Learning Outcome

At the end of the session, you should have:

⚪described how the nervous system

coordinates and regulates feedback
mechanisms to maintain homeostasis;
and

⚪identified common conditions or

disorders that hampers the nervous
system’s normal function.
 Nervous vs. Endocrine System
• Similarities:
– They both monitor stimuli and react to
maintain homeostasis.
• Differences:
– The Nervous System is a rapid, fast-acting
system whose effects do not always
persevere.
– The Endocrine System acts slower (via blood-
borne chemical signals called HORMONES)
and its actions are usually much longer
lasting.
The Nervous System

• A network of billions of nerve cells linked

together in a highly organized fashion to
form the rapid control center of the body.
• Integrating center for homeostasis, movement,
and almost all other body functions.
– The mysterious source of those traits that
we think of as setting humans apart from
animals
Basic Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensation (Sensory Input)

• Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the
body. Such changes are known as stimuli and the
cells that monitor them are receptors.
2. Integration
• The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory
information to determine the appropriate response
3. Reaction (Motor Output)
• A response to integrated stimuli
• The response activates muscles or glands. The
activation of muscles or glands (typically via the
release of neurotransmitters (NTs)
 The nervous system also allows
you to react to a stimulus.

A stimulus is a change in the

environment.
Example: A hot stove
Or… tripping over a rock
 Your reactions are automatic.

Automatic means that you do not

have to think about your
reactions.
Example: If a bug flies by your
eye,
you will blink.
Basic nerve cell
structure
• The functional and structural unit Neurons
of the nervous system
• Specialized to conduct information from one part of the
body to another
• There are many, many different types of neurons but most
have certain structural and functional characteristics in
common:
- Cell body (soma)
- One or more
specialized, slender
processes
(axons/dendrites)
- An input region
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting
component (axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon terminal)
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Neurons
●Three basic types
1. Motor
2. Relay
3. Sensory
3 main types of nerve
cells

sensory relay motor

neurons neurons neurons
 Sensory neurons

Carries impulses from receptors e.g pain

receptors in skin to the CNS( brain or spinal
cord)
 Relay neuron

Carries impulses from sensory nerves to

motor nerves.
 Motor neuron

Carries impulses from CNS to effector e.g.

muscle to bring about movement or gland
to bring about secretion of hormone e.g
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Neurons
●Three basic parts
1. Axons
2. Dendrites
3. Soma or Cell
Bodies
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Axons
● Most neurons have a single axon – a
long (up to 1 micrometer) process
designed to convey information
away from the cell body.
● It originates from a special region of
the cell body called the axon hillock.
● It transmits APs from the soma
toward the end of the axon where
they cause NT release.
● It often branches sparsely, forming
collaterals. Each collateral may split
into telodendrions which end in a
synaptic knob, (which contains
synaptic vesicles) – membranous
bags of NTs.
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Myelin Sheath

●Schwann cells
wrapped around the
axon of some
neurons
– appear as multiple lipid-protein layers
– are actually a continuous cell
– increase the speed of action potential conduction
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Nodes of Ranvier
●periodic gap in the insulating sheath
(myelin) on the axon of certain neurons
that serves to facilitate the rapid
conduction of nerve impulses.
●These interruptions in the myelin covering
were first discovered in 1878 by French
histologist and pathologist
Louis-Antoine Ranvier, who described the
nodes as constrictions.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "node of Ranvier". Encyclopedia Britannica, 5 Dec.
2018, https://www.britannica.com/science/node-of-Ranvier. Accessed 10 February 2022.
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Dendrites and Cell body

●Dendrite: receives stimuli and carry it to the

cell body
●Cell body: site of cellular activity
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Synapse
●Junction between the dendrites of one neuron
and the axon of a second neuron
●A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron
(or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another neuron or to the
target effector cell.
●Nerves communicate by releasing chemical
messenger at synapse
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Synapse

Important neurotransmitters:
Monoamines
Neuropeptides
Nitric oxide
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Parts of Nervous System
●Human nervous system have two major
parts: Central Nervous System and
Peripheral Nervous System
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Nervous System Organization
Central Nervous System

●Brain
●Spinal cord
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Nervous System Organization
Peripheral Nervous System
●All neurons
outside the CNS
– 31 pairs spinal
nerves
– 12 pairs of cranial
nerves
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The Brain - 3 Major Areas

●Cerebrum (telencephalon, diencephalon,)

●Cerebellum
●Brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla
oblongata)
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Brain

●The brain is a complex organ that

controls thought, memory, emotion,
touch, motor skills, vision, breathing,
temperature, hunger and every process
that regulates our body.
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Brain s
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Cerebrum
●The largest part of the brain, and it
initiates and coordinates movement and
regulates temperature.

●It also enable speech, judgment, thinking

and reasoning, problem-solving,
emotions and learning.

●Other functions relate to vision, hearing,

touch and other senses.
 nervou
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Cerebrum
●composed of Telencephalon
(Cerebral Cortex) and
Diencephalon

●Cerebral Cortex is gray matter

because nerve fibers lack white myelin
coating
 nervou
Cerebral Cortex - 4 Major
s

Lobes
●Parietal
●Frontal
●Temporal
●Occipital
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Functions of the Cerebral Cortex
● Intellectual processes: thought, intelligence.
● Processes sensory information and integrates with
experience to produce appropriate motor response.
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Diencephalon - 2 Major Parts
● Thalamus
– Relays stimuli received from all sensory neurons
to cortex for interpretation
– Relays signals from the cerebral cortex to the
proper area for further processing
● Hypothalamus
– Monitors many parameters
●temperature, blood glucose levels, various hormone
levels
– Helps maintain homeostasis
– Signals the pituitary via releasing factors
– Signals the lower neural centers
Diencephalon
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Cerebellum
●Located behind the
brainstem
●Helps monitor and regulate
movement
●Integrates postural
adjustments, maintenance
of equilibrium, perception
of speed, and other
reflexes related to fine
tuning of movement.
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Brainstem
● Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata
● It is responsible for many vital functions of
life, such as breathing, consciousness,
blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
● The brainstem contains many critical
collections of white and grey matter. The grey
matter within the brainstem consists of nerve
cell bodies and forms many important
brainstem nuclei.
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Brain Stem
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Spinal Cord

●Contains both gray and white

matter
●Gray matter is H-shape in
core of cord
 nervou
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Gray Matter
●Regions of brain and spinal cord made
up primarily of cell bodies and dendrites
of nerve cells
●Interneurons in spinal cord
– small nerves which do not leave the spinal
cord
●Terminal portion of axons
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White Matter
●Contains tracts or pathways made up of
bundles of myelinated nerves
●Carry ascending and descending signals
– Ascending nerve tract from sensory receptors
through dorsal root, up cord to thalamus, to
cerebral cortex
– Pyramidal tract transmits impulses downward
eventually excites motor neurons control muscles.
– Extrapyramidal originate in brain stem descend to
control posture.
 nervou
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Peripheral Nervous System
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Peripheral Nervous System
● Thirty-one pairs of
spinal nerves & 12 pairs
of cranial nerves.
● Each spinal nerve is a
mixed nerve containing:
– Somatic afferent
– Visceral afferent
– Somatic efferent
– Visceral efferent
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Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nerves reside outside your brain and
spinal cord. They relay information between
your brain and the rest of your body. It is
divided into two main parts:
1.Autonomic nervous system (ANS):
Controls involuntary bodily functions and
regulates glands.
2.Somatic nervous system (SNS): Controls
muscle movement and relays information
from ears, eyes and skin to the central
nervous system.
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Peripheral Nervous System
Three types of peripheral nerves can be found
within the two main areas of the peripheral
nervous system:
1.Sensory: Connects the brain and spinal cord
to your skin and allow you to feel pain and
other sensations.
2.Autonomic: Controls involuntary function
(e.g., blood pressure, digestion, heart rate).
3.Motor: Connects the brain and spinal cord
to muscles to stimulate movement.
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Somatic Nervous System
● The somatic system is the
part of the peripheral
nervous system responsible
for carrying sensory and
motor information to and
from the central nervous
system. The somatic nervous
system derives its name from
the Greek word soma, which
means "body."
● The somatic system is
responsible for transmitting
sensory information as well
as for voluntary movement.
This system contains two
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Somatic Nervous System
● Motor neurons: Also called efferent neurons,
motor neurons carry information from the
brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers
throughout the body. These motor neurons
allow us to take physical action in response to
stimuli in the environment.
● Sensory neurons: Also called afferent
neurons, sensory neurons carry information
from the nerves to the central nervous
system. It is these sensory neurons that allow
us to take in sensory information and send it
to the brain and spinal cord.
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Autonomic Nervous System
● The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral
nervous system that's responsible for regulating
involuntary body functions, such as blood flow,
heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.

● It controls aspects of the body that are usually not

under voluntary control. This system allows these
functions to take place without needing to consciously
think about them happening. The autonomic system is
further divided into two branches:
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Autonomic Nervous System
● Parasympathetic system: This helps maintain normal
body functions and conserve physical resources. Once a
threat has passed, this system will slow the heart rate,
slow breathing, reduce blood flow to muscles, and
constrict the pupils. This allows us to return our bodies to
a normal resting state.

● Sympathetic system: By regulating the flight-or-fight

response, the sympathetic system prepares the body to
expend energy to respond to environmental threats.
When action is needed, the sympathetic system triggers
a response by accelerating heart rate, increasing
breathing rate, boosting blood flow to muscles, activating
sweat secretion, and dilating the pupils.
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Diseases of
the Nervous
System
 Infection of the Nervous System
• Encephalitis- inflammation of the
active tissues of the brain caused by an
infection or an autoimmune response.
The inflammation causes the brain to
swell, which can lead to headache, stiff
neck, sensitivity to light, mental
confusion and seizures.
 Infection of the Nervous System
Encephaliti
s
 Infection of the Nervous System
Meningitis- an inflammation (swelling) of
the protective membranes covering the
brain and spinal cord. A bacterial or viral
infection of the fluid surrounding the brain
and spinal cord usually causes the
swelling. However, injuries, cancer,
certain drugs, and other types of
infections also can cause meningitis.

Content source: National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases

 Infection of the Nervous System

Image credit: DermNet New Zealand.

Read further:
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324726#The-glass-test
 Disorders of the Nervous System
• Parkinson’s Disease
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Epilepsy
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Neurofibromatosis
• and others…

Further Readings:
https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/nervous-system-diseases
REFLECTION POINT?

How do I take care of

my NERVOUS
SYSTEM?
REFLECTION POINT?

In what ways I can

apply my learnings
today?