1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 14

UNIT 2: Nervous System, Neurons and Synapses

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of accomplishing this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Present the different structures and functions of Neurons through situational analysis
which showcases the process of neurotransmission which results to a behavioral
response

2.1 Introduction

Of all the activities necessary for your survival, which ones—if any—could you do
completely on your own, other than breathe? People can do an enormous amount together,
but very little by themselves.
As you drive into a parking lot, a skateboarder suddenly flies in front of your car
across your field of vision. You see the skateboarder in the nick of time and react
immediately. You slam on the brakes and steer sharply to the right — all in the blink of
an eye. You avoid a collision, but just barely. You’re shaken up but thankful that no one was
hurt. How did you respond so quickly? Such rapid responses are controlled by your nervous
system. Specifically, the nervous system extracts information from the internal and external
environments using sensory receptors.
Our nervous system is a network of cells called neurons that coordinate actions and
transmit signals between different parts of the body. Together they accomplish amazing
things, but one cell by itself is helpless. A nervous system allows us to react to the changing
environment around us. In the example above, your eyes detected the skateboarder, the
information traveled to your brain, and your brain instructed your body to act so as to avoid
a collision. Later, we examine how they act together.
This module begins with a discussion of the general features of nervous systems—
that is, their function of responding to stimuli and the rather uniform electrochemical
processes by which they generate a response.
You are expected to accomplish each activity embedded in this topic and
work-out Activity No. 1 at the end of this learning packet. Deadline of
submission of the soft copy of your 1st activity will be on or before my upload
of Module 2.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 15

2.2. Discussion

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to
and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system is the
major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all
mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine
system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis.
Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps us in touch with our environment, both
external and internal.

Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system.
The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general,
overlapping functions:

• Sensory
• Integrative
• Motor

The Nervous System

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 16

The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its behavior and
transmits signals between different body areas. In vertebrates it consists of two main parts,
called the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems.

Exercise No. 4
Make a summary through a matrix
4
of the parts and functions of the Nervous
System. Divide the major part into the Central and the Peripheral Nervous
System.

The brain

The brain lies within the skull and is shaped like a mushroom. The brain consists of four
principal parts:

• the brain stem

• the cerebrum
• the cerebellum
• the diencephalon

The brain weighs approximately 1.3 to 1.4 kg. It has nerve cells called the neurons and
supporting cells called the glia. There are two types of matter in the brain: grey matter and
white matter. Grey matter receives and stores impulses. Cell bodies of neurons and
neuroglia are in the grey matter. White matter in the brain carries impulses to and from grey
matter. It consists of the nerve fibers (axons).

The Brain Stem

The brain stem is also known as the Medulla oblongata. It is located between the pons
and the spinal cord and is only about one inch long.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 17

The Cerebrum

The cerebrum forms the bulk of the brain and is supported on the brain stem. The
cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls the activities of the
side of the body opposite that hemisphere.

The hemispheres are further divided into

four lobes:

• Frontal lobe
• Temporal lobes
• Parietal lobe
• Occipital lobe

The Cerebellum

This is located behind and below the cerebrum.

The Diencephalon

The diencephalon includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is where
sensory and other impulses go and coalesce.
The hypothalamus is a smaller part of the diencephalon.

Other parts of the brain

Other parts of the brain include the midbrain and the pons:

• the midbrain provides conduction pathways to and from higher and lower centers
• the pons acts as a pathway to higher structures; it contains conduction pathways between
the medulla and higher brain centers

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is a long tube-like structure that extends from the brain. The spinal
cord is composed of a series of 31 segments. A pair of spinal nerves come out of each
segment. The spinal cord region from which a pair of spinal nerves originates is called the
spinal segment. Both motor and sensory nerves are located in the spinal cord.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 18

The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in

adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and
weighs about 35-40 grams. It lies within the
vertebral column, the collection of bones
(backbone).

Other parts of the central nervous system

The meninges are three layers of

membranes that cover the brain and the spinal
cord. The outermost layer is the dura
mater. The middle layer is the arachnoid, and
the innermost layer is the pia mater. The
meninges offer protection to the brain and the
spinal cord by acting as a barrier against bacteria
and other microorganisms.

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates

around the brain and spinal cord. It protects and
nourishes the brain and spinal cord.

Neurons

The neuron is the basic unit in the nervous

system. It is a specialized conductor cell that
receives and transmits electrochemical nerve
impulses. A typical neuron has a cell body and
long arms that conduct impulses from one body
part to another.

There are three different parts of the neuron:

• Cell body
• Dendrites
• Axon

Cell body of a neuron

The cell body is like any other cell with a nucleus or control center.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 19

Dendrites

The cell body has several highly branched, thick extensions that appear like cables
and are called dendrites. The exception is a sensory neuron that has a single, long dendrite
instead of many dendrites. Motor neurons have multiple thick dendrites. The dendrite's
function is to carry a nerve impulse into the cell body.

Axon

An axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell body to
another neuron or tissue. There is usually only one axon per neuron.

Myelin sheath

The neuron is covered with the Myelin Sheath or Schwann Cells. These are white
segmented covering around axons and dendrites of many peripheral neurons. The covering
is continuous along the axons or dendrites except at the point of termination and the nodes
of Ranvier.

The neurilemma is the layer of Schwann cells with a nucleus. Its function is to allow
damaged nerves to regenerate. Nerves in the brain and spinal cord do not have a
neurilemma and cannot recover when damaged.

Types of Neuron

Neurons in the body can be classified according to structure and function. According to
structure, neurons may be multipolar neurons, bipolar neurons, and unipolar neurons:

• Multipolar neurons have one axon and

several dendrites. These are common in
the brain and spinal cord.
• Bipolar neurons have one axon and one
dendrite. These are seen in the eye's
retina, the inner ear, and the olfactory
(smell) area.
• Unipolar neurons have one process
extending from the cell body. The one
process divides with one part acting as
an axon and functioning as a dendrite.
These are seen in the spinal cord.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 20

Neurotransmitter

A neurotransmitter is a
chemical messenger that carries,
boosts, and balances signals
between neurons (also known as
nerve cells) and target cells
throughout the body. These
target cells may be in glands,
muscles, or other neurons.

Billions of
neurotransmitter molecules
work constantly to keep our
brains functioning, managing
everything from our breathing to
our heartbeat to our learning and
concentration levels. They can
also affect a variety of
psychological functions such as
fear, mood, pleasure, and joy.

The peripheral nervous system

The Peripheral nervous system is made up of two parts:

• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that pick up sensory
information or sensations from the peripheral or distant organs (those away from the brain
like limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system.

These also consist of motor nerve fibers that come out of the brain and take the
messages for movement and necessary action to the skeletal muscles. For example, on
touching a hot object, the sensory nerves carry information about the heat to the brain, which
in turn, via the motor nerves, tells the muscles of the hand to withdraw it immediately.

The whole process takes less than a second to happen. The neuron's cell body that
carries the information often lies within the brain or spinal cord and projects directly to a
skeletal muscle.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 21

Autonomic Nervous System

Another part of the nervous system is the Autonomic Nervous System. It has three parts:
• The sympathetic nervous system
• The parasympathetic nervous system
• The enteric nervous system

This nervous system controls the nerves of the body's inner organs on which humans
have no conscious control. This includes the heartbeat, digestion, breathing (except
conscious breathing), etc.

The nerves of the autonomic nervous system innervate the smooth involuntary muscles
of the (internal organs) and glands and cause them to function and secrete their enzymes.
The enteric nervous system is the third part of the autonomic nervous system. The enteric
nervous system is a complex network of nerve fibers that innervate the abdomen's organs
like the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder, etc. It contains nearly 100 million
nerves.

Transmission of nerve impulses

A nerve impulse is essentially an electrical stimulus that travels over the cell's
membrane. It passes through the axons and dendrites of the neurons. It travels via the
dendrites from the skin and then reaches the cell body, axon, axon terminals and the Synapse
of the neuron.

The Synapse is the junction between two neurons where the impulse moves from one
to the other. At the synapse neurotransmitters are present. These are chemical transmitters
of messengers that transmit the impulse. They include Acetylcholine and Noradrenaline. The
impulse continues to the next dendrite, in a chain reaction till it reaches the brain that in turn
instructs the skeletal muscles to work.
Synapses in the Nervous System: Where Nerve Impulses Are Passed from Neuron to Neuron

In the central nervous system, a synapse is a small gap at the end of a neuron that
allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the next. Synapses are found where nerve cells
connect with other nerve cells. Synapses are key to the brain's function, especially when it
comes to memory.

The term synapse was first introduced in 1897 by physiologist Michael Foster in his
"Textbook of Physiology" and is derived from the Greek synapsis, meaning "conjunction."

What Synapses Do

When a nerve signal reaches the end of the neuron, it cannot simply continue to the
next cell. Instead, it must trigger the release of neurotransmitters which can then carry the
impulse across the synapse to the next neuron.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 22

Once a nerve impulse has triggered the release of neurotransmitters, these chemical
messengers cross the tiny synaptic gap and are taken up by receptors on the surface of the
next cell. These receptors act much like a lock, while the neurotransmitters function much
like keys. Neurotransmitters may excite or inhibit the neuron they bind to.

Think of the nerve signal like the electrical current, and the neurons like wires.
Synapses would be the outlets or junction boxes that connect the current to a lamp (or other
electrical appliance of your choosing), allowing the lamp to light.

Exercise No. 5
Present a situation where the process of neurotransmission causes a change in
the behavior. Describe how the process resulted to a change in a behavior.

2.3 References
Carlson, Neil R and Melissa A Birkett (2016). Physiology of behavior. Pearson.
Freberg, Laura A (2010). Discovering Biological Psychology, Cengage Learning, Singapore.,
Second Edition
Kalat, J. (2015). Biological psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. IBSN:
9781337408202
http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/hk/cs781/NervousSystem.pdf/
http://classvideos.net/anatomy/pdf/3708091011-pdf.pdf
http://www.bio12.com/ch17/Notes.pdf
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070960526/323541/mhriib_ch11.pdf
http://www.sfn.org/skins/main/pdf/brainfacts/2008/brain_facts.pdf
http://www.freeinfosociety.com/media/pdf/4423.pdf

2.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken from
the references cited above and google.com.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 23

Quiz No. 2. Nervous System, Neurons and Synapses Date: _______________

Name___________________________________ Course, Year & Section____________________

A. Multiple-choice Test. Please select the best answer by encircling the letter that best
describes every item.

___1. The human nervous system is capable of a wide range of functions. What is the basic
unit of the nervous system?
A. Glial cell B. Meninges
C. Neuron D. Cerebrospinal fluid

___2. The neuron cell is made up of which of the following parts?

A. Axon B. Dendrite
C. Nucleus D. All of the Above

__3. Neurons come in which different type(s). Which of the following are types of
Neurons?
A. Sensory B. Motor
C. Skeletal D. A and B

__4. How do neurons communicate with one another?

A. Electrically B. Chemically
C. Through weak, radio-wave-like impulses D. A and B

__5. What is a common neurotransmitter?

A. Acetylcholine B. GABA
C. Serotonin D. All of the above

__6. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that provides for communication between muscles

and nerves. When there is a problem with the interaction between acetylcholine and the
acetylcholine receptor sites on the muscles, which condition(s) can occur?
A. Myasthenia gravis B. Botulism
C. Multiple sclerosis D. A and B

__7. Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter. Which disease or disorder results when

the neurons in the brain that produce dopamine die?
A. Multiple sclerosis B. Lou Gehrig disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)
C. Parkinson disease D. Seizure disorder

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
 1 | Physiological/Biological Psychology 24

__8. In general, which of the following is the function of the afferent nerves?
A. carry sensory information to the central nervous system
B. carry sensory information to the peripheral nervous system
C. carry sensory information from the central nervous system
D. carry sensory information from the cortex

__9. Which of the following is NOT a function of cerebrospinal fluid?

A. to exchange nutrients and metabolic waste
B. to improve conduction of nerve signals between different brain regions
C. to provide mechanical protection to the brain
D. to carry neuroactive hormones in the nervous system

__10. Which of the following generally acts to conserve energy?

A. somatic nervous system B. peripheral nervous system

C. sympathetic nervous system D. parasympathetic nervous system

C. M. D. Hamo-ay