Journal of Asian Concrete Federation

Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-11, June 2017

ISSN 2465-7964 / eISSN 2465-7972
http://dx.doi.org/10.18702/acf.2017.06.3.1.1

Technical Report
New recommended practices in concrete durability
David Millar* and Rodney Paull

(Received: December 29, 2016; Accepted: May 21, 2017; Published online: July 05, 2017)

Abstract: Prior to the 1970’s concrete was generally regarded by asset owners, designers, and contractors as
a reliable construction material that provided long term durability with relatively little maintenance. Subse-
quently, premature deterioration of concrete structures, arising from changing cement characteristics, quality
management, and a number of other factors, damaged this reputation. The durability of concrete structures is
a complex and difficult issue to design and manage due to many variables. Whilst research into concrete du-
rability continues, the knowledge on exposure significance, deterioration processes, materials properties and
workmanship implications has developed significantly over the last 25 years. In this time new durability de-
sign practices have been developed, including durability modelling methods, and new methods of construc-
tion have been introduced. The Concrete Institute of Australia (CIA) Durability Technical Committee per-
ceived a need for a broader review of durability requirements, and following extensive industry consultation,
determined that a comprehensive and unified durability guidance was required. The concrete durability top-
ics considered under this review include: planning, exposure classes, deemed to comply requirements, good
practice, modelling reinforcement corrosion, cracks and crack control, and testing.

Keywords: concrete, durability planning, exposure classes, modelling reinforcement corrosion, cracking,
testing.

1. Introduction deemed to satisfy provisions often provide adequate

performance. However, for elements in more severe
Durability requirements in Australian Stand- exposures, guidelines that comprehensively detail
ards are fragmented through different standards and how to assess owners’ needs, environmental expo-
their commentaries dealing with concrete durability sures and materials requirements; how to specify
requirements for different structure types (e.g. AS performance or prescriptive materials properties;
2159, AS 3600, AS 3735, AS 4997 and AS 5100.5). and how to ensure construction is appropriate to the
Perceived conflicts between these documents (e.g. design will provide structures that meet their dura-
higher covers in AS 3735 than AS 3600 for the bility requirements more consistently. The durabil-
same life and exposure) might sometimes be ex- ity series provides the required guidelines.
plained by the different owner requirements (e.g. The Concrete Institute of Australia first intro-
reliability required) but reasons for the differences duced Z7 “Durable Concrete Structures” in 1990 as
are not given and the associated assessment meth- an initial response to concerns about the poor dura-
ods not clearly stated. To some extent the concrete bility performance of some concrete structures. This
industries energy for contributing to development was revised in a second edition in 2001, which gave
of durability codes is diluted through maintenance some excellent information on how to achieve du-
of the multitude of codes that cover the same topic rability but did not set out to provide a set of unified
in variable ways. design guidelines as an alternative to the approach
For many, concrete elements in mild expo- in the Australian Standards noted above.
sures incorporating the recent durability related de- The Concrete Institute of Australia’s Durabil-
velopments into a unified durability design process ity Committee was formed in late 2008 to review
for all structure types may make little difference to Z7. In view of the committee’s perceived need for a
their durability design because existing codes broader review of durability requirements it man-
aged workshops around Australia in mid-2009 to
Corresponding author D. Millar is the Chief Executive Of- review issues with concrete durability practices and
ficer of the Concrete Institute of Australia. standards in Australia. The outcome from these
R. Paull is the Principal Materials Engineer and Durability workshops, and other feedback from Concrete Insti-
Consultant for GHD in Australia, and Chair of the Concrete tute of Australia members at the Concrete Institute
Institute of Australia’s Durability Committee.

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

of Australia National Conference in 2009, was that ee of the design team, or an independent con-
comprehensive and unified durability guidance was sultant engaged for the purpose. Intended to
required. In response, the Durability Committee have a close working relationship with the as-
established Task Groups to produce a series of rec- set owner, design team and construction team
ommended practices as a major revision to Z7 that to ensure durability is provided to achieve the
would form a durability series. The series compris- asset owner required service life. Practical ex-
es: perience is essential to ensure the durability as-
sessment report and durability checklists do
- Z7/01 Durability – Planning (published 2014)
not become a research exercise. Contractor re-
- Z7/02 Durability - Exposure Classes (in pro-
views are included to achieve a buildable final
gress)
design for the asset owner service life. The du-
- Z7/03 Durability - Deemed to Comply Re-
rability consultant may be a person with rele-
quirements (in progress)
vant technical qualifications other than a quali-
- Z7/04 Durability – Good Practice through De-
fied engineer (e.g. materials scientists), with
sign, Concrete Supply and Construction (pub-
the asset owner client (or authorised repre-
lished 2014)
sentative) responsible to approve the durability
- Z7/05 Durability – Modelling – Reinforce-
consultant for a project.
ment Corrosion in Concrete Structures (in
progress)
Design life is one of the most important dura-
- Z7/06 Durability – Concrete Cracking and
bility parameters yet this is not always clearly iden-
Crack Control (in progress)
tified in codes and specification and definition are
- Z7/07 Durability – Performance Tests to As-
not always clear and consistent. CIA Z7/01 pro-
sess Concrete Durability (published 2015)
vides some clear definitions which are also shown
in Figure 1. The term “design life” is often used to
2. Durability terminology and design life convey the same intent as “design service life” and
both terms are acceptable to convey the same intent.
Definition of terms commonly used for dura- It is the period in which the required performance
bility is variable in Australian Standards with some shall be achieved, used in the design of new struc-
important terms having different words or not being tures construction. Service life (operational) how-
defined, which is a consequence of the many people ever is the period in which the required perfor-
involved in different standards. In the absence of an mance of a structure or structural element is
Australian Durability Standard, CIA Z7/01 provide achieved, when it is used for its intended purpose
terminology that takes account of international du- and under the expected conditions of use. It com-
rability use and can be referenced for common defi- prises design service life and prolonged service
nition understanding in Australia. Definitions of lives.
durability and durability consultant CIA Z7/01 are
important for Australian future use and are given 3. CIA Z7/01 Durability planning
below.
- Durability: The capability of structures, prod- 3.1 Approach and durability assessment report
ucts or materials of continuing to be useful af- Information on processes involved in concrete
ter an extended period of time and usage. In deterioration are available for engineering analysis
the context of performance-based design of but a formal process for achieving durable struc-
structures, durability refers to the fulfilment of tures in design, construction and operational
the performance requirements within the maintenance is missing. Durability planning out-
framework of the planned use and the foresee- lined in CIA Z7/01 is a system to formalise the pro-
able actions, without unforeseen expenditure cess of achieving durability through appropriate
on maintenance and repair. design, construction and maintenance.
- Durability consultant: Person or group who CIA Z7/01 sets out the process of planning to
completes the durability assessment and is the achieve the required level of durability. The dura-
author of the durability assessment report and bility planning outcomes will be delivered in a du-
durability checklists. Intent is a person or rability assessment report or durability plan (alter-
group who can apply materials deterioration native names for a durability deliverable report)
knowledge to construction materials and con- specific for the project. This will describe how the
struction processes, additional to more com- desired level of durability will be achieved and en-
mon structural, civil, geotechnical and other sured using appropriate tools and recommendations
engineering knowledge of design, construction given in Codes and Recommended Practices (e.g.
and maintenance. Maybe an in-house employ- CIA Z7/02-07).

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Operational Service Life

Design Construction Intervention Intervention

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance

Residual
Service Life
Condition

Current Time
Design Prolonged Realised

$
service life service life service life

Re-birth Certificate

Re-birth Certificate
Birth Certificate

Owner Requirements Time

Design Characteristics Dismantlement
Condition Assessment

Fig. 1 – Phase in the life of a structure from Model Code 2010

A durability assessment report provides a con- 3.2 Why durability planning

tinuous link in durability objectives between design, All capital works, whether government or pri-
construction and maintenance. Durability planning vately owned assets, must achieve the design life
evaluates, explains and provides solutions for all intended, operational functionality, acceptable re-
stakeholders. Greater confidence is provided for the turn on capital investment, safe operational envi-
design and required service lives to be achieved. ronment (e.g. durability provides acceptable ser-
Durability is provided with improved confi- viceability and ultimate risk to the community) and
dence when the concrete structure asset owner is environmental sustainability. An appropriate dura-
actively involved starting from the project brief bility philosophy throughout the project delivery
stating specific durability requirements. Designer will provide this.
and/or contractor provided durability without ade- In engineering terms, durability planning is
quate asset owner defined formal requirements has cost-effective selection and usage of materials com-
uncertainty that an optimum whole of life cost will bined with design process, construction methods
be achieved. In a worst case scenario of reduced and detailing to achieve the asset owner intended
structural adequacy and/or functionality, asset own- service life without premature unexpected opera-
er maintenance cost funding and resources may be tional maintenance. A technical analysis determines
excessive to keep the asset operational or the asset the nature and rate of materials deterioration for
owner may face rapid premature depreciation. given macro and micro environmental conditions,
Concrete structures recommended to use dura- which is used to influence the design, construction
bility planning will have durability design require- and operational maintenance during the service life.
ments that are complex, critical or uncertain. Dura- Design and construction to National or Interna-
bility planning is not expected for simple structures tional Standards may not achieve the asset owner’s
in exposure conditions excluding moderate or se- required design life in aggressive exposure condi-
vere (e.g. house slab and paths). tions. Significant premature maintenance and/or
The durability assessment report issued will repair could be necessary. A durability review is
explain the durability requirements and provide de- required as Codes do not cover all environmental
tails to be included in the project design reports, exposure conditions and specific location micro
specifications, design drawings, asset maintenance exposure conditions can be more severe than the
plans and/or operation and maintenance manuals. general exposure conditions.
This report may be a page for simple structures or Asset owners may require a design life of 20,
detailed for complex, critical or uncertain structures. 50, 70, 100, 150 or 300 years whilst Standards may
Durability checklists in tabular form provide useful state 40 to 60, 50, 100 or not comment on design
project guidelines complementary to the durability life. Owners may have specific desires for the per-
assessment report. formance of the structure at the end of the design

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

life so that rehabilitation and extended life can be  For the designer, inclusion of high level mate-
achieved. Future different owners may have up- rials expertise reduces the risk of premature
grade requirements. They may also have views on failure and over design.
reliability required through the design life. Durabil-  An unexpected outcome on some projects is
ity planning allows owners to give specific design contractors utilise the durability consultant ex-
life requirements. Durability planning evaluates, pertise for advice on materials and methods
explains and provides solutions to all parties and even where not strictly required. Consequently,
provides greater confidence that the design life will they reduce the risk of not using optimal mate-
be achieved. rials and this reduces the risk of failures and
Durability design is expected by all construction can lead to cost savings.
parties but formal design by durability consultants is  For the operator of the structure it leads to re-
not a common specified requirement. The common duced maintenance which means lower cost
informal expectation is someone completes the dura- and less interference.
bility design within the design process and, in the ab-
sence of a named person, the structural engineer is Examples of concrete structures recommended
deemed to have completed the task. This is not a rea- to use durability planning are listed below:
sonable obligation for the structural engineer who
does not have durability training and /or experience.  Major civil and building structures, including:
An alternative view is that Australian Standards take - Airport infrastructure.
full account of durability such that structural design - Bridges and culverts, elevated viaducts,
being acceptable equates to acceptable durability de- tunnels.
sign. - Buildings for commercial, industrial, gov-
However, Australian Standards state that com- ernment and residential use, including
pliance with the durability provisions of the stand- weatherproof exterior façade and below
ards is not sufficient given the complexity of the water level basements.
subject. For example, AS 3600: 2009 Section 4.1 - Mining and industrial structures, includ-
Note 2 “Durability is a complex topic and compli- ing material processing and handling.
ance with these requirements may not be sufficient - Power stations, including seawater struc-
to ensure a durable structure.” tures.
Furthermore, reliance on durability provided - Structures of cultural, heritage, national or
by a current Standard is not an acceptable legal de- world significance.
fence for premature durability damage to a structure - Transmission towers.
where a reasonable engineer is expected to have - Wharves, piers and jetties.
awareness of more recent related Standards or other - Water retaining or excluding structures
technical society publications that require additional including dams, desalination plants, pipe-
durability provisions. lines, pump stations, tanks and treatment
Is premature deterioration or unacceptable plants.
maintenance a present day problem? Yes, in some - Wastewater treatment plants.
aggressive environments where materials selection
or construction techniques are inadequate, or design  Precast panels with complex metal arrange-
agreed maintenance is not implemented. Therefore, ments and tight covers.
acceptable durability is not always being achieved  Buildings with applications that lead to unusu-
to the level expected. al exposures (e.g. where leakage with contami-
It is recommended that asset owner project nants occurs like swimming pools in hotels or
briefs include the requirement that design and non- aquariums in restaurants).
compliance reports that effect durability are re-  Industrial sites where elements or structures
viewed by a durability consultant. On projects might be exposed to contaminated ground or
where the contractor’s construction method is dif- air.
ferent to the design or influences durability a dura-  Elements with critical leakage requirements.
bility consultant review is required.  All concrete structures in corrosive exposure
The durability planning process benefits all environments.
parties:
3.3 Formal durability planning
 The asset owner is likely to have a structure
The need to incorporate durability into design,
that more closely matches expectations in
construction and maintenance to prevent premature
terms of reliability through the design life. The
deterioration of concrete structures has been identi-
contribution to the proactive maintenance ap-
fied in many international documents over a long
proach will lead to a lower maintenance cost.

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

period of time. Examples of technical concerns and science and engineering descriptions” and
improvement approaches for durability in the de- “…structural engineers should have a general
sign, construction and maintenance of concrete understanding of what the materials scientists
structures are listed below from 2001 back to 1968. are doing – or could achieve – in order to ask
Technical society publications by the American the right questions to the materials science”.
Concrete Institute (ACI) in the 1960’s and RILEM - United States of America: ACI Durability of
in the 1980’s were state-of-the-art at that time, Concrete Construction (published in 1968)
however, formal durability planning to coordinate states, “…is written for the intelligent engineer
technical improvements was missing. who wants to make or specify durable concrete,
but who needs to be alerted to possible deterio-
- Australia: CIA: Z7 Durable Concrete Struc-
ration under various circumstances, and for
tures (first published in 1990 and second edi-
students who wish to learn something about
tion in 2001) states: “The aim of this Recom-
the subject” and “It will be assumed the reader
mended Practice is to provide designers, speci-
is not a physicist, or chemist, or petrographer.
fiers and users of concrete with guidance on
This poses something of a problem because
the provision of durable concrete structures by
most of the properties and behavioural aspects
alerting them to potential problems that may
of concrete of practical importance to engi-
occur at any phase from concept to completion.”
neers are very largely consequences of its mi-
CIA Z7/01 provides durability planning that is
crostructure and chemical nature, and detailed
not given in CIA Z7.
study of these matters lies mostly in the realm
- Europe: CEB RILEM Durability of Concrete
of the physical sciences. Furthermore, practical
Structures (published in 1983), with the latter
measures to achieve durable concrete usually
stating: “The international concrete profession
comprise suitable control of microstructure or
is, therefore, challenged by acute demands to
chemical properties, or both, although practi-
develop and implement rational measures of
tioners may not think about it in these terms.
solving the present twofold problems of dura-
Yet they would be able to act more intelligent-
bility, namely: 1) Find measures to ensure a
ly and with greater confidence if they had
satisfactory remaining lifetime of existing
some general understanding of them.”
structures threatened by premature deteriora-
tion; 2) Incorporate in new structures the
CIA Z7/01 has major sections on the formal
knowledge, experience and new research find-
durability planning process through the various
ings, in order to monitor the structural durabil-
stages of the structures life that include:
ity, thus ensuring the required service perfor-
mance of future concrete structures.” And - Asset Owner brief.
“Furthermore, an efficient voluntary coordina- - Project tender.
tion of activities in order to develop the pro- - Durability planning.
posed rationale ’Durability Technology’ on a - Concept design.
higher professional level than the present, - Detailed design.
would be welcomed by all parts of the concrete - Construction.
profession.”. This workshop brought together - Maintenance during operation.
about 80 international leaders in concrete tech-
nology and durability who presented on the 4. CIA Z7/02 Exposure classes (in progress)
topics of state-of-the-art, deemed to satisfy
rules and future work, which provided tech- Inadequate identification of exposure condi-
nical papers with references that was truly tions is a potential shortcoming in durability design.
“state-of-the-art” for concrete durability at that Reasons for this include:
time. Transfer of knowledge from theory to
practice summary comments included, - Confusion: different Standards may classify
“…important task now is to use our already ex- the same exposure in different ways, classi-
isting knowledge regarding materials technol- fy different exposures in the same way, or
ogy, and transfer this knowledge in useable not explain the application of exposure
form to the structural engineer, i.e. to the de- classifications adequately.
signer and the contractor, as in practice a de- - Limited range of exposure classes: for sim-
sign engineer will ask for a certain type of plicity, the range of exposure classifications
concrete, not a certain type of cement or ag- in Australian Standards is limited, and may
gregate, etc.” and “…one of the objectives of not adequately cover complex and severe
exposure conditions other than as ‘U’, for
explicitly stated for this workshop, i.e. bridg-
ing the communications gap between materials example elements such as tunnel or tank

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

walls that are ‘immersed’ in potentially ag- 5. CIA Z7/03 Deemed to comply
gressive liquids on one side and able to dry requirements
from the other.
- Unpredicted or variable exposure: exposure The development of new exposure classifica-
conditions can vary over a single member, tions will necessitate review and updating of
replicate members, or an overall structure. deemed-to-comply requirements. Therefore, this
Detailed analysis of the structure will reveal part of the durability series will be prepared once
local micro and macroclimates that may the other recommended practices are completed and
differ from the overall site assessment. Ex- will take them into account. It is anticipated that
posure to seawater may increase with more CIA Z7/03 recommendations will be based on min-
frequent storms and rising sea levels. imum cover requirements and will consider:
- Lack of information: Foe example, soil and
groundwater conditions may not be ade- - Requirements for each exposure class
quately assessed or significant uncertainty - Requirements linked to different types of
exists. cementitious binder including type GP ce-
ment, and supplementary cementitious ma-
Potential consequences of exposure classifica- terials
tions in current Australian Standards include: - Guidance for galvanised and stainless steel
reinforcement and prestressing, and for
- Different classification systems for differ- steel fibres
ent structure types, meaning that different - The effect of coatings on other durability
solutions could be developed for different requirements
types of structure in the same environment. - The significance of curing methods on oth-
- The same classification being used to de- er durability requirements
scribe different types of exposure, making - Options for design life of 25, 50, 100, and
it difficult to tailor appropriate solutions for 200 years.
all conditions covered by the classification.
- Exposure classifications differing from Minimum cover depths will be determined by
those used internationally, making it diffi- a reliability approach that takes into account the
cult to compare durability requirements and decreasing rate of ingress of many aggressive
solutions from different jurisdictions, or to agents with time.
use deterioration models designed for par- The deemed-to-comply requirements will pro-
ticular exposure classifications. vide solutions for exposure conditions not ade-
quately covered by current Standards. They may
To overcome these problems, CIA Z7/02 will also provide alternatives to the default solutions
define different exposure classes for different types provided by existing Standards, provided the re-
of deterioration mechanism / exposure condition, quirements for material quality are consistent with
irrespective of structure type. or better than those in the governing concrete mate-
Exposure classes based on fib Model Code rials standards.
(2010) and ISO 16204 classifications will be con-
sidered to be introduced to cover exposure to air- 6. CIA Z7/04 Good practice through
borne salt, atmospheric carbon dioxide, direct sea- design, concrete supply and construction
water contact, chlorides other than in seawater or
groundwater, aggressive chemicals in ground expo- Australian concrete construction standards
sure, freeze-thaw, fresh water, sewage gases, corro- more generally focus on minimum design and mate-
sive liquids and gases, water migration, and abra- rial requirements and with the exception of a few
sion. Additional exposure classes will be considered more detailed “Hand Book” standards are unlikely
for metal items embedded in the cover concrete. to provide more informative recommendations
The extended range of exposure classifications about how to design or construct a structure to get
will be useful for situations not covered specifically the target life expectancy.
or adequately in Australian Standards, for example The CIA Z7 Durability Series provides the
the range of seawater splash/spray conditions expe- tools for managing durability through design, con-
rienced at different heights on piers or piles along struction and maintenance. As the title suggests,
the length of a bridge or wharf, and aggressive CIA Z7/04 has applicability to more general con-
chemical exposures. crete design and construction as well as concrete
requiring specifically higher levels of durability.

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

CIA Z7/04 provides more specific detail cover- full probabilistic design based on stochastic model-
ing areas such as the impact of specifications and ling.
the contract process, impacts of design on construc- A very large proportion of deteriorated con-
tion, more detailed view of the materials used in crete structures are related to reinforcement corro-
construction, material quality control processes, sion. Therefore, CIA Z7/05 will only deal with
construction process and supervision as well as modelling of corrosion of reinforcement. In addi-
some detailing issues in common structural ele- tion, no time-dependent model of deterioration pro-
ments that may present potential durability issues to cesses under other physical and chemical attacks is
the designer and constructor. These matters are presently available with general international con-
considered for the categories of: sensus for quantitative prediction of service life. A
full probabilistic approach or partial factor approach
- Contractual aspects.
for design or service life is therefore not feasible
- Design.
and deemed to satisfy approaches are the general
- Pre-pour planning.
approach taken. Some preliminary models have
- Quality of concrete.
been proposed and sometimes used for very specific
- Concrete materials.
mechanisms (e.g. acid attack in sewers) but their
- Concrete supply.
use is not common as avoidance of deterioration
- Reinforcement and prestressing steel.
measures (e.g. acid resistant liners for sewers) or
- Construction.
deemed to satisfy requirements are the more general
- Cast in-situ concrete.
practice.
- Precast concrete.
In the past, reinforcement corrosion protection
- Sprayed concrete.
to most concrete structures was designed using a
- Spacers and chairs for support of steel rein-
deemed-to-satisfy approach by following code re-
forcement, which is included as this is an
quirements, which were predominantly established
area that has demonstrated to cause weak-
based on long-term field observations. The durabil-
ness in durable construction and is rarely
ity outcomes using this approach were a mixture of
adequately specified.
some successes and some failures. It was found that
the durability failures occurred more frequently on
The designer and durability consultant must
the structures in aggressive conditions built since
understand not only the intended design but must
1970 while structures built before that performed
understand the material properties and consider
generally better.
how these properties can be delivered during the
Although the causes of such a change have not
construction process. There are many elements to
been fully understood, this change has coincided
this delivery process that impact on the final struc-
with many changes including the cement character-
tures durability and CIA Z7/04 provides infor-
istics (containing more C3S and being finer), cli-
mation that helps to highlight the more critical areas
mate change (higher temperature and more CO2 in
of concern from design detailing through material
the atmosphere) and construction practices (poor
supply to construction of the structure for all con-
curing and compaction). Furthermore, these
crete construction stakeholders.
changes have not been reflected in the durability
requirements of various Australia Standards.
7. CIA Z7/05 Modelling – Reinforcement Due to the lack of long term durability data on
corrosion in concrete structures (in pro- new materials characteristics and change of expo-
gress) sure conditions, a deemed-to-satisfy approach may
not be sufficiently reliable in some cases and overly
Durability design of a reinforced concrete conservative in others where higher performing ma-
structure mostly involves selecting suitable concrete terials are used. The avoidance-of-deterioration ap-
compositions and related durability measures for a proach can reliably provide a superior durability
specific exposure condition to achieve the specified performance in most conditions. However, the as-
design life. There are four typical approaches to sociated high cost discourages wide application ex-
conducting durability design as defined in fib Bulle- cept on some critical elements in critical projects.
tin 34 - 2006 [3]. These include 1) deemed to satis- As an alternative durability design method, du-
fy design, i.e. complying to the durability require- rability modelling (of either full probability design
ments in various codes, 2) avoidance of deteriora- or partial factor) based on current material charac-
tion (e.g. use of stainless steel to avoid potential teristics and mathematics has a potential ability to
issues with black steel corrosion), 3) partial safety provide a much more reliable durability outcome if
factor design with deterministic modelling, and 4) appropriate models and parameters are adopted. It is
especially effective to predict long term perfor-

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

mance of reinforcement corrosion in concrete struc- concrete caused by a combination of thermal con-
tures for chloride laden conditions and carbonation traction, shrinkage and load are to be expected, and
conditions. design is generally based on limiting their width
The advantage of a modelling approach is that rather than preventing them all together. A key is-
it is significantly less reliant on long term perfor- sue when a crack forms during construction is the
mance data of field concrete structures although consequence of the crack, in particular the effect of
initial model calibration may require some such its width and depth on durability, structural and op-
data at the beginning and it can also be adopted for erational integrity and aesthetics throughout the
more aggressive exposure conditions compared to design life of the structure.
those in codes. Such a modelling approach (for CIA Z7/06 in progress will provide up-to-date
chloride, carbonation and reinforcement corrosion) guidance on concrete cracking and the design for
has been increasingly applied in durability design crack control for Australian structures, as well as
for major infrastructure projects in Australia and the assessment, monitoring and repair of cracks.
around the world. In addition, modelling approach- The causes and factors affecting cracking in con-
es can be utilised in determining the remaining ser- crete structures are discussed and procedures for
vice life of existing concrete structures as part of a minimising the adverse effects of cracking are pre-
condition assessment process. sented. In addition to providing reliable design
Various models (for chloride, carbonation and guidance on the control of cracking in new struc-
reinforcement corrosion) and preferred input pa- tures to ensure serviceability and durability, the ad-
rameters have been established and used in the past. vice provided will also assist designers to diagnose
However, they have produced significantly differ- the cause of cracks in existing structures and, where
ent prediction results and consequently different appropriate, to specify effective remedial measures.
durability requirements even for the similar condi- CIA Z7/06 is intended to complement the relevant
tions and materials. Some models used and associ- provisions of Australian Standards and gives rele-
ated input values have been incorrect, incomplete, vant reference to international standards, codes and
and/or inappropriate for the prevailing conditions. technical society publications. The document can be
Therefore, to achieve accurate and reliable model- used in other countries with due consideration of
ling outcomes without a risk of premature durability local standards and codes.
failure or being too conservative at a higher cost, it Australian Standards dealing with concrete
is critical to select suitable reinforcement corrosion structures, such as AS 3600, AS 5100.5 and AS
durability models and input parameters across the 3735, do not specify maximum crack widths, but
industry. Only by this approach, can reinforcement rely for crack control on limiting the maximum ten-
corrosion durability designs consistently achieve sile stress in the steel reinforcement at the crack,
reliable durability outcomes. together with certain detailing requirements. This is
CIA Z7/05 key objectives are to review com- convenient for designers, but is not always reliable.
monly used models for prediction of reinforcement It does not give guidance for technical specifica-
corrosion in concrete structures and input parame- tions and does not assist project parties to deal with
ters for chloride diffusion, carbonation and corro- concrete cracks that form during construction (or at
sion of reinforcement (including stressed tendons) other times). By comparison, British and European
and to determine the most suitable models and input Standards do provide guidance on predicting con-
parameters with relevant statistical distributions. crete crack widths and on maximum permissible
Considering the complex nature of reinforcement design crack widths.
corrosion and other concrete deterioration processes Crack formation during construction often ini-
and future data from ongoing research, CIA Z7/05 tiates an investigation and an evaluation that may
will be updated in the future when new understand- lead to a repair assessment. In addition to the con-
ings and developments justify. struction contract requirements, the asset owner will
seek assurance that the crack does not affect the
8. CIA Z7/06 Concrete cracking and crack performance of the structure during the design life,
control (in progress) and does not result in premature damage or an in-
crease in inspection and maintenance costs. The
Cracks in most concrete structures are to be provisions of the current Australian Standards pro-
expected and to ensure that they do not impact ad- vide little assistance in any of these activities. The
versely on the serviceability and durability of the approaches and guidance provided in Technical
structure can be a challenging task. Plastic cracks in Society publication CIRIA C660 are frequently ap-
the wet concrete during construction are sometimes plied for the assessment of early age thermal and
inevitable despite all reasonable construction ac- shrinkage cracks in concrete structures in Australia,
tions to minimise them. Cracks in the hardened in particular for civil structures. CIRIA C660 is

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

based on experience obtained from design, assess- frequency, provide regular proficiency
ment and monitoring of cracks in structures in the training of staff and keep detailed records)
United Kingdom since the 1980s. and competitively price test methods de-
CIA Z7/06 will provide a comprehensive treat- spite some being not often specified.
ment of cracking in concrete structures, drawing on
the information in CIRIA C660 where appropriate. Often several test methods supply similar in-
It is hoped that it will form the basis of improved formation. Combinations of tests may be necessary.
design procedures for crack control, improved con- The limitations and advantages of the methods are
struction practices to minimise plastic cracking, and reviewed, and recommendations provided on which
improved guidance for the assessment and repair of test(s) is the most suitable for project specifications.
cracks in concrete structures both in Australia and Design phase durability testing requirements
elsewhere. are recommended to be clearly specified for four
stages.
9. CIA Z7/07 Performance tests to assess - Mix trials to confirm the mix is suitable.
concrete durability - Quality assurance tests as construction pro-
ceeds.
The Concrete Institute of Australia Durability - Tests at the end of the defects liability peri-
Series provides the tools for managing durability od to create a list of items for repair.
through design, construction and maintenance. CIA - Tests during the design and service life in-
Z7/07 provides guidance on performance tests for cluding monitoring.
durability design and implementation.
Test methods are available to assess various Construction phase materials testing and selec-
aspects of durability performance through a con- tion requirements recommended are:
crete structure’s life cycle including:
- Materials testing and selection must be
- Mix acceptance tests (including tests to val- completed in accordance with the project
idate values used in modelling). specifications prior to use in the works.
- Tests for quality assurance. Additional testing is required prior to a
- Tests where placed concrete is suspect. change in supply of materials or a new
- Tests for condition monitoring. source of materials.
- Verification of concrete mix designs to
A wide range of tests designed to demonstrate meet project specification durability re-
the potential durability performance of concrete quirements can take considerable time, and
have been introduced over the years. This has unscheduled changes in concrete supply
caused some uncertainty for: during construction may result in program
- Asset owners: To understand what methods delays. Durability testing of concrete such
are available, the appropriateness of those as chloride diffusion, water permeability,
methods to the structures’ exposure, envi- drying shrinkage, etc. may have a long test
ronment and life cycle, and the most cost period (e.g. up to 3 months).
effective testing regimes to achieve the re- - Variability of durability tests must be taken
quired outcomes and level of certainty that into account by the durability consultant,
they are looking to achieve. with specification test criteria allowing for
- Designers: To know which tests are the alternative solutions to achieve the required
most appropriate to specify and how much durability if the test results do not achieve
test data is required to ensure that the level the specified values. This can be achieved
of statistical confidence from the test results by conservative durability design and/or
underpinning the design is appropriate. provision for use of additional measures
- Contractors and material suppliers: To un- such as protective coatings or special addi-
derstand and have confidence in the con- tives or other measures.
sistency, repeatability and validity of trial
data and quality control performance test- Operation and maintenance phase monitoring
ing they are required to undertake for com- and testing recommended are:
pliance with the project specification. - Practical completion inspection: Prior to a
- Suppliers of laboratory testing services: To structure going into service it’s important to
maintain and calibrate equipment, train determine if any defects need to be contrac-
staff, maintain third party accreditation for tor repaired and to document the initial
the tests (e.g. perform the tests to sufficient

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

structure characteristics and condition for durability design so they can inspire asset owners to
future reference and comparison. elevate durability planning to a position alongside
- Periodic in-service visual inspection: A re- structural and architectural design.
active approach to on-going maintenance
CIA Z7/04 is intended to inform all parties in-
be limited to visual inspections only and
volved in design and construction about the benefits
these may be performed on a regular basis
of durability planning and subsequent control of
or ad-hoc. This may be adequate provided
implementation so they can deliver the expected
no major defects are found and may be suf-
level of maintenance and life of the structure to the
ficient to prevent minor defects from be-
asset owners requirements.
coming major ones. If appropriate, follow
up repairs are performed as required. This CIA Z7/07 is intended to inform all parties in-
approach may be suitable for minor struc- volved in design, construction and maintenance
tures and/or structures with a short design about the benefits of durability performance testing
life. and how as part of a durability planning and im-
- In-service condition monitoring and testing: plementation process will lead to an increased like-
Proactive maintenance will involve early lihood of achievement of design life of structures
intervention to prevent or delay the onset of and buildings
corrosion initiation. This will require regu- The CIA Durability Technical Committee will
lar inspections in conjunction with addi- complete and publish Z7/02, Z7/03, Z7/05 and
tional activities such as structural monitor- Z7/06 in 2017.
ing and non-destructive testing, as required.
- If significant repairs/strengthening have
been carried out, then a post-intervention Acknowledgements
inspection should be carried out along simi- The authors acknowledge the CIA Durability
lar lines to a new structure first inspection Technical Committee and Task Groups responsible
mentioned above. for developing the CIA Z7 Durability Series Rec-
ommended Practices, plus many others who have
10. Conclusions contributed to reviews.
The authors would like to thank CIA and GHD
The durability that the asset owner and com- Pty Ltd for the support and permission in publish-
munity require from structures will only be ob- ing this paper.
tained if specific consideration is given to how du-
rability requirements impact on construction cost, References
inspections needs, maintenance requirements, aes- 1. AS 2159-2009: Piling - Design and installation,
thetics, and operational and community costs that Standards Australia, Sydney.
unplanned maintenance brings. While strong em- 2. AS 3600: 2009: Concrete structures, Standards
phasis is placed on achieving the design life, dura- Australia, Sydney.
bility must be met long into the future, possibly 3. AS 3735-2001: Concrete structures retaining
well past the initial design life. liquids, Standards Australia, Sydney.
The CIA Z7 Durability Series Recommended 4. AS 4997-2005: Guidelines for the design of
Practices will go a long way to providing the neces- maritime structures, Standards Australia, Syd-
sary tools for design and construction of durable ney.
structures based on the latest understanding of ex- 5. AS 5100.5-2004: Bridge design – concrete,
posure, materials and deterioration process. Standards Australia Sydney (revision in pro-
CIA Z7/01 provides information on durability gress).
planning during design, construction and operation- 6. Concrete Institute of Australia (2001) Z7 Du-
al service life phases for all concrete construction rable Concrete Structures, first published Feb-
stakeholders. The durability assessment report is- ruary 1990 and second edition February.
sued will explain the durability requirements and 7. CEB-Rilem International Workshop (1983)
provide details to be included in the project design Durability of Concrete Structures, Copenhagen,
reports, specifications, design drawings, asset Structures.
maintenance plans and/or operation and mainte- 8. American Concrete Institute (1968) Durability
nance manuals. This report may be a page for sim- of Concrete Construction, published jointly by
ple structures or detailed for complex, critical or American Concrete Institute and The Iowa
uncertain structures. CIA Z7/01 is intended to in- State University Press.
form and inspire designers about the benefits of

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 Journal of Asian Concrete Federation, Vol. 3, No. 1, June 2017

9. Bamforth P. B. (2007) CIRIA C660 Early-age

thermal crack control in concrete, CIRIA,
London.
10. Fib Bulletin 65 and 66 (2012) Model Code
2010 – Final draft, Volumes 1 and 2.
11. Fib Bulletin 34 (2006) Model Code for Service
Life Design.

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