CHAPTER 3

AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
General Remarks
MOTION
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Non-Oscillatory & Oscillatory Motions
1. General Remarks While the subject of static stability, which was discussed in Chapter 2, is
AIRCRAFT STABILITY & CONTROL (AE401) 2. Kinematic Analysis
concerned with the initial tendency of a disturbed aircraft, the dynamic
stability is dealt with the resulting motion over a span of time. The
Chapter 3: Aircraft Equations of Motion 3. Dynamic Analysis various conditions of possible dynamic behavior are illustrated by the
3.1. Force Equations
time history diagrams of Fig. 1.
3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM

6. References

Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü

Base Floor, Z-13 GAZIANTEP UNIVERSITY
+90 (342) 360 1200 | 3526
oogucu@gantep.edu.tr Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Figure 1: Stable/unstable non-oscillatory/oscillatory motion modes after
http://www1.gantep.edu.tr/~oogucu/ Department of Aircraft and Aerospace Engineering perturbed by a disturbance [1]
The airplane can be considered to be dynamically stable if after be-
ing perturbed from its equilibrium flight condition the ensuing motion
October 21, 2019 diminishes with time as shown in Fig. 1.a and Fig. 1.d. Note that, static
1 / 33 stability is necessary but not sufficient condition for dynamic stability.

CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
General Remarks CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
General Remarks
MOTION MOTION
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Descriptive Parameters of Oscillatory Motions  Body and Inertial Axis Systems
1. General Remarks The damped oscillatory motions can be described by two parameters; 1. General Remarks

2. Kinematic Analysis 1. Period: The time required to complete one full cycle, or one 2. Kinematic Analysis

3. Dynamic Analysis oscillation 3. Dynamic Analysis

3.1. Force Equations 2. Time to Halve: The time required to decrease to half of its initial 3.1. Force Equations
3.2. Moment Equations amplitude 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution as shown in Fig. 2.a. Note that the required degree of dynamic stability 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

4. Equations of Motion is usually specified by using these two parameters. 4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations

5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM

6. References 6. References

Figure 2: Descriptive parameters of oscillatory motions a) period and half-time Figure 3: Body and inertial axis systems [2]
for damped oscillation b) period and double-time for diverged oscillation [1] For many problems in the airplane dynamics, an axis system fixed to
the Earth can be used as an inertial reference frame. Figure 3 shows
In the case of an unstable motion as represented in Fig. 2.b, the time re- the body axis system fixed to the center of mass of the aircraft and the
quired to increase to double of its initial amplitude can be used instead inertial axis system that is fixed to the Earth.
2 / 33 of half-time for describing the degree of unstability. 3 / 33
 CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
General Remarks CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Kinematic Analysis
MOTION MOTION
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Forces/Moments, Linear/Angular Velocities and Respective Axes  Euler Angles
1. General Remarks 1. General Remarks The Euler angles are three angles to describe the orientation of a rigid
body with respect to a fixed coordinate system. It can be shown any
2. Kinematic Analysis 2. Kinematic Analysis
orientation can be achieved by composing three elemental rotations.
3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis They are typically denoted as (α, β, γ), or (Φ, θ, ψ).
3.1. Force Equations 3.1. Force Equations
 Definition of Rotation Axes (Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic)
3.2. Moment Equations 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution The three elemental rotations may be extrinsic (rotations about the axes
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution xyz of the original coordinate system, which is assumed to remain mo-
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion tionless), or intrinsic (rotations about the axes of the rotating coordinate
system XY Z, solidary with the moving body, which changes its orien-
5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations
tation after each elemental rotation).
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation
 Sequences of Rotation Axes & Conventions
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM There exist 24 possible sequences of rotation axes, divided in two groups
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM as shown below;
Figure 4: Forces, moments, linear/angular velocities and respective axes [3] Formalism Type Intrinsic Rotations Extrinsic Rotations
6. References 6. References
Proper Euler Angles z − x − z  z−x−z
Figure 4 illustrates forces (X, Y, Z) and linear velocities (u, v, w) along x − y  − x x−y−x
the [xb , yb , zb ] axes, respectively. These forces act at the origin (c.g) y − z  − y  y−z−y
of the body-fixed frame. Also in this figure, roll-pitch-yaw moments z − y  − z  z−y−z
(L, M, N ) and angular velocities (p, q, r) about [xb , yb , zb ] are shown x − z  − x x−z−x
y − x − y  y−x−y
as well. Note that, these moments are taken with respect to (wrt) to Tait–Bryan Angles x − y  − z  x−y−z
origin of the body-fixed frame. y − z  − x y−z−x
z − x − y  z−x−y
 Our Goal x − z  − y  x−z−y
We want to relate the forces/moments to linear/angular velocities. z − y  − x z−y−x
4 / 33 5 / 33 y − x − z  y−x−z

CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Kinematic Analysis Kinematic Analysis
MOTION
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 z-y'-x'' (Yaw-Pitch-Roll) Intrinsic Rotation  Three Consecutive Rotations
1. General Remarks Tait–Bryan z-y'-x'' is the convention normally used for aerospace appli-
cations, so that zero degrees elevation represents the horizontal atti-
2. Kinematic Analysis
tude. Note that Tait–Bryan angles represent rotations about three dis-
3. Dynamic Analysis tinct axes (e.g. z-y'-x'' or z-y-x), while proper Euler angles use the same
3.1. Force Equations
axis for both the first and third elemental rotations (e.g., z-y'-z'' or z-y-z).
3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]

6. References As shown in Figure 6, the orientation of the airplane can be described in terms of a fixed frame of
reference by three consecutive rotations, whose order is extremely important. The amount of these
rotations are called Euler angles.
The orientation of the body frame wrt the fixed frame can be determined in the following manner;
0. Coincide the origin of fixed frame xf , yf , zf to body frame xb , yb , zb .
1. Rotate the xf , yf , zf frame about O − zf through the yaw angle ψ bringing the frame to x1 , y1 , z1 .
2. Rotate the x1 , y1 , z1 frame about O − y1 through the pitch angle θ bringing the frame to x2 , y2 , z2 .
Figure 5: Tait–Bryan angles notation; z-y'-x'' or yaw-pitch-roll intrinsic rotations
(youtube link here) 3. Rotate the x2 , y2 , z2 frame about O − x2 through the roll angle Φ bringing the frame to xb , yb , zb .

6 / 33 7 / 33
 Kinematic Analysis Kinematic Analysis

 Rotation Matrix About z-Axis  Rotation Matrix About y-Axis

Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2] Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]

xf = x1 cos (ψ) − y1 sin (ψ) yf = x1 sin (ψ) + y1 cos (ψ) zf = z1 x1 = x2 cos (θ) + z2 sin (θ) y1 = y 2 z1 = −x2 sin (θ) + z2 cos (θ)
                   
xf x1 cos (ψ) − sin (ψ) 0 x1 x1 x2 cos (θ) 0 sin (θ) x2
yf = Rz (ψ) · y1 = sin (ψ) cos (ψ) 0 · y1 (1) y1 = Ry (θ) · y2 = 0 1 0 · y2 (2)
zf z1 0 0 1 z1 z1 z2 − sin (θ) 0 cos (θ) z2

7 / 33 7 / 33

Kinematic Analysis Kinematic Analysis

 Rotation Matrix About x-Axis  Rotation Matrix

Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2] Figure 6: Orientation between body and inertial axes systems [2]
For simplicity, let use the shorthand notation Cψ  cos (ψ), Sψ  sin (ψ), Cθ  cos (θ), Sθ 
x2 = x b y2 = yb cos (Φ) − zb sin (Φ) z2 = yb sin (Φ) + zb cos (Φ) sin (θ), CΦ  cos (Φ), SΦ  sin (Φ). Result of consecutive rotations can be calculated by using
multiplication of all rotation matrices R (Φ, θ, ψ) = Rz (ψ) Ry (θ) Rx (Φ) as follows;
                   
x2 xb 1 0 0 xb xf Cψ −Sψ 0 Cθ 0 Sθ 1 0 0 xb
y2 = Rx (Φ) · yb = 0 cos (Φ) − sin (Φ) · yb (3) yf = Sψ Cψ 0 · 0 1 0 · 0 CΦ −SΦ · yb
z2 zb 0 sin (Φ) cos (Φ) zb zf 0 0 1 −Sθ 0 Cθ 0 SΦ CΦ zb
   
Cψ C θ C ψ S θ S Φ − Sψ C Φ C ψ Sθ C Φ + S ψ S Φ u
= Sψ Cθ Sψ Sθ SΦ + C ψ C Φ S ψ S θ CΦ − C ψ SΦ · v (4)
−Sθ Cθ SΦ Cθ CΦ w
7 / 33 7 / 33
 Kinematic Analysis CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Relationship Between Linear Velocities in the Inertial Frame & Body Frame  Force Equation in the Body Frame
We can calculate the linear velocity components in the inertial frame (ẋ,ẏ,ż) by using rotation matrix 1. General Remarks The rigid body equations of motion are obtained from Newton’s second
(R = Rz (ψ) Ry (θ) Rx (Φ)) and linear velocity components in the body frame (u,v,w) as follows; law, which states that the summation of all external forces acting on
      2. Kinematic Analysis
a body is equal to the time rate of change of the linear momentum.
ẋ Cψ C θ Cψ Sθ S Φ − Sψ CΦ C ψ Sθ C Φ + S ψ S Φ u
3. Dynamic Analysis Consider the airplane shown in Figure 7.
ẏ = Sψ C θ Sψ Sθ SΦ + C ψ C Φ S ψ S θ CΦ − C ψ SΦ · v (5) 3.1. Force Equations
ż −Sθ Cθ SΦ Cθ CΦ w 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
 Relationship Between Angular Velocities in the Body Frame & Euler Rates 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

The relationship between the angular velocities in the body frame (p, q, r) and the Euler rates 4. Equations of Motion
(Φ̇,θ̇,ψ̇) can be determined as follows;
     5. Linearized Equations
p 1 0 −Sθ Φ̇ 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
Figure 7: An element of mass on an airplane [2]
q = 0 CΦ Cθ SΦ θ̇ (6) 5.2. X-Force Equation

r 0 −SΦ Cθ CΦ ψ̇ 5.3. Longitudinal EoM If we let δm be an element of mass of the airplane, ν be the velocity
5.4. Lateral EoM of the elemental mass, and δF be the resulting force acting on the
 Relationship Between Euler Rates & Angular Velocities in the Body Frame 6. References elemental mass, then Newton’s second law yields;
We can calculate the Euler rates in terms of angular velocities in the body frame (p, q, r) as follows;
 d 
     F = δF = δm
ν (8)
Φ̇ 1 SΦ tan (θ) CΦ tan (θ) p dt
θ̇ = 0 CΦ −SΦ q (7) The velocity of the differential mass δm is;
ψ̇ 0 SΦ sec (θ) CΦ sec (θ) r ν = vc + d
r/dt (9)
By integrating these equations, one can determine the Euler angles Φ, θ, and ψ. where vc is the velocity of the center of mass of the airplane, and d
r/dt
is the velocity of the element relative to the center of mass.

8 / 33 9 / 33

CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations MOTION Force Equations
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Force Equation in the Body Frame  Coriolis Equation (Transport Theorem)
Substituting Equation 9 into Equation 8 gives; referred to a rotating body frame
Derivative of an arbitrary vector A
1. General Remarks
   1. General Remarks

= d  d
r having an angular velocity ω
can be represented by the following vector
2. Kinematic Analysis F δF = δm vc + (10) 2. Kinematic Analysis
dt dt identity;  
3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis
 
3.1. Force Equations If we use constant mass assumption, Equation 10 can be rewritten; 3.1. Force Equations
dA  = dA  + ω ×A
2 
(14)
dt  dt 
= m d vc + d
3.2. Moment Equations 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution F δm r (11) 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
I B
dt dt2
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution where the subscripts I and B refer to the inertial and body fixed frames
Note that r is measured from the center of mass, and it does not of reference.
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion
 over time due to the rigid body assumption, so the summa-
change
 Cross Product
5. Linearized Equations tion rδm is equal to zero. Then force equation becomes;
5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory If two vectors are defined as
5.2. X-Force Equation = m d vc
F (12) 5.2. X-Force Equation
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k (15)
5.3. Longitudinal EoM dt 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM which relates the external force on the airplane to the motion of the 5.4. Lateral EoM then cross product generates an orthogonal vector which can be calcu-
lated by the formula;
6. References vehicle’s center of mass in the body-fixed frame. The vector equation 6. References

can be rewritten in scalar form as follows; a × b = a2 b3 − a3 b2 a3 b1 − a1 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1 (16)

X = mu̇ Y = mv̇ Z = mẇ (13)
Force equation
in the body-fixed
frame does not
depend on ori-
entation, but ...?
Figure 8: Cross product of two arbitrary vector generates a new orthogonal
10 / 33 11 / 33 vector
 CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Force Equations MOTION Moment Equations
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Force Equation in the Inertial Frame  Moment Equation in the Body Frame
1. General Remarks Applying Transport Theorem to the force equation derived in Equa- 1. General Remarks The rigid body equations of motion are obtained from Newton’s second
tion 12 yields law, which states that the summation of the external moments acting on
2. Kinematic Analysis   2. Kinematic Analysis
= m d vc  = m d vc  + m (
the body is equal to the time rate of change of the angular momentum.
3. Dynamic Analysis F ω × vc ) (17) 3. Dynamic Analysis If similar steps are taken to the previous section, it can be shown that
3.1. Force Equations
dt I dt B 3.1. Force Equations
moment equation in the vector form is;
3.2. Moment Equations , and linear velocity vc vectors are defined as;
where, angular velocity ω 3.2. Moment Equations

3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
= pi + qj + rk
ω vc = ui + vj + wk (18) 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
M = dH = Icg d ω
(20)
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution
dt dt
So the scalar equations in the inertial frame are;
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion where, moment of inertia matrix Icg is;
X = m (u̇ + qw − rv)  
5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations Ix −Ixy −Ixz
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Y = m (v̇ + ru − pw) (19) 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Icg = −Ixy Iy −Iyz
5.2. X-Force Equation
Z = m (ẇ + pv − qu) 5.2. X-Force Equation −Ixz −Iyz Iz
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM So, the scalar equations for the moment are;
6. References 6. References L = Ḣx = Ix ṗ − Ixy q̇ − Ixz ṙ
M = Ḣy = −Ixy ṗ + Iy q̇ − Iyz ṙ (21)
N = Ḣz = −Ixz ṗ − Iyz q̇ + Iz ṙ
Here, the mass moments of inertia can be calculated by;
2 2 2 2 2 2
Ix = (y +z )δm Iy = (x +z )δm Iz = (x +y )δm
and the products of inertia can be determined as;

Ixy = xyδm Ixz = xzδm Iyz = yzδm
12 / 33 13 / 33

CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Moment Equations MOTION Moment Equations
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Moment Equation in the Inertial Frame  Matter of Symmetry Plane
1. General Remarks Applying Transport Theorem to the moment equation derived in Equa- 1. General Remarks
tion 20 yields;  
 
2. Kinematic Analysis 2. Kinematic Analysis
M = dH  = dH  + ω ×H (22)
dt  dt 
3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis
3.1. Force Equations I B 3.1. Force Equations
3.2. Moment Equations 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
where, angular velocity w, and angular momentum H vectors are de- 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution fined as; 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

= pi + qj + rk
ω = Hx i + Hy j + Hz k
H (23)
4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations So the scalar equations for the moment in the inertial frame are; 5. Linearized Equations
For each section along the X axis, the contribution from the left side
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory L = Ḣx + qHz − rHy 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
cancels the contribution from the right.
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM M = Ḣy + rHx − pHz (24) 5.3. Longitudinal EoM Ixy = xyδm=0
5.4. Lateral EoM 5.4. Lateral EoM
N = Ḣz + pHy − qHx For each section along the Z axis, the contribution from the left side
6. References 6. References cancels the contribution from the right.
Due to the symmetry plane of the aircraft (xz-plane), products of iner-
tia Ixy and Iyz are zero. With this simplification, Equation 24 can be Iyz = yzδm=0
rewritten as; Hence the moment of inertia matrix simplifies to;
L = Ix ṗ − Ixz ṙ − Ixz pq + (Iz − Iy ) qr  
  Ix 0 −Ixz
2 2 Icg = 0 0
M = Iy q̇ + (Ix − Iz ) pr + Ixz p − r (25) Iy
−Ixz 0 Iz
N = −Ixz ṗ + Iz ṙ + (Iy − Ix ) pq + Ixz qr

14 / 33 15 / 33
 CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Dynamic Analysis
MOTION Gravitational Force Contribution MOTION Thrust Force Contribution
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Direct Force  Direct Force
1. General Remarks
The gravitational force components acting along the body axis are a 1. General Remarks
The thrust force due to the propulsion system can have components
function of the airplane’s orientation in space as shown in Figure 9. that act along each of the body axis directions.
2. Kinematic Analysis 2. Kinematic Analysis

3. Dynamic Analysis 3. Dynamic Analysis

3.1. Force Equations 3.1. Force Equations
3.2. Moment Equations 3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution 3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution 3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

4. Equations of Motion 4. Equations of Motion

 Induced Moment
5. Linearized Equations 5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory Figure 9: Components of gravitational force acting along the body axis [2] 5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
The propulsive forces can create moments if the thrust does not act
5.2. X-Force Equation 5.2. X-Force Equation through the center of gravity as shown in Figure 10.
The components along the x, y, and z axes can be easily shown to be
5.3. Longitudinal EoM 5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM (Fx )gravity = −mg sin (θ) 5.4. Lateral EoM

6. References (Fy )gravity = mg cos (θ) sin (Φ) (26) 6. References

(Fz )gravity = mg cos (θ) cos (Φ)

 Induced Moment
The gravitational force acting on the airplane acts through the center
of gravity of the airplane. Because the body axis system is fixed to the
center of gravity, the gravitational force will not produce any moments.

Figure 10: Force and moments due to propulsion system [2]

16 / 33 17 / 33

Equations of Motion CHAPTER 3

AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
Linearized Equations
MOTION Small Disturbance Theory
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Kinematic + Dynamic Equations  Nonlinear-Coupled vs. Linear-Decoupled Equations
1. General Remarks The equations developed in the preceding section completely describe
the motion of a flight vehicle. However, these equations are nonlin-
2. Kinematic Analysis
ear and coupled. In general they can be solved by using numerical
3. Dynamic Analysis methods. Despite being difficult to figure out, still, the solutions of the
3.1. Force Equations
nonlinear-coupled equation system give relatively little insight into the
3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
dependence of the stability and controllability of the vehicle on basic
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution aerodynamic parameters of the vehicle. More information can be ob-
tained by examining linear approximations.
4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations
 Nominal Value (Equilibrium/Trim State) + Small Perturbation
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory The equations developed in the previous section can be linearized by
5.2. X-Force Equation using the small disturbance theory. For this purpose, it is assumed that
5.3. Longitudinal EoM the motion of the airplane consists of small deviations about a steady
5.4. Lateral EoM
(equilibrium) flight condition. So, all the variables in the equations of
6. References motion are replaced by a reference value plus a perturbation or distur-
bance;
X = X0 + ΔX Y = Y0 + ΔY Z = Z0 + ΔZ
M = M0 + ΔM N = N0 + ΔN L = L0 + ΔL
u = u0 + Δu v = v0 + Δv w = w0 + Δw
p = p0 + Δp q = q0 + Δq r = r0 + Δr
Φ = Φ0 + ΔΦ θ = θ0 + Δθ ψ = ψ0 + Δψ
δa = δa0 + Δδa δe = δe0 + Δδe δr = δr0 + Δδr

18 / 33 19 / 33 δT = δT0 + ΔδT
 Linearized Equations Linearized Equations
X-Force Equation X-Force Equation
 Nonlinear X-Force Equation  Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions
By introducing the small-disturbance notation into the nonlinear equations of motion, they can be Note that only the forward velocity u0 and pitch angle θ0 have non-zero equilibrium values. So we
linearized and simplified. Consider the x-component of the force equation; can describe the state variables as;
X − mg sin (θ) = m (u̇ + qw − rv) (27) X = X0 + ΔX Y =0 Z=0
Substituting the small-disturbance variables into this equation yields; M =0 N =0 L=0
X0 + ΔX − mg sin (θ0 + Δθ) u = u0 + Δu v = Δv w = Δw
  p = Δp q = Δq r = Δr
d
=m (u0 + Δu) + (q0 + Δq) (w0 + Δw) − (r0 + Δr) (v0 + Δv) Φ=0 θ = θ0 + Δθ ψ=0
dt
δa = 0 δe = Δδe δr = 0
= m [u̇0 + Δu̇ + q0 w0 + q0 Δw + Δqw0 + ΔqΔw − r0 v0 − r0 Δv − Δrv0 − ΔrΔv]
δT = δT0 + ΔδT
 Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions
The greatest simplification of the equations arises when the equilibrium condition is chosen to The equations for the unperturbed initial equilibrium state then reduce to
correspond to a longitudinal equilibrium, in which the velocity and gravity vectors lie in the plane X0 − mg sin (θ0 ) = 0
of symmetry of the vehicle; the most common choice corresponds to unaccelerated flight (i.e., to
level, unaccelerated flight, or to steady climbing/descending flight). For convenience, the reference  Assumption: Small Angle
flight condition is assumed to be symmetric, so we will consider perturbations from a longitudinal Since we assume that all perturbation quantities are small, we can approximate
trim condition. Also the propulsive forces are assumed to remain constant. Because the initial trim sin (θ0 + Δθ) = sin (θ0 ) cos (Δθ) + cos (θ0 ) sin (Δθ) ≈ sin (θ0 ) + Δθ cos (θ0 )
condition corresponds to longitudinal equilibrium, the trim values of all lateral/directional variables
are zero; v0 = p0 = r0 = Φ0 = ψ0 = 0  Assumption: Quadratic Perturbations
Aligning the x-axis so that it is along the direction of the airplane’s velocity vector (using stability We can also neglect terms that are quadratic in the small perturbations;
axis system) gives; w0 = 0 ΔqΔw ≈ 0 ΔrΔv ≈ 0
Restricting the equilibrium state to have no normal acceleration yields;
20 / 33 q0 = 0 21 / 33

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

X-Force Equation X-Force Equation
 Linearized Small-Disturbance X-Force Equation  Linearized Small-Disturbance X-Force Equation with Aerodynamic Forces
Thus, after making these approximations, the x-component of the force equation given in Equa- Substituting the Equation 29 for ΔX into the Equation 28 force equation yields;
tion 27 can be rewritten as; ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
ΔX − mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = mΔu̇ (28) Δu + Δw + Δδe + ΔδT − mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = mΔu̇ (30)
∂u ∂w ∂δe ∂δT
 Aerodynamic Forces & Moments
Rearranging gives;
As indicated before, the perturbation variables are the instantaneous changes from the reference  
d ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
conditions of the translational velocities, angular velocities, control deflection, and their derivatives. m − Δu − Δw + mgΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Δδe + ΔδT (31)
dt ∂u ∂w ∂δe ∂δT
The aerodynamic forces and moments can be expressed as a function of the instantaneous values
of the perturbation variables Δu, Δu̇, Δw, Δẇ, and so forth. The perturbations in aerodynamic The equation can be rewritten in a more convenient form by dividing through by the mass m;
 
forces and moments are functions of both, the perturbations in state variables and control inputs. d
− Xu Δu − Xw Δw + gΔθ cos (θ0 ) = Xδe Δδe + XδT ΔδT (32)
With this assumption, we can express the aerodynamic forces and moments by means of a Tay- dt
lor series expansion of the perturbation variables about the reference equilibrium condition. For where, aerodynamic derivatives divided by the airplane’s mass as follows;
example, the change in the x-component of the force can be expressed as follows; 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X 1 ∂X
  ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X Xu  Xw  Xδe  XδT 
ΔX u, u̇, ..., δe , δ̇e = Δu + Δu̇ + Δδe + Δδ̇e + H.O.T. m ∂u m ∂w m ∂δe m ∂δT
∂u ∂ u̇ ∂δe ∂ δ̇e
For example, the contribution of the change in the velocity u to the change ΔX in the X force is
just [∂X/∂u] Δu. Here the term ∂X/∂u called stability derivative.
The aerodynamic forces and moments can be expressed as a function of all the motion variables.
However, it is not necessary to take into consideration all of the perturbation variables, for simplicity
usually significant terms are retained and some of them can be omitted. For example, change
in the x-component of the force equation can be expressed by using most important perturbation
variables as follows; ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
ΔX = Δu + Δw + Δδe + ΔδT (29)
22 / 33 ∂u ∂w ∂δ e ∂δ T 23 / 33
 Linearized Equations Linearized Equations
X-Force Equation X-Force Equation
 Stability Derivative (∂X/∂u) & Stability Coefficient (CXu )  Stability Derivative (∂X/∂w) & Stability Coefficient (CXα )
In order to solve the equations describing x-component of the force, we need to be able to evaluate We can estimate the stability derivative of X with respect to the directional velocity w as;
all the coefficients appearing in Equation 32. This means we need to be able to provide estimate for ∂X ρS
the derivatives of X with respect to the relevant independent variables u and w. The aerodynamic =− CX α (35)
∂w u0
and propulsive forces acting on the airplane along the X body axes are the drag force and the
where,
thrust. The drag varies with changes in the airplane’s forward speed. In addition the thrust of the 2CL0 CLα
airplane is also a function of the forward speed. So, we can express the stability derivative as; CX α = C L0 −
  πe AR
∂X ρS ∂CD ∂T
=− u20 + 2u0 CD0 + (33)
∂u 2 ∂u ∂u
These stability derivatives usually are expressed in terms of dimensionless aerodynamic coefficient
derivatives. Expressing ∂X/∂u in coefficient form yields;
CXu = − (CDu + 2CD0 ) + CTu (34)
where, ∂CD ∂CT
C Du = CTu =
∂ (u/u0 ) ∂ (u/u0 )
are the changes in the drag and thrust coefficients with forward speed. These coefficients have
been made nondimensional by differentiating with respect to (u/u0 ). The coefficient CDu can be
estimated from a plot of the drag coefficient versus the Mach number;
∂CD
CDu = M
∂M
The thrust term CTu is 0 for gliding flight; it also is a good approximation for jet powered aircraft. For
a variable pitch propeller and piston engine power plant, CTu can be approximated by assuming it
to be equal to the negative of the reference drag coefficient (i.e., CTu = −CD0 ).
24 / 33 25 / 33

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

Longitudinal Equations of Motion Longitudinal Equations of Motion
 Nonlinear Longitudinal Equations of Motion  Aerodynamic Forces & Moments

 Nominal Value (Equilibrium/Trim State) + Small Perturbation

 Linearized Small-Disturbance Longitudinal Equations of Motion

 Assumption: Longitudinal Trim Conditions

 Assumption: Small Angle

 Assumption: Quadratic Perturbations

26 / 33 27 / 33
 Linearized Equations Linearized Equations
Longitudinal Equations of Motion Longitudinal Equations of Motion
 Longitudinal Stability Derivatives  Longitudinal Stability Coefficients

28 / 33 29 / 33

Linearized Equations Linearized Equations

Lateral Equations of Motion Lateral Equations of Motion
 Nonlinear Lateral Equations of Motion  Lateral Stability Derivatives

 Linearized Small-Disturbance Lateral Equations of Motion

30 / 33 31 / 33
 Linearized Equations CHAPTER 3
AIRCRAFT EQUATIONS OF
References
Lateral Equations of Motion MOTION
Asst. Prof. M. Orkun Öǧücü
 Lateral Stability Coefficients [1] H. H. Hurt, Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators, 1st ed. Flightshops, 1965.

1. General Remarks [2] R. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Education, 1998.

2. Kinematic Analysis
[3] B. Etkin and L. Reid, Dynamics of Flight: Stability and Control, 3rd ed. Wiley, 1995.
3. Dynamic Analysis
3.1. Force Equations
3.2. Moment Equations
3.3. Gravitational Force Contribution
3.4. Thrust Force Contribution

4. Equations of Motion

5. Linearized Equations
5.1. Small Disturbance Theory
5.2. X-Force Equation
5.3. Longitudinal EoM
5.4. Lateral EoM

6. References

32 / 33 33 / 33