ECEN 3413 | Advance Communication Systems

Topic 2: Introduction to Optical Communications

Instructor: Engr. Gerhard P. Tan

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Learning Outcomes Overview
 Define optical communications
 Compare the advantages and In 1870, John Tyndall, using a jet of water that flowed from one
disadvantages of optical fibers container to another and a beam of light, demonstrated that
over metallic cables light used internal reflection to follow a specific path. As water
 Define electromagnetic
frequency and wavelength
poured out through the spout of the first container, Tyndall
spectrum directed a beam of sunlight at the path of the water. The light
 Describe several types of followed a zigzag path inside the curved path of the water. This
optical fiber construction idea know as total internal reflection. This idea is the basic of
 Explain the physics of light
and the following terms:
fiber optic.
velocity of propagation,
refraction, refractive index,
critical angle, acceptance
angle, acceptance cone, and
numerical aperture
 Describe how light waves
propagate through an optical
fiber cable
 Define modes of propagation Total Internal reflection is
and index profile
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 Topics

 Brief History
 Nature of Light
 Optical Fiber Communication
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Cable Configuration
 Light Propagations
 Optical Fiber Configurations
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 Optical Communications

Optical communications system is one that uses light as the carrier

of information. Propagating light waves through Earth’s atmosphere is
difficult and often impractical. Consequently, optical fiber
communications systems use glass or plastic fiber cables to “contain”
the light waves and guide them in a manner similar to the way
electromagnetic waves are guided through a metallic transmission
medium.

Brief History:
1966 – suggestion to use optical fiber (Kao & Hockham)
1970 – Corning Glass optical fiber with 20 dB/km near 1 μm
1970 - Semiconductor Laser with CW operation at room temp.
1980 onwards – wide spread use of Optical Fiber Communication
using SMF and MMF
1990 – used Optical amplification (for increased repeater spacing)
and Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) for increased data rate.
Resulted in a data rate of 10 Tb/s by 2001.
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 Nature of Light

2 Divisions of Light:

1. Monochromatic Light
one-color light, is essentially electromagnetic
radiation derived from photon emissions from
atoms.

2. Composite Light
If the light is formed by the combination of two or
more colours.

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 Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication

a. Optical Transmitters. The role is to convert the electrical signal into optical form and
to launch the resulting optical signal into the optical fiber.
b. Optical Fibers as a Communication Channel. The role of a communication
channel is to transport the optical signal from transmitter to receiver without distorting it.
c. Optical Receivers. An optical receiver converts the optical signal received at the
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 Optical Fibers versus Metallic Cable Facilities
Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables:
1. Wider bandwidth and greater information capacity
2. Immunity to crosstalk
3. Immunity to static interference
4. Environmental immunity
5. Safety and convenience
6. Lower Transmission Loss
7. Security
8. Durability and Reliability Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables:
9. Economics. The cost of optical fiber cables is 1. Interfacing costs. Fiber Optic Cable must be
approximately the same as metallic cables. connected to standard electronic facilities, which often
require expensive interfaces.
2. Strength. Optical fibers by themselves have a
significantly lower tensile strength than coaxial cable.
3. Remote electrical power
4. Optical fiber cables are more susceptible to losses
introduced by bending the cable
5. Specialized tools, equipment, and training
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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light Frequency Spectrum:
1. Infrared – 770 nm to 10e8 nm
2. Visible – 390 nm to 770 nm
3. Ultraviolet – 10 nm to 390 nm

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 Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum

Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an

electromagnetic wave occupies in space. The length of c where: λ = wavelength (meters/cycle)
a wavelength depends on the frequency of the wave 𝛌 = c = velocity of light (300,000,000
𝒇
and the velocity of light. Mathematically, wavelength is: meters per second)
f = frequency (hertz)
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 Optical Fiber Construction

All three varieties are constructed of either glass,

plastic, or a combination of glass and plastic:
1. Plastic core and cladding
2. Glass core with plastic cladding (called PCS fiber
[plastic-clad silica])
3. Glass core and glass cladding (called SCS [silica-
clad silica])

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 Cable Configurations
Loose Tube Construction Multiple Strands Plastic Silica Cable

Constrained Fiber Telephone Cable

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 Light Propagation
a. Physics of Light

Planck’s Law describes the photoelectric effect, which states, “When visible light or high-frequency
electromagnetic radiation illuminates a metallic surface, electrons are emitted.” The emitted electrons
produce an electric current.

𝒉𝒄
Ep = hf; 𝑬𝒑 =
𝛌

where: Ep = energy of the photon (joules)

h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J – s
f = frequency of light (photon) emitted (hertz)

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 Light Propagation
b. Optical Power
Photometry is the science of measuring only light waves that are visible to the human eye. Radiometry, on
the other hand, measures light throughout the entire electromagnetic spectrum. In photometric terms, light
intensity is generally described in terms of luminous flux density and measured in lumens per unit area.

Optical power is described as the flow of light energy past a given point in a specified time.
Optical power is expressed mathematically as

𝒅 (𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚) 𝒅𝑸
P= =
𝒅 (𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆) 𝒅𝒕

where: P = optical power (watts)

dQ = instantaneous charge (joules)
dt = instantaneous change in time (seconds)
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 Light Propagation
Optical power is sometimes called radiant flux (φ), which is equivalent to joules per second and is the same
power that is measured electrically or thermally in watts.
𝑷 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔) 𝑷 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔)
dBm = 10 log dBµ = 10 log
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔) 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔)

Problem: Determine the optical power in dBm and dBμ for power levels of
a. 10 mW
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 10 𝑚𝑊
dBm = 10 log = 10 log = 10 dBm
0.001 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑊
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 10 𝑚𝑊
dBµ = 10 log = 10 log 1 μW = 40 dBμ
0.000001 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)

b. 20 μW
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 20 μ𝑊
dBm = 10 log = 10 log = -17 dBm
0.001 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 1 𝑚𝑊
𝑃 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 20 μ𝑊
dBµ = 10 log = 10 log 1 μW = 13 dBμ
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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation

i. Refraction

Light Refraction Prismatic Refraction

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
ii. Refractive Index

The amount of bending or refraction that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is quite predictable and depends on the refractive indexes of the two materials.
Refractive index is simply the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the
velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material. Mathematically, refractive index is

𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗

where: n = refractive index (unitless)

c = speed of light in free space (3 x 108 meters per second)
v = speed of light in a given material (meters per second)
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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
iii. Snell’s Law

Refractive Model for Snell’s Law Table 01: Typical Index of Refraction

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
iii. Snell’s Law

Snell’s law stated mathematically is 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 sin 𝜽𝟐

where: n1 = refractive index of material 1 (unitless)
n2 = refractive index of material 2 (unitless)
θ1 = angle of incidence (degrees)
θ2 = angle of refraction (degrees)

Example:
Let medium 1 be glass and medium 2 be ethyl alcohol. For an angle of incidence of 30°, determine
the angle of refraction.

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
iii. Snell’s Law

Solution:
From Table 01, n1 (glass) = 1.5
n2 (ethyl alcohol) = 1.36

Rearranging equation and substituting for n1, n2, and θ1 gives us

𝑛1
sin 𝜃1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
𝑛2
1.5
sin 30 = 0.5514 = sin 𝜃2
1.36
𝜃2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 0.5514 = 33.470

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
iv. Critical Angle

This angle of incidence is called the critical

angle (θc), which is defined as the minimum
angle of incidence at which a light ray may
strike the interface of two media and result in
an angle of refraction of 90° or greater.

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
iv. Critical Angle

Total reflection takes place at the interface, and the angle of

reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Critical angle can
be represented mathematically:
𝒏𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝟐
𝒏𝟏
With θ2 = 90°, θ1 becomes the critical angle (θc), and
𝒏𝟐
𝛉𝒄 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏
𝒏𝟏
Angle of Reflection and Refraction

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
v. Acceptance Angle, Acceptance Cone, Numerical Aperture

−1
𝒏1 2 − 𝒏2 2
𝛉𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒏0

where: θin(max) = acceptance angle (degrees)

no = refractive index of air (1)
n1 = refractive index of glass fiber core (1.5)
n2 = refractive index of quartz fiber cladding (1.46)

Since the refractive index of air is 1,

𝛉𝒊𝒏(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−1 𝒏1 2 − 𝒏2 2
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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
v. Acceptance Angle, Acceptance Cone, Numerical Aperture

θin(max) is called the acceptance angle or acceptance cone half-angle. θin(max) defines the maximum
angle in which external light rays may strike the air/glass interface and still propagate down the fiber.

Acceptance Angle Acceptance Cone

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 Light Propagation

c. Velocity of Propagation
v. Acceptance Angle, Acceptance Cone, Numerical Aperture

Numerical aperture (NA) is closely related to acceptance

angle and is the figure of merit commonly used to
measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle.

𝑵𝑨 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝒊𝒏
where: θin = acceptance angle (degrees)
𝑵𝑨 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐 𝟐
−𝟏 NA = numerical aperture (unitless)
𝛉𝒊𝒏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑵𝑨
n1 = refractive index of glass fiber core (unitless)
n2 = refractive index of quartz fiber cladding (unitless)

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 Optical Fiber Configurations
a. Mode of Propagation

Mode simply means path. If there is only one path for light rays to take down a cable, it is called
single mode (a). If there is more than one path, it is called multimode (b).

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 Optical Fiber Configurations
a. Mode of Propagation

The number of paths (modes) possible for a multimode fiber cable depends on the frequency
(wavelength) of the light signal, the refractive indexes of the core and cladding, and the core
diameter. Mathematically, the number of modes possible for a given cable can be approximated
by the following formula:
2
𝝅𝒅
𝑵 ≈ 𝒏1 2 − 𝒏2 2
𝛌

where: N = number of propagating modes

d = core diameter (meters)
λ = wavelength (meters)
n1 = refractive index of core
n2 = refractive index of cladding
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 Optical Fiber Configurations
b. Index Profile
The index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical
representation of the magnitude of the refractive
index across the fiber. The refractive index is
plotted on the horizontal axis, and the radial
distance from the core axis is plotted on the
vertical axis.
A step-index fiber has a central core with a
uniform refractive index (i.e., constant density
throughout). An outside cladding that also has a
uniform refractive index surrounds the core;
however, the refractive index of the cladding is
less than that of the central core.

In the graded-index fiber, shown in (c), it can

be see that there is no cladding, and the
refractive index of the core is non-uniform; it is
Core index profiles: (a) single-mode step index; (b)
highest in the center of the core and decreases
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gradually
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 Reference Videos

 Fiber 101:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_kA8EpCUQo

 Deep Sea Internet Cables Connect the World:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx3qwqtZvs4

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 Thank You

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