Cells Structures and Functions

Key features:
- Building blocks of life
- Smallest unit of life
- Made from pre-existing cells
- Contains genetic information

Specialised cells → tissues → organs → systems → organism

Specialised cells → tissues

- Nervous tissue made up of neurons (nerve cells)
- Intestinal epithelium (tissue) made up of intestinal epithelial cells
- Epithelium in the lungs made up of epithelial cells
- Connective tissue (holds everything together if not it will all drop out) in the lungs is
made up of connective tissue cells

Tissues → organs
- Muscle tissue + nervous tissue → stomach
- Intestinal epithelium + muscle tissue → intestines
- Epithelium + cartilage (tissue) → trachea
- Epithelium + connective tissue → lungs

Organs → systems
- Stomach + intestines → digestive system
- Trachea + lungs → respiratory system

CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURES

Red blood cells
- Contains haemoglobin
- binds to oxygen and transports it
around the body
- Circular, biconcave shape
- Increases surface area to volume
ratio for faster diffusion
- Lacks nucleus
- Stores haemoglobin for transportation of oxygen

Root hair cell

- Long and narrow root hair/extension
- Increases surface area to volume ratio for faster osmosis of water molecules and
diffusion of mineral salts in and out of the cell
 - Nitrate (Nutrients) can only go into the cell (never be a case when there is too
much nutrients)
- Water can move in and out of cell depending on water potential

Xylem vessel
- Long, hollow and continuous tubes without cross-walls / end walls
- Transport water from roots to leaves with no obstructions
- Lacks protoplasm (cytoplasm + cell
surface membrane)
- No resistance to water flow
- Walls thickened with lignin (preserves the
cell walls)
- Provides structural/mechanical
support and prevents collapse of
vessel during transport of water

Intestinal epithelial cell

- Finger like projections, called microvilli,
are present on the surface of the cell
- Increases surface area for rapid
absorption of nutrients

ORGANELLE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell surface membrane
- Defines the boundary of the cell and retains its contents
- Forms the barrier across which all substances entering and leaving the cell must pass
- Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell

Cell wall
- Structure external to a cell → enclose,
support and protect cells
- Consists of cellulose and are fully
permeable

Vacuoles
- Large, fluid-filled permanent vacuole takes
up the bulk of the plant cell
- Storage of various substances, like ions,
organic compounds

Mitochondrion
- Mostly rod-shaped or cylindrical
- Found in all cells
 - Double membrane
- Outer membrane is smooth
- Inner membrane is infolded to form cristae (sg = crista)
- Matrix : space enclosed by the inner membrane
- Function : synthesis of energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) → synthesis
of ATP is within cristae

Chloroplasts
- Next largest organelle after vacuole and nucleus
- Occur in green plants (algae, phytoplankton)
- Chloroplast envelope is a double membrane
- Third membrane system called thylakoids (flattened sacs) → when thylakoids are
stacked together, they are called granum (sg.) / grana (pl.)
- Thylakoid membrane contains all photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll)
- Fluid outside the thylakoid is the stroma → site where CO​2​ is captured and
synthesised
- Function : site of photosynthesis by which light is used as the energy source in
glucose synthesis

Nucleus
- Largest organelle
- Contains chromosomes that are only visible when cell divides, otherwise they appear as
chromatin (diffuse network, condensed structure of DNA)
- Function : genes are found on the chromosomes in the nucleus, control protein
production and hence activities of cell
- Nuclear envelope
- Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus
- Contains many pores that control the movement of substances between nucleus
and cytoplasm
- Nucleolus
- Round, darkly-stained body in the nucleus (plural : nucleoli)
- Function : site where
ribosomes (synthesises
protein) are synthesised

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- Consists of a network of
membranes formed into sheets,
tubes or sacs that are extensively
interconnected
- Continuous with the nuclear
envelope → extends out from
nucleus
- Rough ER (rER)
 - Ribosomes attached to outer surface of ER
- Function : modifies proteins synthesized by ribosomes
- Proteins are dragged into lumen of rER and folded up
- Further modified a little within vesicle

- Smooth ER (sER)
- No ribosomes attached
- functions :
- Site of synthesis of lipids and hormones
- Stores calcium ions in muscle fibers (initiates muscle contraction, too little
calcium ions causes cramps)
- Flattened sacs are more disorganised than rER

Golgi apparatus (AKA Golgi Body)

- stack-like collection of flattened membranous sacs
 - One side is formed by the fusion of membranes of vesicles from ER, at the other side of
the stack, vesicles are formed
- Function : cells synthesize a large number of specific molecules, golgi body is involved in
modifying (e.g. adding lipid/carbohydrate, further cutting of proteins), sorting and
packaging these molecules for secretion or use within the cells (modifies lipids and
proteins from the ER)
- Identify by ‘C’-shaped structure in the cell

PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC
Eukaryotic cells (‘true’ nucleus)
- Large obvious nucleus bound by
nuclear envelope
- Many different membranous
organelles
- All plants, animals, fungi and
protoctists (protists)
Prokaryotic cells
- No true nucleus
- No membrane bound organelles
- E.g. bacteria

Structural features of prokaryotic cells :

- Has a distinct shape (e.g. rod)
- Unicellular
- Much smaller than eukaryotic
cell
- Peptidoglycan cell wall (not
cellulose)
- Lack membrane-bound
organelles
- Nucleoid is where a single
circular chromosome is found
- Contains ribosomes

ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have
- DNA
- Ribosomes
endosymbiotic theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small
prokaryotes and they began living within larger cells
1) Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own circular DNA, similar to DNA in bacteria
2) Both mitochondria and chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes (the inner
membrane probably evolved from the plasma membrane of the engulfed prokaryote,
outer membrane is probably derived from the cell membrane of the host)
 3) Mitochondria are about the same size as bacteria
4) Mitochondria → purple bacteria, chloroplasts → photosynthetic bacteria

TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANE 

Y2 revision
Diffusion :
1) Particles move in random motion and disperse through the water
 2) When particles are evenly distributed, random movements continue but there is no net
movement in any particular direction
Osmosis :
Net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential through a selectively
permeable membrane to a region with a lower water potential. (down the water potential
gradient) Equilibrium is reached when the water potential is the same in both regions, but
random movements of water molecules continue.

Plasmolysis in Plants
When they are placed in a solution of water potential lower than that of the cell solution,
plasmolysis of the cells can be observed by microscopy. An external solution that causes
plasmolysis in 50 percent of the cells (incipient plasmolysis) has the same water potential as
that of the cells.
- Well watered plants → turgid cells (cells that are full with water)
- If plants are short of water for prolonged periods, water loss continues, many cells of the
leaves and stem become plasmolysed ; flaccid cells (have been plasmolysed) provide no
support

Movement by diffusion (passive transport)

Simple diffusion
- Diffusion between the molecules of the lipid bilayer, occurs in both directions but there is
a net movement from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
- Allows molecules of non-polar substance e.g.) steroids, glycerol, fatty acids, O​2​ and CO​2
in solution
- Membrane is fully permeable
- Small and lipid-soluble molecules​ such as O​2​ and CO​2
- Glucose → polar and big → unable to pass through transient pores
- Ions are charged even though they are small → hydrophilic → unable to pass through
transient pores
Facilitated diffusion
- Diffusion through specific protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, ​down a
concentration gradient​, from regions where they are at higher concentration to regions
where they are at lower concentrations, net diffusion of polar molecules to a region
where they are in lower concentration
- Polar molecules e.g.) water, in high concentration
- Pores made of proteins in the membrane e.g.) Channel protein are large enough for a
specific substance to pass through
- Ions and large polar molecules

Movement by active transport

Process in which metabolic energy in the form
of ATP is used to move substances across a
membrane against its concentration gradient,
from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration.
Key features :
1) Occurs ​against a concentration
gradient
a) The cell holds some reserves of
molecules valuable in
metabolism e.g. nitrates ions in
plant cells or calcium ions in
muscle fibres
2) Requires ​metabolic energy in the
form of ATP
3) Highly selective process
a) Only substances that are more
needed by the cell will be taken up
4) Involves ​transport/carrier protein​ ‘pumps’ at the membrane
 a) Most membrane pumps are specific to particular substances, so only selected
substances are taken up
Occurs at :
- Cell surface membrane of root hair cells to absorb mineral ions needed
- Cell surface membrane of intestinal epithelial cell to absorb nutrients, such as glucose
and amino acids from the intestine into the body

​Movement by Bulk Transport

- Occur by movements of vesicles of matter (solids or liquids across the cell surface
membrane)
- ATP is required
- Exocytosis : Cells export products such as enzymes by means of vesicles (bubbles)
- Endocytosis : substances imported into the cells
- Phagocytosis : wholesale import of solid matter
- Pinocytosis : bulk import of fluids

CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE COMPONENTS

- Made of almost entirely of protein and phospholipids
Phospholipids
- A “head” composed of a glycerol to which is attached a phosphate group
- 2 fatty acids (tails)
Responses to water :
- When phospholipid is added to water, the molecules float
with their hydrophilic “heads” in contact with the water
molecules, and their fatty acid tails exposed and away from
the water
- Phospholipid molecules arrange themselves as a
phospholipid bilayer, with fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)
facing together, in the cell surface membrane
Fluid Mosaic model
- Fluid → the components (lipids and proteins) move around within their layer
- Mosaic → scattered pattern of the proteins, when viewed from above
Proteins
- Partially or fully embedded in the lipid bilayer (integral proteins)
- Superficially attached on either surface of the lipid bilayer (peripheral proteins)

Endomembrane system
Transport of proteins and lipids :
- Rough / Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (synthesis) →
Transport vesicles → Golgi
apparatus (sorting and
packaging)
Exocytosis :
- Golgi Apparatus → Secretory
vesicles (fuse with) → plasma
membrane (secretion)
Endocytosis :
- Incoming vesicle → lysosome
(released by golgi : break
down substances)
Organelles involved : mitochondria
(requires ATP for exocytosis) and
golgi apparatus (for vesicles)
Excretion and Osmoregulation
Excretion in humans : removal of the metabolic waste from the body
- Excretion of carbon dioxide from body (lungs)
- Excretion of urea in urine produced by kidneys
Osmoregulation : maintenance of a proper balance in the water and dissolved substances in the
blood

For excretion of urea :

→ Animals do not store amino acids
→ EXCESS amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia (extremely toxic) in liver
→ ammonia is promptly converted to a less toxic nitrogenous compound, urea in liver
→ urea is transported in blood from liver to kidneys and excreted by the kidneys

Why is the kidney an organ of excretion and osmoregulation?

- Regulates concentration of inorganic ions such as sodium and chloride
- Removes waste products of metabolism such as urea from the blood, in a solution called
urine
- Maintains proper balance of water and dissolved substances in blood
Each kidney consists of an ​outer cortex​ and ​inner medulla​ and these are made up of a million
or more nephrons.
Inside the nephron :
1) Malpighian body = Bowman’s capsule + glomerulus (blood vessels in the Bowman’s
capsule) → ultrafiltration
2) Proximal convoluted tubule → selective reabsorption from filtrate
3) Loop of Henle → water conservation
4) Distal convoluted tubule → pH adjustment and ion reabsorption
5) Collecting duct → water reabsorption

Formation of urine
1) Ultrafiltration in the Bowman's capsule to form glomerular filtrate
2) Selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
 a) The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest section of the nephron and it is
here that a large part of the ​glomerular filtrate​ (most of ions, and all of glucose
and amino acids) is ​reabsorbed​ into the capillary network via ​facilitated
diffusion and active transport
b) This reabsorption is ​highly selective​, and only those substances required by the
body are reabsorbed readily
c) Most of the ​water​ in the glomerular filtrate is ​reabsorbed by osmosis
3) Blood pH and ion concentration regulation in the distal convoluted tubule
4) Water reabsorption in the collecting duct

Step 1: ​Ultrafiltration​ in the Bowman’s Capsule (AKA Renal Capsule)

- In the glomerulus, ​water​ and relatively small molecules of the blood plasma, such as
ions (mineral salts), urea, glucose and amino acids​ pass out of the capillaries into
the lumen of the capsule and form a filtrate known as the ​glomerular filtrate
- RBC, WBC, platelets and proteins (built by smaller amino acids) are retained in the
glomerulus as they are ​too large to pass out
- This process is described as ultrafiltration because it is powered by the ​high pressure
of blood

Step 2:​ Selective reabsorption​ in the proximal convoluted tubule

- The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest section of the nephron and it is here that a
large part of the glomerular filtrate (most of ions, and all of glucose and amino acids) is
reabsorbed​ into the capillary network via ​facilitated diffusion and active transport
- This reabsorption is highly selective, and only those substances required by the body are
reabsorbed readily
 - Most of the ​water​ in the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by ​osmosis

Step 3: ​Blood pH and ion concentration regulation​ in the distal convoluted tubule
- Cells of the tubule walls adjust the composition of the blood, in particular, the pH by
controlled secretion of H+ and reabsorption of HCO3 -
- pH of the blood remains in the range pH 7.35-7.45
- In the distal convoluted tubule, the concentration of useful ions is regulated e.g.
- Concentration of K+ is adjusted by secretion of any excess in the plasma into the
filtrate
- Concentration of Na+ and Cl- in the body is regulated by varying the quantity of
sodium and chloride ions reabsorbed from the filtrate

Step 4: ​Water conservation ​in the loop of Henle

- Loops of Henle create and maintain an osmotic gradient which allows water to be
withdrawn from the collecting ducts if necessary + counter-current multiplier
- Walls of descending limb is fully permeable to water and also to most salts → water
passes out in the interstitial fluid by osmosis, due to high salt concentration in the
medulla, also cause the fluid to be concentrated in ions
- Walls of the ascending limb (second half) are impermeable to water, water in the
ascending limb is retained as salt is pumped out, as it is highly concentrated ^^

Step 5: Water reabsorption in the collecting duct

- ADH causes walls of collecting duct to become permeable
- When we have drunk a lot of water, the hypothalamus detects this and stops the
posterior pituitary gland secreting ADH (anti-diuretic hormone → spell out)
- When we have taken in little water / sweated excessively / eaten salty food, the
hypothalamus detects this and directs the posterior pituitary gland to secrete ADH
Homeostasis
What is Homeostasis?
- Maintenance of a constant internal environment
- Resulting from a change in the internal environment, a corrective mechanism and
negative feedback

Mammals : examples of homeostasis by negative feedback

- Body temperature
- Glucose level of blood
- Water content of blood
- Concentration of essential ions
- pH of blood
- Heart rate
- Pressure of blood in arteries
- Concentration of respiratory gases in blood

How is homeostasis achieved?

- Negative feedback : a type of control in which the response /output counteracts the
stimulus/input to achieve homeostasis
Input → receptor → control centre → effector → output
Effector : produces an effect
HORMONES
: a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland
- Transported in the bloodstream to target organs where it exerts its function
- E.g. adrenaline, insulin, glucagon
In between control centre and effector : sends the message from control centre to effector

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
: ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (transports hormones
around the body)
- E.g. adrenal gland, pancreas, pituitary gland, hypothalamus, ovaries testes
Pituitary gland
- Master gland that control secretion of hormones of several endocrine glands
- Secreted antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Adrenal gland
- Secretes adrenaline
Pancreas
- Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon
Testis
- In males
- Secrete testosterone
Ovary
- In females
- Secretes oestrogen and progesterone

GLUCOSE
Function :
- Substrate for cellular respiration to produce ATP
- Normal blood concentration 3.6-5.8 mM/L
- Held as reserves in the form of glycogen (in muscles and liver), and quickly converted to
glucose during prolonged physical activity
- Only substrate for the brain (cellular respiration)
Normal glucose level of blood is about 4 mmol/L

Insulin → causes blood glucose to fall

Glucagon → causes blood glucose to rise

RISE IN BLOOD GLUCOSE (AFTER MEAL)​ → detected in islets of Langerhans of pancreas →

insulin secreted by Beta cells
→ Liver :
- Glucose → glycogen, cell respiration increased
- Glucose → fatty acids + fats
→ Muscle :
- Glucose → glycogen, cell respiration increased
→ Other tissues :
- Cell respiration increased
→ fall in blood glucose → normal blood glucose level → insulin secretion stops (negative
feedback) - insulin excreted in kidneys
FALL IN BLOOD GLUCOSE (STARVATION, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY)​ → detected in islets of
Langerhans of pancreas (receptor + islets of langerhans→ control centre) → glucagon secreted
in alpha cells (effector) → in liver glycogen and amino acids are converted into glucose → rise
in blood glucose → normal blood glucose level → glucagon secretion stops (negative feedback)
- glucagon excreted by the kidneys

Pancreas - Islets of Langerhans

- The blood glucose level is monitored by patches of cells known as the islets of
Langerhans
- These islets are endocrine glands that contain two types of cell
- Alpha cells (secrete glucagon)
- Beta cells (secrete insulin)
FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE
During an emergency, two signalling mechanisms are used to trigger a fight or flight response
- Nerve impulse (electrical)
- Adrenaline (chemical)

Adrenaline effects → released by the adrenal gland

1) Stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose → increases blood glucose level
2) Increased rate and depth of ventilation → increases uptake of oxygen
3) Increased rate of heartbeat → increased blood pressure
4) Increased metabolic rate