in
muscles, frequent infections and so on.

Thus, the symptoms of stress can be categorised into the above main four categories,
which are depicted in table 1.1, but it is to be remembered that individual differences
do exist in the symptoms displayed by different individuals.

Table1.1: Symptoms of Stress

PHYSICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOURAL

- Rapid Pulse - Feeling upset - Anxiety - Deterioration in

- Pounding Heart - Inability to - Depression performance effectiveness
- Increased concentrate - Anger - Smoking or use of alcohol
Perspiration - Irritability - Guilt or other ’recreational ‘
- Tensing of arm and - Loss of self - Jealousy drugs
leg muscles confidence - Shame - Accident Proneness
- Shortness of breath - Worry - Impatient - Nervous Mannerism (foot
- Gritting of teeth - Difficulty in making - tapping, nail biting)
Suicidal
- Headaches decisions feelings - Increased or decreased
- Indigestion - Racing thoughts eating/ Anorexia
- Numbness - Absent- mindedness - Increased or decreased
sleeping/ sleep disruption
- Dry mouth
- Pain
- Phobias
- Cold sweat
- Eating/ walking/ talking
faster
- Abdominal cramps
- Poor time management
- Impaired speech
- Checking rituals

1.5 SOURCES OF STRESS

As we have developed a clear idea about the concept and nature of stress, we will now
move on to the sources of stress.
As such the sources of stress can be categories in to three main sources, namely,
Frustration, Conflict of motives and Pressure (Coleman, 1970). Frustration can be
described as occurring when a goal oriented behaviour of an individual is thwarted.
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As stated by Mangal (1984) “a wide range of environmental obstacles, both physical
and social and the internal factors in the form of personal limitations, biological
conditions and psychological barriers may lead to frustration of our needs, motives
and efforts” For example, Ravi expected his promotion, however, when he did not
receive the same he is likely to have experienced frustration.

The next source is conflict of motives that can cause stress as an individual has to
choose between alternatives and decision making in this regard can lead to stress in
the individual. Conflict of motives can be of four different types- approach conflict,
avoidance conflict, approach avoidance conflict and double approach avoidance
conflict.
i) Approach-approach conflict: In this type of conflict the individual has to choose
between two goals that are positive and are similar. For example, an individual
may have to choose between two similar job opportunities.
ii) Avoidance-avoidance conflict: The next type of conflict of motives is
avoidance- avoidance conflict. Here again there are two goals that are similar but
as opposed to approach- approach conflict, the goals here are negative. For
example, an individual may have to take decision whether he/ she wants to remain
unemployed or take up a mediocre job that he/ she is not interested in.
iii) Approach- avoidance conflict: Here there is a single goal which is both positive
and negative. For example, an individual taking up a job abroad may be excited
about the opportunity but also has to face the fact that he/ she will have to stay
away from the family. Thus this goal has both negative and positive consequences
and thus the individual may experience stress.
iv) Multiple approach-avoidance conflict: It may so happen that the conflicts faced
by us are quite complex and they are combinations of approach and avoidance
conflicts. In this conflict the individual has to choose between the options that
have both positive and negative consequences. For example, a student may have
to choose between two educational opportunities, one of pursuing music that he/
she is interested in which will make his parents unhappy and the other of pursuing
engineering, which will make his/ her parents happy but s/he is really not
interested in it.

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Pressure is yet another source of stress that can be external or internal. External
pressure are pressures that could be as a result of demands from the environment,
responsibilities and obligations that are mainly social in nature as well as demands
and expectations of the significant persons in our lives. With regard to internal
pressures, Mangal (1984) states that “Internal pressures are caused by our own self for
maintaining the picture of ourselves- as we think we could and should be” and An
example of external pressure is when a child is pressurised by parents to do well in
examination and an example of internal pressure is when a child himself/ herself feels
that he/ she needs to study and do well in examination.

Thus, any stress can be categories in to the above three sources, though a person may
experience stress due to more than one or all the three sources as well.

Besides the above sources, stress can also be as a result of personality factors that may
make an individual prone to stress. Past experiences, basic temperamental factors,
perception of control over the situation causing stress play an important role in
determining the reaction of individual to stress (Parmeswaran & Beena, 2004). In the
context of personality, the type A and type B personalities can be discussed.
Individuals with Type A personality display hurriedness, restlessness and are often
involved in carrying out various activities at the same time. They are also competitive,
anxious and are often achievement oriented. The individuals with type B personality,
on the other hand, display behaviour that is relaxed. It can said that individuals with
type A personality are comparatively more prone to stress when compared with
individuals with type B personality (Parmeswaran & Beena, 2004).
Further, certain life events, like death of a near or dear one, divorce, pregnancy, child
leaving home, change in conditions of living, retirement, marriage, loosing one job
and so on can also lead to stress (Nolen- Hoeksema, 2009).

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Enumerate the symptoms of stress.

_______________________________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2) Discuss the types of conflict of motives with suitable examples.

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1.6 CONCLUSION

The present Unit mainly focused on the nature, symptoms and sources of stress. The
terms stress has been derived from ‘stringere’ that is a latin word and means ‘to draw
tight’ (Cox, 1978). It is a commonly used term today and we find individuals referring
to it from time to time in their day to day lives. Stress can be termed as salt and
pepper and a life without stress would be without motivation, as stress often motivates
us to work in certain direction and therefore stress is not altogether negative and does
have numerous advantages. Hans Selye (1974) described stress as a response of the
body to certain demand that is made on it and he further stated that this response was
non-specific. Various definitions of stress were also discussed in this unit that mainly
described stress as the demand and an individual’s response to the same. The concept
of stressor was also described that can be explained as as situation, event, person or
anything that leads to the stress response. Stressors can be categories in to physical,
psychological, environmental, social and as life events. The unit further described the
various approaches to stress including the medical approach/ the homeostasis
approach, the cognitive appraisal approach, the person-environment approach and the
psychoanalytic approach. Various types of stress including eustress, neustress and
distress were also discussed in the Unit. The unit further focused on the concept of
occupational stress with an emphasis on stress and performance.

The Unit then moved on to explain the various symptoms of stress that were
categorised in to behavioural symptoms, cognitive symptoms, emotional symptoms
and physical symptoms. Further, the sources of stress mainly, frustration, conflict of
motives and pressure were also explained.
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_____________________________________________________________________
1.7 GLOSSARY
_____________________________________________________________________

 Conflict of motives: Conflict of motives is a source of stress that occurs when

an individual has to choose between alternatives, and, decision-making in this
regard can lead to stress in an individual.

 Frustration: Frustration can be described as occurring when goal oriented

behaviour of an individual is thwarted.

 Pressure: Pressure is a source of stress that can be external or internal.

External pressure could be as a result of demands from the environment,
responsibilities and obligations that are mainly social in nature as well as
demands and expectations of the significant persons in our lives and internal
pressures are caused by our own self for maintaining the picture of ourselves-
as we think we could and should be.

 Psychological test: Psychological test can be explained as a measure of

sample of behaviour that is objective and systematic in nature.

 Stress: It refers to a particular relationship between the person and the

environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding her/his
resources and endangering her/his well-being.

1.8 REFERENCES

Cartwright, S. & Cooper, C. L. (1997). Managing Workplace Stress. New Delhi,

India: SAGE.

Coleman, J.C. (1970). Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life. Bombay, India: D. B.
Taraporewala and Sons.

Cox, T. (1978). Stress. London: Macmillan.

Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Van
Nostrand.

Mangal, S. (1984). Abnormal psychology. New Delhi, India: Sterling Publishers.

Miner, J. B. (1992). Industrial- Organizational Psychology. New Delhi, India:

McGraw-Hill Inc.

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Lutz, C. (2009). Atkinson &
Hilgard’s Psychology An Introduction. United Kingdom: Cengage Learning.

Parmeswaran, E. G and Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology. Delhi:

Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

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Pestonjee, D. (1999). Stress and coping. New Delhi, India: Sage.

Schafer, W. (1998). Stress Management for Wellness. United States: Thomson

Wadsworth.

Selye, H. (1974). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Your Answer should include the following:
 The Medical Approach/ The Homeostasis approach
 The Cognitive appraisal approach
 The Person-Environment approach
 The Psychoanalytic approach.

2) Your Answer should include the following:

 Honeymoon stage
 Full shortage stage
 Chronic symptom stage
 Crisis stage
 Hitting the wall stage.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Your Answer should include the following points:

 Behavioural symptoms
 Cognitive symptoms
 Emotional symptoms
 Physical symptoms.

2) Your Answer should include the following points:

 Approach-approach conflict
 Avoidance-avoidance conflict
 Approach-avoidance conflict
 Multiple approach-avoidance conflict.
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