7

Short Guide

Scottish
Traditional Brickwork
ISBN 978-1-84917-118-2

All images unless otherwise noted are Crown Copyright

Principal Author: Moses Jenkins

Published by Historic Scotland, March 2014

Historic Scotland, Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh, EH9 1SH

This guide is published with the support of the Brick Development Association.

Historic Scotland would like to thank Dr Gerard Lynch, master bricklayer,

for editing this guide.

While every care has been taken in the preparation of this guide, Historic Scotland
specifically excludes any liability for errors, omissions or otherwise arising from its
contents and readers must satisfy themselves as to the principles and practices described.
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Contents

1. Introduction 2

2. Historical development 3

3.​ Assessing the need for repair 7

4. Traditional and replacement bricks 12

5. Mortar types for Scottish brickwork 18

6. Tools for the correct repair of brickwork 20

7. Replacement of decayed bricks 23

8. Re-pointing brickwork 26

9. Structural defects and repair 28

10. Efflorescence and sulphate attack 34

11. Biological growth 36

12. Cleaning brickwork 37

13. Contacts and further reading 39

14. Glossary 41
Scottish traditional brickwork
1. Introduction

1. Introduction
Fired clay brick is a building material which, although not as common a masonry
type as stone, is a significant part of Scotland’s built heritage. This is commonly
underappreciated, and the material is generally not valued as much as other
traditional building materials. As a result, structures or elements of buildings built
of brick are frequently not maintained or repaired in an appropriate manner. This
short guide aims to provide building professionals and practitioners, who have
cause to work on brick structures, with guidance on a range of problems and
issues that might need attention. Whilst the guide is primarily aimed at building
professionals, it is likely to be of interest to others, such as contractors, those
owning or managing traditionally constructed buildings, and students in relevant
fields of study.

This guide is intended to provide a sound base of knowledge in the repair of

a masonry type which is likely to be less familiar to building professionals in
Scotland than are rubble or ashlar stonework. It covers the broad principles
and techniques for the correct repair of traditional brickwork in Scotland.
The historic development of brick is discussed and common brick types are
described. Basic repair techniques are outlined and the types of replacement
bricks and appropriate mortars are considered. Pointing styles are reviewed and
considerations when planning cleaning of brick elevations are discussed.

This short guide does not aim to give prescriptive guidance or detailed
specifications. Rather, indicative details of repair techniques that may be used in
certain situations are outlined and it is the place of the building professional or
owner to gauge the appropriateness of the solutions discussed in this document
and their suitability to a specific case. If used in conjunction with the suggested
further reading and skilled craftspeople it will aid in conserving Scotland’s rich
heritage of brick built structures long into the future.

The document is published jointly with the Brick Development Association who
represent the United Kingdom and Ireland’s clay brick and paver manufacturers.
The role of the Brick Development Association is to ensure clay bricks are
recognised as the materials of choice by architects, regulators, developers,
builders, engineers and property owners, and to promote the contribution that
brick makes to the places and spaces that people live and work in today. As such
they have an important role to play in the repair and maintenance of traditional
brick structures.

2
 Scottish traditional brickwork
2. Historical development

2. Historical development

Fig. 1 An 18th-century farm

house near Dundee built of
hand moulded brick.

01

Brick was introduced to Scotland during the Roman occupation in the first
century AD. Following this the use of brick largely died out until the 17th century
when isolated examples of brick making emerged and the use of the material
began to increase. It was the 18th century which saw the use of brick expand on a
considerable scale. This was initially driven by large estates which established small
brickworks to supply bricks for the building of garden walls, ice houses and later
the construction of domestic housing for estate workers. The 18th century also
saw the establishment of a number of commercial brickworks such as that owned
by the architect Robert Adam in Kirkcaldy which was operational in 1714. Many
early brickworks were located close to or adjacent to harbours and the products
transported by sea. In some cases temporary “brick fields” were established to
satisfy the demand for bricks for a particular large project such as the building of
Fort George or Inveraray Castle.

The number of brickworks and the uses to which brick was put expanded as the
18th century progressed. Many brickworks were situated in areas which had a
tradition of building with clay or earth, the raw materials being the same or similar.
This gave rise to a number of hybrid construction types; for example brick was used
as a permanent shuttering for clay or used to over-clad clay walled buildings. Some
early brick buildings were built on a footing of stone rubble and with walls of a
thickness which matched those previously used for clay buildings (Fig. 1).

3
Scottish traditional brickwork
2. Historical development

Fig. 2 An early example

of a brick built industrial
building, The Bell Mill at
Stanley Mills, 1785.

Fig. 3 Hand moulding of

bricks in Scotland changed
little from the 17th
to the 20th century
(copyright SCRAN).

02 03

With the onset of the industrial revolution in the later 18th century and the
expansion of urbanisation in the early 19th century brick became an increasingly
important building material in Scotland. Urban areas such as Calton in Glasgow
and Granton in Edinburgh saw the extensive use of brick to construct housing for
the rapidly growing urban population. Industrial buildings were also commonly
built of brick, some of the earliest examples being Stanley Mills, Perthshire, built
in 1785 (Fig. 2), and a number of large cotton mills in Glasgow built in the first
two decades of the 19th century. This demand resulted in a significant expansion
of brick making in Scotland. In 1802 an estimated 15 ¼ million bricks were
manufactured in Scotland; by 1840 this had risen to 47 ¾ million.

Until the mid-19th century all bricks produced in Scotland would have been
moulded by hand and fired in small, intermittent kilns which could hold around
30,000 bricks (Fig. 3). Traditional brick making by hand was a seasonal occupation:
autumn was for excavating the clay; the winter frost was utilised to help break up
the raw material; spring through to summer saw brick moulding, drying and firing.
The clay for manufacturing these bricks came from fairly shallow surface deposits.
Such small scale production allowed regular firings of special batches, giving the
capacity to produce tiles as well as bricks, something which was economically
beneficial to rural brickworks in particular. Temperatures in these kilns could also
be controlled with great accuracy. For this reason these small intermittent kilns
continued to be used up until the end of the 20th century.

Manufacturing of bricks improved considerably throughout the 19th century,

with a greater range of clays, improved moulding techniques, drying methods
and firing leading to a considerable rise in the number of bricks produced. The
brick making process became increasingly mechanised at this time. The earliest
example of this was the adoption of steam rather than horse power to drive
pug mills to process clay prior to moulding. This allowed denser clays excavated
from deeper pits to be used for brick making. In the 1840s the first mechanised
methods of moulding bricks were developed. These operated on the principle of
extrusion whereby a column of clay is forced through a brick-shaped die and then
cut to shape using wires. One of the earliest commercially successful brick making
machines was developed in Scotland, the “Tweeddale Brick and Tile Machine”
patented in 1836.

Improvements in manufacturing allowed greater consistency in form and an

expansion in the range of shapes and colours of brick available. This gave rise in
the period 1850–90 to a much greater level of architectural expression in Scottish
brickwork, especially in the construction of industrial buildings. Considerable craft
was often devoted to the use of bricks of varying colours to create a polychromatic

4
 Scottish traditional brickwork

decorative effect. Other features such as dogtooth courses and new forms of arches
also came to be used at this time. Buildings such as Hayford Mills, Stirling (Fig. 4)
and Templeton’s Carpet Factory in Glasgow, utilised polychromatic brickwork and
decorative features to considerable effect.

Glazed brick also began to be produced from the mid-19th century, with Ayrshire
becoming a centre of the production of such bricks. Companies such as J and
M Craig of Kilmarnock often also produced heavy ceramics such as glazed pipes
and sanitary ware. Glazed bricks were employed in Scottish buildings for both
decorative and functional reasons where cleanliness or increased light levels
were required (Fig. 5).

Improvements in transportation following the expansion of the rail network in the

second half of the 19th century allowed the use of brick to spread throughout the
country to areas where manufacture did not take place. It also allowed specialised
producers to send polychromatic, glazed and special shapes of bricks considerable
distances. For example, the polychromatic bricks used in the great Cox’s Stack chimney,
Dundee (1865) were produced by the firm Allan and Mann of Glasgow (Fig. 6).

Some of the most significant advances in brick manufacturing for Scotland came
in the latter decades of the 19th century. New techniques for forming bricks such
as the stiff plastic process and the semi-dry process allowed a new raw material,
colliery shale, to be used for brick making (Fig. 7). The stiff plastic process first
ground the clay before adding just enough water to obtain plasticity, while the
semi-dry process subjected the ground clay to significant pressure to form bricks.
Colliery shale, often referred to as blaes, was a by-product of coal extraction. At this
time many coal companies established brickworks to utilise this waste product,
with the bricks thus being termed “colliery bricks”.

Fig. 4 Hayford Mills, Stirling,

one of many later 19th century
industrial structures utilising
polychromatic brickwork.

Fig. 5 Glazed bricks were used

decoratively and functionally
in Scotland as at this late-19th
century industrial building,
Glasgow.

Fig. 6 Detail of Cox’s Stack

chimney in Dundee (1865),
built using bricks produced
by the Glasgow firm Allan and
04 05 Mann.

Fig. 7 Machines such as this at

Drumpark Brickworks allowed
methods such as the stiff
plastic process to be used
with colliery shale as the raw
material (copyright RCAHMS).

06 07

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Scottish traditional brickwork
2. Historical development

08 09

The introduction of continuous kilns which allowed greater numbers of bricks to Fig. 8 Terraced brick housing
in Newtongrange, built of
be fired at a lower cost also took place in the mid to late 19th century. The ability colliery shale bricks (1870s).
to use blaes as a raw material, to form the bricks mechanically and to fire them in This type of housing was once
common throughout much of
a continuous kiln led to a massive increase in brick production in Scotland, and industrial central Scotland.
a significant fall in the price of bricks. By 1900 over 40 million bricks were being
Fig. 9 Inchbrayock Viaduct
produced in the greater Glasgow area alone, in over 30 brickworks.
near Montrose, an example of
a large engineered structure
These developments in manufacturing fundamentally changed brick production constructed of brick (1878).
and the use of bricks in Scotland. The geographical distribution of brick making
shifted from areas where long established clay sources had been exploited along
the east coast to the industrialised Central Belt. North Lanarkshire, for example,
had just three brickworks in 1850, yet by 1900 it had over 50. Ayrshire, Stirlingshire
and Fife also saw rapid expansion in the number of brickworks following the
technological advances which allowed colliery shale to be used as a raw material
for brick making.

Bricks manufactured from colliery shale were used to construct villages and towns
to house the expanding industrial workforce on a scale which is hard to appreciate
today. Given the often relatively poor quality of many such buildings the majority
have not survived. Isolated examples do still exist, with Newtongrange being
the most complete (Fig. 8). Bricks were also commonly used in the mid to late
19th century to form the gable and rear elevations of buildings, particularly
tenements, stone being used for the front façade only. Brick replaced stone rubble
for this purpose as it became cheaper and more readily available. It also offered
the advantages over rubble of being quicker to build and giving a more even
structural loading.

The increased quality and consistency of brick led to its increasing use for civil
engineering structures in the 19th century. From the mid-19th century the ease of
transportation and improved durability of brick led to its use in the construction
of a number of lighthouses where geology meant that local sources of stone could
not be used. It was also employed for the construction of a very large number of
railway bridges, either in their entirety as at Inchbrayock near Montrose (Fig. 9),
or more commonly to build the arch rings in combination with stone used for the
other parts.

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 Scottish traditional brickwork
3. Assessing the need for repair

3. Assessing the need

for repair
Maintenance
It is important to recognise that in most cases the need to perform the repairs
discussed in this guide is likely to result from a failure in building maintenance.
The inspection of a building for early signs of defects which are then rectified and
the carrying out of small tasks in order to prevent future deterioration are crucial
for the wellbeing of a building. Good building maintenance is carried out on a
planned and regular basis and focuses on factors that can lead to the deterioration
of materials or elements forming a building. Proper maintenance does require
investment, but by avoiding costly repairs in the future it is cheaper in the longer
term. The cost of a yearly inspection and cleaning of a gutter and downpipe, for
example, will be much less than the cost of scaffolding a large area of wall to
facilitate the replacement of decayed bricks.

Indicators of decay
As with all elements of a traditional building, brickwork will deteriorate and decay
if the property is not properly maintained. The main indicators of problems can be
summarised as follows:
Fig. 10 Surface growth such
as algae, moss and lichen
Algae or green staining: This is caused by water running down the surface or is a sign of excess moisture
penetrating into brickwork leading to saturation, often from a defective downpipe within brickwork.

or gutter (Fig. 10). Normal exposure to moisture will not give rise to algal growth. Fig. 11 Larger biological
growth such as ivy can have
Plant growth: Plants such as ferns, ivy or tree saplings indicate a sustained presence serious consequences for
brickwork if left unchecked
of water in the building fabric. A consistently damp wall is readily colonised by and is a symptom of excess
woody plants and other growths (Fig. 11). Plant roots progressively loosen and moisture within the wall
arising from a building defect
dislodge masonry as they expand and penetrate the mortar seeking moisture, and (image courtesy of City of
can cause both significant decay and structural problems if left unattended. Edinburgh Council).

10 11

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Scottish traditional brickwork
3. Assessing the need for repair

Efflorescence: A white bloom on the surface of brickwork commonly indicates

saturation causing salts from the wall core to be drawn to the surface (Fig. 12).
Efflorescence generally appears as a white powdery bloom on the surface of bricks
or, in more severe cases, a build-up of white crystals over larger areas of brickwork.
If salt develops internally (termed subflorescence) the force of crystallisation can
be strong enough to fracture the internal structure of the brick, leading to serious
damage and deterioration of the face brickwork and spalling of the surface of the brick.
Cement re-pointing is the most common source of efflorescence in bricks, though
contamination from other sources such as de-icing salts can cause serious damage.

Missing mortar: In all walls the mortar will gradually break down over time.
Crumbling or missing mortar is often simply the result of exposure to many
decades of rain and frost. Most lime bonded walls will need repairs to the pointing
every 50 years or so. Where walls are subject to prolonged exposure or excessive
moisture this can rapidly increase the rate of decay of mortar. Where mortar
is missing careful assessment should be made of repair needs prior to work
commencing, as discussed below.

Spalling: Where bricks are constantly saturated due to poor building maintenance
and subjected to the actions of frost, spalling will occur. This shows by the flaking of
the brick surface, known as the “fire skin” and eventual complete deterioration of
the brick (Fig. 13). Dry masonry will not be damaged by frost and it is therefore vital
that bricks are kept free from saturation. Spalling can also be caused by internal
formation of salts, as described above.

Cracks: Cracks in brickwork can be a sign of structural problems, particularly if they

run through both bricks and mortar and continue to widen over time. Some cracks
may have occurred soon after construction and present little or no danger to
brickwork. A period of monitoring can determine whether a crack is active or not.

Fig. 12 Efflorescence on
the surface of bricks
caused by salt leaching
from inappropriate cement
re-pointing.

Fig. 13 Spalling of the face

of brickwork is caused by the
actions of frost on saturated
brickwork. Detachment of the
12
hard fire skin will expose the
more porous internal part of
the brick which can undergo
relatively rapid decay.

13

8
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Causes of decay
Blocked or damaged rainwater goods: Blocked gutters and downpipes are a major
source of the moisture which leads to decay in brickwork (Fig. 14). Joints between
sections of gutters and downpipes can also leak, and although small in volume
such leaks can cause saturation of masonry over an extended period. These
elements should be kept well maintained and regularly inspected and cleaned to
avoid long term damage to brickwork.

Cement re-pointing: The extensive use of cement in re-pointing masonry

has unwittingly caused much damage. Cement pointing is hard, brittle and
impermeable, and readily cracks on the more flexible substrates of traditional
buildings. In some circumstances, especially on exposed areas, such cracks draw
water in by capillary action, and due to the impermeable nature of the cement, the
water thus admitted is unable to readily escape leading to damage being caused
to the brick. Cement pointed walls can become progressively saturated giving
rise to decay. This increased water migration can also put pressure on adjacent
building elements causing damage. When re-pointing is taking place to traditional
brickwork this should be carried out using lime mortar, and where cement has
been used in the past and is causing decay its removal should be considered.

Defective surface drainage: At ground level, damage to brick can be caused by

inadequate surface water drainage, leading to the adjacent ground becoming
saturated and the moisture entering the brickwork. It is not enough to remove
water from the roof and into downpipes – the water must also be taken away from
the building to prevent dampness entering brickwork at low levels. Sub-surface
drainage should be checked to ensure the water from the roof is being taken away
from the wall footings.

Copes: Brick walls and chimneys were commonly covered by stone copes (Fig. 15).
Where these have become defective water will not be shed effectively, and will
instead run down the face of the brickwork. Defects can arise with these copes
most commonly where mortar joints require re-pointing or drip details which help
the copes shed water are not functioning correctly. The upper part of the wall or
chimney then becomes progressively saturated resulting in decay.

Fig. 14 Blocked
gutters and
downpipes are a
major source of the
moisture which leads
to decay in brickwork,
in this case causing
substantial biological
growth.

Fig. 15 Stone skew

copes were often
used to prevent
water entering the
joints at the head of
brick walls.

14 15

9
Scottish traditional brickwork
3. Assessing the need for repair

16 17

Roof and other junctions: The junctions between roof and masonry elements are Fig. 16 Lead flashing at
chimneys and other junctions
vulnerable to a lack of maintenance and damage. Often protected by lead flashing can be vulnerable to damage.
or mortar fillets, significant damage can result to the masonry if these junctions fail
Fig. 17 The replacement of
(Fig. 16). Lead parapet gutters, flashings on chimney junctions and mortar fillets on entire sections of brickwork on
skew copes are particularly vulnerable and ensuring these details function correctly an elevation is rarely necessary
and can have a detrimental
will help protect the brickwork from water penetration.
effect on the character and
performance of the building.
Condensation: In some internal situations condensation on the inside face of a wall can
lead to prolonged saturation and subsequent decay of the brickwork. This is particularly
prevalent in basements and areas below ground. The use of modern impermeable
paints, applied in an effort to keep damp out, often exacerbate the problem by
trapping moisture and preventing evaporation. In addition, the use of modern
insulation materials which are impermeable to moisture may also cause problems
in the long term. Proper and adequate ventilation is important to avoid decay.

Assessment of repair needs

Where signs of decay are noted during inspection, consideration will need to be
given to repair. The decision to repair brickwork should not be made lightly, and
repairs only carried out when absolutely necessary. There is always a danger that
repairs which are not planned correctly or which are unnecessary could result in
more damage in the long term. This can be seen, for example, where small isolated
patches of spalling are taken as justification to replace much larger areas of brick.
By introducing large areas of denser, less permeable replacement brick, water shed
from these areas can increase the risk of decay in the adjacent original bricks. This
results in an unnecessary loss of original fabric and often excessive cost (Fig. 17).
Likewise where a small area of re-pointing is required, there is no need to re-point
an entire elevation. It is important to consider carefully the extent of repair work
which is required before it takes place.

Assessing the cause of damage

It is crucial to the success of any repair that the defects considered above which
caused the original failure are first assessed and rectified. For example, there is little
point in carrying out costly repairs if a source of water remains to cause damage in
the future. Likewise, following repairs to brickwork a system of planned maintenance
should be put in place to ensure similar problems do not recur in the future. Only
through these two actions are repairs going to be truly worth the time and expense.
There is a clear link between failures in building maintenance and the need for repair
and this should be fully appreciated before any work is embarked upon.

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 Scottish traditional brickwork

Assessing the need to replace bricks

It is generally the case that when a brick has lost its fire skin through spalling it will
need to be cut out and replaced. There is rarely, if ever, a requirement to remove
adjacent bricks which have not suffered spalling, and repair should be restricted to
only those bricks which have failed (Fig. 18). Where only a small amount of spalling
(less than 20% of the brick’s surface) has taken place and it is considered that the
problem which has led to decay has been rectified, it may be possible to leave
such a brick in place (depending on the quality of the original brick). A principle
of minimal intervention should generally be adopted. If bricks which have not
suffered decay are removed in the process of wider repairs these should be set
aside for re-use later. This ensures that original fabric is not lost unnecessarily and
also reduces the number of new bricks which have to be supplied.

Where bricks exhibit small signs of defects such as cracks or imperfections in the
surface their replacement will require a more careful judgement than that where
spalling has occurred. These defects may have been present from the time of
manufacture. As a general rule if no signs of continuing and worsening decay are
present such as cracks widening or the surface of the brick spalling then these
should be left in situ.

Assessing the need to re-point

Mortar will fail at different rates over a building depending on exposure, and it
is unlikely that an entire building will require re-pointing at one time. As a rough
guide unless water is penetrating through a joint it will not require re-pointing
until it has eroded back to a greater depth than its height i.e. if the joint is 10mm
in height but has only eroded 5mm re-pointing will not be required. An exception
to this rule would be if inappropriate cement re-pointing was leading to excessive
decay in adjacent bricks. In this case it may be felt that the removal of this and
re-pointing in lime was required.

Listed Building Consent and planning

Where a building is listed or in a conservation area there may be restrictions on
work which can be undertaken and additional consent processes which apply. In all
cases it is advisable to contact the local authority planning department prior to any
work taking place to establish what consents are required.

Fig. 18 Although the wall

shown in image (a) needs
fairly extensive re-pointing,
the number of bricks which
need to be replaced is small
as highlighted in green in
18a 18b image (b).

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Scottish traditional brickwork
4. Traditional and replacement bricks

4. Traditional and
replacement bricks
When replacing bricks during repair work these should match the originals as
closely as possible in terms of type, colour, surface texture and finish, durability and
size. This section will describe each of these aspects in turn as well as considering
the sourcing of bricks for repair work.

Types of brick
There is often a mistaken belief that a brick is a generic building material and that
all bricks are interchangeable. In common with other traditional building materials,
this is not the case. Just as different stone types vary in their characteristics, so too
there are a number of different types and qualities of brick which can be found in
common use in Scotland. Broadly these fall into five main types:
• Common bricks
• Facing bricks
• Glazed bricks
• Special bricks
• Engineering bricks

Common bricks
Common brick is the name given to any brick which does not lay claim to any
special properties and is intended to be used where aesthetics are of secondary
importance and there are no particular physical requirements. They vary widely
in their characteristics. Some can be almost as dense and durable as engineering
bricks, whilst others such as those known as “composition” or “colliery” bricks,
formed by pressing clay mixed with shale waste from coal mines, can be weaker
and more porous. Good quality common bricks, well maintained, are a versatile
and strong building material. Those of poorer quality were intended to be harled
or for internal use, and where used in exposed locations may be susceptible to
deterioration and will therefore require greater care. Some common bricks fired
at lower temperatures were specifically manufactured for internal work and are
unsuitable for use externally.

Facing bricks
Facing bricks are of a higher quality and are more durable than most types of
common bricks. They are also likely to be denser, with a smoother surface and of
uniform colour. Where suitable quality clay was available, along with appropriate
moulding techniques and kiln technology, a brickworks could manufacture facing
bricks for use on principal or exposed elevations (Fig. 19). 19

Fig. 19 An example of
facing bricks on an exposed
elevation with common
brick on the lower parts
which would have originally
been protected by a now
demolished adjoining
building, Stirling.

12
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Fig. 20 Polychromatic glazed

brickwork used at a public
toilet in Rothesay, circa 1900
showing a range of colours,
sizes and shapes available.
Fig. 21 Detail from Fig. 20
showing trademark of glazed
brick makers J & M Craig of
Kilmarnock. A concentration
of companies manufacturing
glazed brick and sanitary
ware existed in Ayrshire into
the 20th century.

20 21

Glazed bricks
Glazed bricks are typically used where a higher level of hygiene or light was required,
or sometimes as a decorative element. Glazed bricks were produced in a wide variety
of colours and shapes (Fig. 20). The makers of such bricks also often manufactured
sanitary ware (Fig. 21). Machine made and precise in shape, enabling setting with
very fine mortar joints, glazed bricks could be employed to striking visual effect. In
repair work these are frequently mistaken for tiles and damaged as a result.

Special bricks
A wide range of non-standard shapes and sizes of bricks were utilised alongside
the standard rectangular shape in brick construction. Raw clay can be moulded
into almost any shape to suit a particular purpose and traditionally a wide range of
bricks of different shapes was manufactured in order to fulfil standard architectural
features, or bespoke-made for specific functional and/or aesthetic purposes (Fig. 22).
Such special bricks were often manufactured from white or yellow clay to allow

Fig. 22 Some indicative examples

of special brick shapes found used
in Scottish brickwork, based on
those supplied by Allan and Mann of
standard rectangular prism small beaded Glasgow in the late 19th century.

single splayed bottle nose

start or stop splayed two chamfered

double splayed three chamfered

moulded convex tooth

moulded concave end arch

bullnose side arch

22

13
Scottish traditional brickwork
4. Traditional and replacement bricks

their use in polychromatic decoration. Some of the most common special bricks
are as follows:

Bullnose bricks: These have one corner rounded-off and are most commonly
found on the corners, or “quoins”, of buildings where a sharp edge is not desired
(Fig. 23a).

Coping bricks: These were manufactured in a wide range of sizes and shapes with a
sloped or pitched top to form protective copes on walls.

Arch bricks: These were manufactured to be used to form arches. Termed voussoirs,
they were made in the shape of a truncated wedge with the sharp end cut off
(Fig. 23b).

Circle or compass bricks: Used to build elements within a building which had a tight
radius and other curved structures such as industrial chimneys.

Splayed or cant bricks: Bricks with one or two corners cut diagonally, these bricks
were generally used at corners where a sharp edge was undesirable (Fig. 23c).

Air bricks: Manufactured with perforations to allow the passage of air, these bricks
were incorporated where ventilation through the wall was required.

23a 23b 23c

Fig. 23 Special shaped

bricks in use for a variety of
applications:
a. Bullnose bricks used for
window cill;
b. Arch voussoirs bricks;
c. Splayed bricks for corner
details.

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 Scottish traditional brickwork

Engineering bricks
Engineering bricks are formed from high-quality clay and manufactured in such
a way as to make them very dense, impermeable and able to withstand greater
compressive pressures than other forms of brick can. Available as best quality,
Class A blue engineering bricks or red coloured Class B engineering bricks, they
are highly durable and can be found on civil engineered structures or sometimes
on the lower levels of brick buildings where the brickwork is more vulnerable
to damage and decay. Where engineering bricks are found it is vital that bricks
of similar compressive strength and porosity are used in any repair work. These
should also be of an F2 durability rating, meaning they can withstand the highest
degree of frost damage.

Type of brick Identifiable features Illustration

Common These bricks vary significantly

(also referred to as colliery in both texture and colour,
or composition brick) generally being rough to the
touch and with variegated
colour.

Facing Specially made or selected to

give an attractive appearance.

Glazed Uniform, glossy appearance,

manufactured in a wide range
of colours.

Engineering Often of a darker colour and

dense appearance.

Special shaped brick Moulded in a non standard

shape to form a specific
purpose (this example is of
moulded convex bricks used
for a decorative architectural
bracket detail).

Table 1 The main types of brick used in Scotland.

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Scottish traditional brickwork
4. Traditional and replacement bricks

Size of bricks
The size of bricks can vary considerably depending on type and date of
manufacture. Generally, brick sizes, which until relatively recently were given
in imperial measurements, have developed as follows:

Time period Typical sizes Notes

18th – early-19th century 8–9 x 3 x 2½ (inches) These bricks were handmade and
can vary in size but are generally
thinner than later bricks.

Mid-19th – mid-20th 9 x 4½ x 3¾ (inches) As the brick making process

century became mechanised, larger
bricks were produced.

20th century Imperial 85⁄8 x 41⁄8 x 25⁄8 (inches) The British Standard for imperial
sized bricks.

Modern Metric Sizing 215 x 102.5 x 65 (mm) The new modern brick size is
(1965 onwards) inappropriate for use in repair of
traditional brickwork.

Table 2 Sizes of brick in Scotland over time.

There are always exceptions to the figures given in Table 2. For example, facing
bricks were commonly made thinner than common bricks (Fig. 24), whilst
engineering and glazed bricks were typically produced larger and set with finer
joints. Additionally, a particular brickworks, especially if producing dense bricks of
low absorbency, may have simply produced larger sized bricks.

Where replacement bricks are being sought for work on traditional brickwork
it is important to establish the average size of the bricks used and to source
replacements of matching size. Generally the average size of 12 bricks over several
courses is taken to give an accurate indication of the size of the bricks throughout.

24

Fig. 24 Example of block

bonding on an area where facing
bricks meet common bricks.

16
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Fig. 25 Where new bricks

are being manufactured for a
repairs project these should
be carefully assessed to ensure
they match the characteristics
of the originals.

25

Colour and texture

The colour of bricks comes from a combination of the mineralogical nature of the
raw materials employed in their manufacture, the temperature reached during
firing and the level of oxygen within the kiln. Colour typically ranges from dark
reds to oranges, with white, cream or yellow bricks also produced in Scotland, the
latter often employed as decorative dressings to quoins and window openings. It is
important that when brickwork is being repaired replacement bricks should match
the colour of those used originally as far as possible to minimise visual impact.
Many brick manufacturers will offer a colour matching service (Fig. 25). The surface
finish and texture of replacement bricks should also match that of the original, this
being dependent largely on the method of manufacture and the raw materials used.

When working on a conservation project where replacement bricks are to be

inserted it may be appropriate to distinguish the repair works by dating one
of the replacement bricks. This can be done by pressing the date into the brick
before firing.

Sources of replacement bricks

The best source of replacement bricks suitable for repairing large areas of
traditional brickwork is often newly manufactured bricks which match the
originals as described above. There are various companies who can still
manufacture such bricks to the Harmonised European Standard EN 771-1, many
of whom will provide a brick matching service. Trials should be undertaken before
an order is placed to allow matching and estimation of production times. The
Brick Development Association can provide information regarding suppliers of
bricks for repairs to traditional brickwork (see contacts at the end of this guide).

The other source is reclaimed or second-hand bricks. Careful inspection of second-

hand bricks is necessary before using them for repair work and their provenance
must be declared. If they do not have an external weathered surface then they
should not be considered; neither should bricks which have been damaged during
demolition or through careless handling. As all historic bricks were graded for
suitability of use, a reclaimed brick that was used for internal walling is likely to fail
if placed in an external wall. Adequate time should be allowed to source a good
match before a project commences.

17
Scottish traditional brickwork
5. Mortar types for Scottish brickwork

5. Mortar types for

Scottish brickwork
To form a wall bricks are laid in mortar. Given the high percentage of mortar in
a brick wall (typically 15–20%) it has a significant impact on the appearance and
character of a wall and, crucially, its strength. Traditionally constructed brickwork
of the 18th and 19th centuries was built using a lime-based mortar, which
would have been significantly weaker, more porous and flexible than a wall built
today using modern bricks and Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). All repairs to
traditional brickwork should be made with a lime mortar that seeks to replicate
the performance, composition and appearance of the original (Fig. 26). Modern
cement should not, therefore, be used in a repair mortar as this removes the ability
of the wall to “breathe” and allow water which may penetrate the brickwork to
escape safely.

Mortars could be pigmented using earth or vegetable-based materials to produce

a specific colour and there are documented examples of this occurring in Scotland.
Mortar joints could also be finished in a variety of profiles (Fig. 27). Whilst there
is less evidence for this in Scotland than elsewhere (joints usually being finished
flush), where such jointing profiles do exist it is important to replicate these in any
repair work and not to substitute a profile which is modern on a historic façade.

Fig. 26 Lime mortar with the

consistency of modelling clay,
with hawk and trowel ready
to begin re-pointing work. If
this mortar was being used for
bedding bricks slightly more
water would be used to give a
26 less stiff mix.

18
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Fig. 27 Common joint profiles

used in brickwork. With the
a a b
exceptions of d, k and l examples
b
Flat joint Flat joint Flat joint Flat joint of all of these are known in
(jointed) (jointed) Scottish brickwork. Where
evidence of joint profiles survive
these should be replicated in
re-pointing work.

c c d d
Flat joint jointed Flat joint jointed Gauged work Gauged work

e e f f
Struck joint Struck joint Struck joint Struck joint
(proper form) (proper form) (common) (common)

g g h h
Key joint Key joint Mason’s V joint Mason’s V joint

i i j j
Raking Raking Pointing Pointing
(flat joint) (flat joint)

k k l l
Tuck pointing Tuck pointing Bastard tuck Bastard tuck

27

The composition and site practice of using lime mortars is not considered in detail
in this guide. For more information on this see Historic Scotland’s Short Guide 6:
Lime mortars in traditional buildings. It is important when considering mortars for
the repair of brickwork that the following points are noted:
• Use clean water which is potable i.e. fit for drinking.
• A minimum amount of water should be used to make the mortar workable for its
intended use, either re-pointing or bricklaying, but sufficient to allow for the full
set to occur.
• Use lime of an appropriate strength category: mortar should always be weaker
than the bricks which it surrounds.
• Use sand which is suitably graded and well-washed, free from earth and other
materials which may adversely affect the performance of the mortar.
• Joints should be properly cleared out, back to sound mortar, leaving the back of
the joint square, solid and clear of dust and debris.
• Beds and joints should be dampened (not saturated) prior to new mortar being
placed in a wall.
• New pointing mortar should be adequately protected from rain, wind and direct
sun, always working in temperatures above 5OC and rising.
• Hydraulic lime mortars must be kept damp for the first 72 hours to ensure the
hydraulic set is initiated.
• New pointing mortars should be “cured” by intermittent, fine-mist spraying with
potable water for several days.

19
 Scottish traditional brickwork
6. Tools for the correct repair of brickwork

6. Tools for the correct

repair of brickwork
This section presents a brief description of some appropriate tools for carrying
out common repairs to brickwork. For fuller descriptions and consideration of a
wider range of tools see Lynch (1994), Vol. 1, Chapter 6 on which the drawings
below are based.

Brick hammer
This type of hammer is square at one end and flat bladed at the other, used for
rough cutting of bricks to shape where required.

Blade

Traditional
pattern

Modern pattern

Scutch or comb hammer

A single scutch hammer is similar to a brick hammer but instead of the flat bladed
end there is a slot into which a comb or scutch blade is inserted which can be
removed and replaced when blunt. A double scutch hammer simply has the slot at
both ends. Used for more accurate dressing of rough cut bricks.

Wedge
Wedge
Blade
Blade
Double comb hammer
Double comb hammer
Brass stirrup
Brass stirrup

Stock
Stock
Reversible steel comb
Reversible
fitted into slot steel comb
Traditional pattern fitted into slot
Traditional pattern

Bolster
Used with a heavy lump or club hammer to quickly cut bricks to shape or size.

Bolsters

20
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Mortar pick or rake

These tools are sometimes used to rake out old mortar ahead of re-pointing.
The traditional tool for this was known as a dog but these are little used today.
Whatever tool is being used to rake out old mortar care should be taken not to
damage the arris (edge) of the brick. Dog (after Moxon)

Mortar pick

Tungsten tip
Dog (after Moxon)

Mortar pick
Dog (after Moxon) Handle
Tungsten tip
Mortar pick Mortar rake

Tungsten tip Handle

Mortar rake
Handle

Spray bottle Mortar rake

This is used to wet down brickwork prior to re-pointing and can either be of a small
hand held type for wetting down small areas ahead of re-pointing or for larger
areas a pump action type.

Pointing trowels
Resembling normal laying trowels but much smaller, these come in a range of
sizes for different applications. It is easier to employ a smaller trowel, called
a “dotter”, for the vertical joints (known as perpends or cross joints) than for
horizontal bed joints.

Finger or window trowel

A narrow parallel bladed trowel, often the most appropriate tool for inserting
mortar into a joint during re-pointing work.
Pointing trowel
Dotter

Pointing trowel
Pointing trowel
Pointing trowel Dotter
Dotter Finger or window trowel Bed jointer Cross jointer
Dotter

Finger or or
Finger window trowel
window trowel Bed jointer Cross jointer
Jointers
Finger or window trowel
Bed jointer Cross
Cross jointer
jointer
Bed jointer
These are used to apply a finish to joints after inserting the re-pointing mortar and
come in a variety of sizes and profiles. It is important to ensure that the right size,
width and length of jointer is used for the bed and perpend joints.

Dotter

Bed jointer Cross jointer

Rubber hose

21
Rubber
Rubberhose
hose
Rubber hose
Scottish traditional brickwork
6. Tools for the correct repair of brickwork

Sliding bevel
The sliding bevel is used to establish precise angles where bricks require to be cut,
for example in repairing arches or forming skewbacks.

Adjusting screw
Locking nut

Tungsten-tipped chisels
Masons’ “quirks”, lettering or carving chisels come in a wide variety of sizes and
are the best tool for removing old mortar from joints. Always select a size small
Flat chisel
enough for the joint being worked on. A standard plugging chisel is unsuitable for
this type of work.
Point chisel
Flat chisel
Flat chisel Heads
Flat chisel Plugging chisel
Flat chisel Mushroom head Round head
Point chisel Cutting edges
Point chisel
Point chisel
Point chisel Heads
Plugging chisel Heads
Plugging chisel Mushroom head Heads
Round head
Plugging chisel
Cutting edges Mushroom headHeadsRound head
Plugging
Cuttingchisel
edges Mushroom head Round head
Cutting edges Mushroom head Round head
Cutting edges
Badly worn and Sharpened
Flat chisel damaged cutting edge cutting edge
60° angle

Point chisel
Badly worn and Sharpened
Badly worn
damaged cutting edgeand cutting edge Sharpened
Badly worn and
damaged cutting edgeSharpenedcutting edge
60° angle Heads
damagedBadly worn
cutting Plugging
edgeand chisel
cutting Sharpened
edge
60° angle
damaged cutting edge 60° anglecutting edge Mushroom head Round head
Cutting edges 60° angle

Pointing rule
Used in the forming of ruled joints, this tool is made of wood, typically around
1.2m in length. The top is level to guide the jointing rule and knife for trimming
any surplus mortar. It is bevelled on one side and wood, cork or rubber “distance
Badly worn and Sharpened
pieces” fixedcutting
damaged aboutedge
75mmcutting
in fromedgeeither end. This keeps the pointing rule clear
60° angle
of the wall by about 5mm, allowing trimmed mortar to fall clear between the wall
and the rule.

Distance piece
Bevelled edge

Wedge

Blade

Brass stirrup

22 Stock

Traditional pattern
 Scottish traditional brickwork
7. Replacement of decayed bricks

7. Replacement of
decayed bricks

28 29

Where a brick has been judged to have deteriorated or been damaged to such Fig. 28 Inappropriate
patching-in of bricks of the
an extent that it is no longer performing its function in a wall it will be necessary wrong colour set in hard
to cut out and replace it. Replacement bricks should match those which they are cementitous mortar giving a
poor quality repair.
replacing as described in section 4 of this guide (Figs 28 and 29).
Fig. 29 The use of a modern
The steps which may be taken when cutting out and replacing an area of replacement brick bedded
in a cement mortar is
brickwork or a single brick, can be summarised as follows:
inappropriate to this
traditionally constructed
Assessment: Survey the brickwork to decide which bricks need to be replaced. building.
Adopt a minimum of intervention approach and never replace more of the
existing work than is necessary. It is always desirable to retain original fabric
and avoid unnecessary work and expense.

Cutting out: Carefully chisel out the mortar around the decayed brickwork. This
will be best achieved by hand using appropriately sized tungsten tipped chisels.
The use of mechanical methods of cutting out bricks may be appropriate in certain
situations where inappropriate cementitous mortar has been used over a large
section of brickwork and has to be removed. Where this is being contemplated
it should only be undertaken by a skilled operative. A tool with a suitably sized
and tungsten tipped oscillating blade, smaller than the width of the mortar joint,
should be used. Disc cutters should never be used, and care must be taken not
to damage the adjacent sound brickwork. There are also health and safety issues
regarding excessive and fine dust with this type of work.

23
Scottish traditional brickwork
7. Replacement of decayed bricks

Fig. 30 Three bricks which had

suffered severe decay have
been removed, and the pocket
which is left has been cleaned
free of dust and debris. The
brick which can be seen in the
lower of the three courses is
one of the three replacement
bricks which will be inserted.

30

Cleaning and dampening: When the bricks to be replaced have been removed
(Fig. 30) all dust and debris should be cleaned away and the surrounding brickwork
dampened prior to the replacement bricks being inserted. It is important that
this cleaning and dampening goes right to the back of the void to receive the
replacement bricks. Wetting the area prevents the moisture in the mortar being
absorbed too quickly by the surrounding area, causing shrinkage and cracks on the
mortar. Due to the porous nature of some brickwork, more dampening may be
required than would be for stone masonry.

Bedding new bricks: Having appropriately dampened the area and ensured it is
free from dust and debris, mortar should be pushed to the back of the void into
which the bricks are being inserted. This should evenly coat the brick which the
replacement will abut. A layer of mortar should also be applied to the upper side of
the existing underlying bricks to form a bed joint for the replacement brick. Mortar
should then be applied to the top and side of the replacement brick and it should
be carefully inserted into the void without staining the adjacent brickwork.

Finishing joints: The mortar should be pushed back firmly into the joint using a
narrow bladed pointing trowel or key as in re-pointing work. This action should
continue until the joint is packed full of mortar and it is flush with the surrounding
brickwork. If necessary the joint can then be finished with a joint profile to match
the surrounding brickwork.

Maintain bond: The term bond refers to the way in which bricks are laid and
interlocked in relation to each other within a wall. When replacing bricks or
sections of brickwork it is important to both the structural integrity of the building
and its appearance to maintain bond. The original purpose of a bond was to
provide strength, appearance and economy. There is a wide range of bonds which
may be found in Scotland although the most common are Flemish, English and
Scottish bond (also known as English garden wall bond). When discussing bonds
the terms header (a brick with its head or narrow end to the front) and stretcher
(a brick with its longer face to the front) are used. Some bonds commonly found in
Scotland are described and illustrated in Table 3.

24
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Bond type Description Photograph

English bond Alternate courses of headers and

stretchers. The strongest bond hence
its prolific use in civil engineering
structures.

Scottish bond One course of headers to every three,

(English garden wall) four or five of stretchers, this was a
quick and economic bond to use.

Flemish bond Alternate headers and stretchers in

each course, this was considered the
best bond for appearance but lacking
in strength.

Stretcher bond This consists of stretchers for the

whole of each course apart from at
every other course at the quoin where
a header is inserted so half bond is
maintained.

Header bond In this bond all the bricks are laid as

headers, commonly used for curved
walls but also seen on some façade
walls.

Herringbone bond This is one of a number of decorative

bonds occasionally found in Scotland.
Bricks are laid at an angle of 45O in
opposite directions, forming a strong
interlocking effect creating a distinct
visual appearance.

Table 3 The main bonds used in traditional brickwork in Scotland.

25
Scottish traditional brickwork
8. Re-pointing brickwork

8. Re-pointing brickwork
Throughout the life of a building there will always be some loss of mortar leading
to a need to re-point areas of brickwork. If unaddressed this can result in water
penetration, leading to internal dampness, decay and structural instability. The
process involved in re-pointing traditional brickwork can be summarised as
follows:

Assessment: The first stage is to assess exactly what parts of the building need
re-pointed. In many cases it will not be necessary to re-point an entire building or
even an entire elevation. As some parts are more exposed than others, pointing
will fail at different rates. Before any work is carried out it is important to establish
which parts of a wall are to be re-pointed and which are sound. As a general guide,
providing the joints are not allowing moisture to penetrate, they do not need to be
re-pointed until they have eroded as deep as they are wide. The negative effects of
re-pointing unnecessarily using an inappropriate material can be seen in Fig. 31.

Raking out: Where re-pointing is necessary, the old mortar should be carefully
raked out prior to the work taking place. In most cases this will often be best
achieved using hand tools (Fig. 32), although a mechanical aid fitted with tungsten
tipped oscillating blades may be used if carefully employed by a skilled and
experienced operative, particularly where hard, cement-based mortar is being
removed. In general a joint should be raked out to a depth of at least 2½ times
its width (i.e. a 10mm thick bed joint requires 25mm rake out), but if this is not Fig. 31 The negative visual effects
sufficient to get back to sound mortar it may be necessary to rake out to a greater of poor re-pointing using an
inappropriate material can be
depth. After the joint has been fully raked out, all dust and debris should be
seen in this building, where the
brushed out or, preferably, vacuumed clean in preparation for dampening (Fig. 33). character of the brickwork has
been changed to such an extent
Dampening down: Before re-pointing work takes place the joints and porous as to give the appearance of a
newly-constructed extension.
bricks should be well dampened but not saturated. It is important when doing
this to ensure that the interior of the joint is damp and not just the surface of the Fig. 32 Cementitious mortar
being cut out using an
bricks. This is particularly important where dense bricks have been used that will appropriately sized tungsten
shed the water being sprayed down the face, away from the joint. Wetting prevents tipped chisel. Note it is easier to
work into the open joint.
moisture in the mortar being sucked out too quickly by the dry existing brickwork
as well as by the actions of wind and/or sun, all of which can cause too rapid drying Fig. 33 Dust and debris should
be brushed or vacuumed from
resulting in shrinkage cracks in the mortar. In addition, lime-based mortars must the raked out joint prior to
cure and harden in the presence of moisture. dampening down.

31 32 33

26
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Re-pointing: An appropriate mortar should be used for all re-pointing work to

brickwork. This should be lime based and match the original as far as possible,
with mortar analysis being employed where appropriate to ensure this is the case.
A sufficient quantity of stiff mortar (the consistency of modelling clay) is then
placed on the hawk and a small quantity the width of the mortar joint prepared by
tapering it down to a thin edge. This is then lifted off with the trowel or jointer and
pushed firmly into the prepared joint, ensuring it is fully compacted into the back
of the joint (Figs 34 and 35). It is generally advisable to work away from the original
sound mortar or from the previous day’s re-pointing as the work progresses. As far
as possible avoid applying the mortar so it smears the face of the brickwork, and
where this accidentally occurs it can be removed when the mortar has firmed up
a little. The finger trowel, brick jointer or pointing key used should exactly fit the
width of the joint. A joint surface finish can then be applied if appropriate after the
initial set (Fig. 36).

Aftercare of new pointing: In dry weather, particularly in conditions of wind

and/or warm sun, it may be necessary to cover the re-pointed brickwork with
dampened hessian to prevent the work drying out too quickly. Likewise the
new work should be protected from the destructive effects of adverse weather
conditions such as frost or rain. Work with lime mortar should not take place
unless there is a minimum temperature of 5OC and rising, or an enclosed and
warmed scaffold is provided to create a ‘micro climate’ during periods of work
below that temperature. Further guidance on this can be found in several
publications referenced at the end of this guide.

34 35

Fig. 34 New mortar is

pushed back firmly into the
pre-dampened joint using an
appropriately sized tool.

Fig. 35 Excess mortar is

then trimmed from the
arris of the brick.

Fig. 36 Having trimmed the

mortar back this joint has
been given a “ruled” joint
finish to match that which
was originally present.
36

27
Scottish traditional brickwork
9. Structural defects and repair

9. Structural defects
and repair
The most common and noticeable sign of a structural fault in brickwork is cracking
(Fig. 37). Cracks in brickwork can be caused by structural movement due to
unstable ground or foundations, physical damage, tree roots or defects in the
original construction. Cracks can be an indication of a serious structural problem
and where they appear suddenly advice should be sought from a suitably qualified
and experienced professional. A period of monitoring may be required to establish
if the crack is stable or “live” (meaning it is still expanding) and a decision made as
to an appropriate solution. It is worth bearing in mind, however, that some cracks
may have happened during natural settlement soon after building and are stable.

In some cases where cracking has occurred it may be necessary to not only cut
out and re-point the joints but also to replace fractured bricks. This approach
is appropriate where the original cause of the crack has been rectified or 37a
where movement has ceased. It may be necessary to introduce some form of
reinforcement into an area of brickwork which has suffered from cracking (see
Fig. 38). This most commonly takes the form of appropriately coded stainless
steel lattice work, thin rods or helical reinforcement placed to the manufacturer’s
instructions, typically every three or four courses. If a particularly strong repair is
desired it can be placed in every course. Where a crack has occurred to a corner,
or “quoin”, reinforcement can be inserted so as to go around it to strengthen the
bond. This is particularly useful where two walls were not bonded properly in
the original construction. In all cases it is important to identify the cause of the
movement and put remedial measures in place to resolve the problem.

With certain serious problems such as bulging or delaminated face brickwork,

proprietary helical fixings can be used to re-bond the outer and inner wall
37b
elements which are separating. Where severe problems have been identified and
determined by a structural engineer, tie rods and patress plates can be specified Fig. 37 With severe cracks such
as this it will be necessary to
(Fig. 39). It is now possible to fix these after removing a section of brickwork cut out the fractured bricks and
which can then be replaced so they are not as visually intrusive as previous replace them. The addition of
stainless steel reinforcement will
solutions using this method. Alternatively, the area of brickwork can be taken
almost certainly be advisable.
down and re-built incorporating re-enforcement.
Fig. 38 Helical, mesh and
ladder type reinforcement can
be inserted into the joints of
brickwork suffering from cracks
or other structural problems.
In this example a helical rod is
being inserted into a joint to
strengthen the brickwork.

Fig. 39 Wall ties and patress

plates have traditionally
been used to strengthen
brick structures such as this
bridge in Montrose; there
are now proprietary systems
available which allow such
38 39 re-enforcement to be hidden.

28
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Fig. 40 Structural movement

leading to distortion of
walling, Glasgow. In situations
such as this a structural
engineer with experience in
traditional masonry should be
consulted.

40

Distortion or sagging of brickwork as seen in Fig. 40 can result in a need to

underpin a building, but this is an expensive operation and should not be
contemplated without consulting a structural engineer with proven experience of
traditionally constructed masonry.

Repairing brick arches

Arches are a means to span an opening using small masonry units and are integral
to almost all brick buildings in Scotland. They come in a variety of types and
shapes, though the three main shapes of arch found in Scottish brickwork are
shown in Table 4.

Arch type Description Photograph

Flat/camber Flat on the extrados with a very

slight curve or “camber” on the
intrados/soffit.

Segmental Formed of a curve less than a

semi-circle.

Semi-circular Formed in a semi-circular shape.

Table 4 The main shapes of arch found in Scottish brickwork.

29
Scottish traditional brickwork
9. Structural defects and repair

Arches are also categorised by the way in which the bricks are shaped, as follows:
•R
 ough arches: In this type of arch the bricks are not cut to shape but simply used
as they were manufactured. In small arches building like this would lead to very
wide joints at the outer edge of the arch (known as the extrados) and therefore
tend to be built with bricks laid as headers in a series of concentric rings, or used
on wide-span arches (Fig. 41).
•A
 xed arches: Built with bricks which are cut on either side to radial shape to fit
the arch but left with the extrados and intrados uncut and therefore straight,
or tangential, to the curve. This can be done to varying degrees of accuracy
depending on the quality of the brick and the build. Most arches in Scotland
are of this type (Fig. 42).
•G
 auged work: This type of brickwork is the highest expression of the bricklayer’s
craft. Specially produced softer rubbing bricks forming the arch voussoirs are
exactly cut and gauged to precise size and shape to form the arch enabling the
bricks to be laid with joints of just 1mm. Such work is rare in Scotland and where it
is encountered specialist advice should be sought before embarking on its repair.
•P
 urpose-made arches: As methods of production became increasingly
mechanised during the 19th century and bricks of special shape became more
common, arch sets could be manufactured to a specific size and shape by the
brickworks for on-site assembly (Fig. 43).

There are other geometric shapes and types of arches which may be encountered
when repairing Scottish brickwork, such as three or four centred arches, Venetian,
ogee and so forth, particularly in industrial buildings (Fig. 44). As the considerations
for the repair of such arches are broadly similar to those for the three basic arch
types listed above, these variants will not be considered in detail. For information
regarding these arch types reference can be made to the technical works in the
further reading section of this guide, such as Allen (1893) and Hammond (1875).

Fig. 41 By re-building this

segmental arch using
uncut bricks, the joints are
noticeably “v-shaped” and
wider on the extrados than
the intrados. The angle of
the skewback has been
maintained, however, and
the surrounding face bricks,
which meet the extrados and
form the skewback, have been
accurately cut.

Fig. 42 The bricks forming the

41 42 voussoirs in this arch have
been roughly cut to shape
forming an “axed” arch.

Fig. 43 An arch constructed of

purpose-made voussoirs and
bedded in coloured mortar.
Note the acute angle of the
skewback, 40O in this case.

Fig. 44 This unusual style of

arch is one of many variations
out with the most common
which can be found in Scottish
brick buildings.

43 44

30
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Repairing a brick arch can be a complex task requiring a high level of skill,
although there are some basic steps which can be taken to help ensure
a successful outcome. When repairing brick arches it is important, both
aesthetically and structurally, that the original profile, accuracy, bonding and
quality of finish is followed. If the arch has individual slipped voussoirs (the
individual bricks which form the arch), the structure must be supported as the
joints either side are carefully cut out to allow bricks to be re-positioned or fully
removed and re-bedded. Where voussoirs have decayed to such an extent as
to require replacement it may be that the arch requires to be taken down and
rebuilt. Where this is necessary the position of the bricks forming the arch should
be carefully marked on the centering (the timber frame used to support the
arch during construction) and numbered before taking down to allow accurate
rebuilding and/or cutting of replacement bricks that should match in all respects.
Replacement voussoirs can then be built into the arch where appropriate. It
will be necessary when carefully taking apart and rebuilding the arch to provide
a timber centering of sufficient robustness to support the work as it is re-built.
Information on setting out and constructing arch centering can be found in the
technical reference works at the end of this guide. The centering should be left in
place for sufficient time after the arch has been re-erected, in order to allow the
mortar to set and the masonry to settle into place.

Where an arch is axed the replacement voussoirs should be cut to meet the
profile of the original bricks which have been removed. This can be done
using a scutch hammer to trim after cutting with a lump hammer and sharp
bolster. In instances where the original bricks were purpose-made “specials”
produced for the job, replacements that match the originals in colour, texture,
porosity and method of manufacture can be sourced if the dimensions and
characteristics are carefully recorded.

Another position at which bricks may need to be cut during the repair of brick
arches is at the springing point where the arch meets the brick wall (Fig. 42).
It is important to ensure that the angle of skew is maintained. This angle can
vary considerably from as shallow as 40O up to 80O; with 60O or 70O being most
common in Scotland. The replacement bricks which form the skewback should
be marked with the sliding bevel and cut to shape accordingly. The mortar joint
here should be no thicker than in other parts of the arch face and should never
be used to “smooth out” irregularities in the bricks at the springing point.

In a segmental or semi-circular arch the bricks laid directly above and which
meet the curve or extrados of the arch will also need to be accurately cut to
shape to aesthetically compliment the overall arch construction.

31
Scottish traditional brickwork
9. Structural defects and repair

Brickwork and other building materials

As well as bricks and mortar there are a number of other materials which might
be encountered when repairing traditional brickwork. These can present various
challenges, particularly when structural repairs are being undertaken.

Timber may be found in a number of structural applications. In brickwork up to

the mid-19th century, bond timbers were sometimes built into an internal wall to
provide longitudinal strength (Fig. 45). Another common application was wooden
bricks, sometimes referred to as “dooks” built into brickwork to allow fixings for
nails and screws where an element such as a door or window was to be inserted.
An alternative to this was the use of narrow wood slips placed in joints. Where
timber elements are present in brickwork it is important to ensure that these are
kept free from dampness to avoid them rotting and deteriorating and potentially
destabilising the masonry. Where decay is present it may be necessary to either
replace redundant timber elements using brickwork or other modern alternatives.
With decayed bond timbers, these should only be cut out and replaced in small
sections to prevent collapse.

Metal, most commonly iron, may also be encountered in conjunction with

brickwork, particularly in structures dating from the second quarter of the 19th
century onwards. Where iron structural elements are incorporated these can
corrode causing oxide or rust-jacking and cracking of the masonry. Lengths of
hoop iron were sometimes built into brick walls to fulfil the same purposes as
bond timbers. Wrought iron was employed to tie elements of brickwork together,
such as in arched flooring. If corroded metal reinforcement is found during repair
it may be necessary to replace this with appropriately specified stainless steel
reinforcement. Where it is felt the original material is performing well however,
on the advice of a structural engineer, it may be carefully exposed to clean off all
corrosion, treated with a rust inhibitor, then re-built with fully-filled joints and
left in situ.

Fig. 45 Timber built into

brickwork and showing
advanced decay.

45

32
 Scottish traditional brickwork

46 47

Brickwork is also often employed with stone in a wide variety of applications. Fig. 46 Stone elements
becoming de-bonded from
Where a stone elevation links to one of brick it is important to ensure that the brickwork, by years of downward
two are fully bonded together. This can be an area where original construction water movement flushing out the
mortar joints. Such action can
has become defective and additional reinforcement measures may be required affect the structural stability of a
(Fig. 46). Stone can also be present as dressings, for example at quoins, lintels building and should be correctly
and carefully repaired.
and window cills in a brick-built building. Brick was often employed as a backing
to fine ashlar stone work and where this is found to be the case the original Fig. 47 Brick was used in both the
bond method should be maintained if it is still functional (Fig. 47). Bed joint 18th and 19th century as a lining
for ashlar walls. Here the ashlar is
reinforcement is often specified where dissimilar materials are being repaired shown ‘block-bonding’ with the
to reduce the likelihood of mortar cracking. brickwork (A), with through-
stones used to strengthen the
bond as at (B).

33
Scottish traditional brickwork
10. Efflorescence and sulphate attack

10. Efflorescence and

sulphate attack
Salts can be a significant cause of deterioration in brickwork. Salts can enter
bricks from an external source due to water ingress, or commonly water ingress
simply brings salt already present in bricks or mortar to the surface. Salt damage
is particularly common in brick-lined chimney flues where sulphates from
smoke and flue gases have penetrated the brickwork over a number of years.
When these mix with moisture either from condensation within the flue or from
rainwater penetration they become soluble and can enter the brick resulting in
deterioration. Such a process is common where a redundant chimney has been
sealed without providing adequate ventilation. Salts can also be introduced into
brickwork from seawater or sea spray, and contamination from winter de-icing
salt is a further threat. The most common source of movement of soluble salts in
brickwork, however, results from the use of cement-based mortar for repairs.

The most obvious sign of the presence of soluble salts is efflorescence. This generally
appears as a white streaking on the surface of bricks or in more severe cases a build
up of white crystals or a powdery deposit over areas of brickwork. This indicates
that salts present within the brickwork are migrating in solution to the surface
and crystallising. If salt crystallisation occurs within the brickwork (known as
subflorescence) the force of crystallisation can be strong enough to lever the internal
structure of the brick apart leading to significant damage and deterioration (Fig. 48).

Fig. 48 Subflorescence showing

as a white build up on the
surface of brickwork. On this
occasion it is likely to have been
caused by the inappropriate use
of cement re-pointing.

48

34
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Fig. 49 Formation of salts on

brick masonry due to migration
of contaminated groundwater
through a retaining wall.

49

Lime mortar joints can aid in the protection of bricks by allowing salts to migrate to
the surface through the mortar rather than the brick, thus ensuring that the bricks
themselves are undamaged (Fig. 49).

The first step in addressing efflorescence is to stop the water ingress which is
causing the problem and remove the source of salts if this is possible. When this
has been resolved any build-up of salts on the surface of the brickwork should
be cleaned off using a stiff, non-ferrous bristle brush, but must be collected on
a plastic sheet and responsibly disposed of to prevent the salts going into the
ground and migrating back into the brickwork. It may be that when efflorescence
has been removed spalling or other damage is revealed which will require
replacement of bricks. There are poultice and wicking treatments which can be
applied to remove salts from brickwork should this be necessary, although such
treatments are designed for specialist situations and are unlikely to be used in
most cases. Where such treatments are being considered it is vital to get expert,
impartial advice, proper product information, and to carry out trials on several test
panels to assess both their effectiveness and determine any possible harm that
might occur to the brickwork.

35
Scottish traditional brickwork
11. Biological growth

11. Biological growth

Biological growth on brickwork falls into two main categories: small, surface
growths such as moss and lichens, and larger plants such as creepers, ivy or small
trees. Both types of growth, if unattended, can cause deterioration of brickwork.
Biological growth is an indicator of the presence of excess moisture in brickwork,
the source of which should be identified and stopped prior to repair work taking
place. Mosses and lichens can hold moisture against the surface of bricks and
mortar and increase the level of moisture ingress leading to saturation. The vines
of creepers, left uncontrolled, can grow through and wrap around elements of
brickwork causing serious structural instability or failure. Similarly the roots of
larger plants can dislodge bricks and pointing which, if unchecked, can lead to
cracking and structural damage (Fig. 50).
Fig. 50 Larger growth can
Surface growth can be removed using a stiff, non-ferrous bristle brush. Larger cause more extensive damage
than can smaller plants and
growth will need to be cut away from brickwork. Where creepers are to be can require more extensive
removed, the first step is to cut through the stem of the climbing plant at a intervention and repair
following its removal.
convenient height above ground level, to allow it to die of its own accord. Once
it has withered careful removal of the dead plant can proceed, in small sections. Fig. 51 The roots of plants
can cause severe damage to
In all cases of larger biological growth the temptation to pull it clear of the wall brickwork as seen here lifting
using a rope should be avoided as this can pose a serious health and safety risk bricks out of place, creating
a route for water ingress and
and could result in extensive damage to the wall. Where roots have penetrated
fracturing the brickwork.
into a wall it will be necessary to fully remove these using appropriate cutting out Any plant growth should be
tools. All defective joints will have to be re-pointed and any damaged bricks cut removed as early as possible
to avoid such problems
out and replaced as appropriate (Fig. 51). developing.

50 51

36
 Scottish traditional brickwork
12. Cleaning brickwork

12. Cleaning brickwork

The cleaning of traditional brickwork should be approached with caution as
inappropriate cleaning can result in considerable damage to bricks (Fig. 52).

In general the following principles should apply when the cleaning of traditional
brickwork is being contemplated:
• Seek expert advice.
•O
 nly clean if absolutely necessary. There should be a general presumption
against cleaning in most cases.
•T
 ry cleaning with water first as this will avoid unnecessary use of chemicals
and other harsher methods.
• Always undertake test panels and monitor the cleaning method proposed.
•U
 se an experienced contractor with proven credentials and fully trained in the
system to be employed.
•A
 lways check that the contractor is actually using the correct equipment and
materials and in the specified way.

There are a wide range of methods employed in cleaning brickwork, but these can
broadly be split into three categories: water, chemical and abrasive cleaning.

Water-based cleaning: Cleaning of elevations with water at low pressure with a

hand bristle brush is generally the most appropriate and risk free way to remove
modest soiling. A phosphor bronze brush can also be used. Ferrous metal brushes
should not be used as this will damage the brickwork and leave a metallic residue
which will rust. If a large area is to be cleaned it is important to prevent the
lower portions of the masonry becoming saturated as water runs off from above.
Fig. 52 Damage to brickwork
Systems which make use of super-heated water and steam can be very successful from cleaning. The vitrified surface
in removing some forms of biological growth and other surface deposits such as (known as the fire skin) which can
be seen on the un-cleaned brick
paint and bitumen. It is important when using such a system that care is taken not (a) has been removed from the
to damage adjacent woodwork, glass or other building elements. Cleaning and cleaned brickwork (b) leaving the
brick more vulnerable to moisture
applying quantities of water should be avoided during or in anticipation of frosty penetration and decay.
conditions to avoid potential damage to brickwork and mortar.

52a 52b

37
Scottish traditional brickwork
12. Cleaning brickwork

Chemical cleaning: Cleaning with chemicals must be considered very carefully

before being employed on traditional brickwork. Chemical residues can become
trapped within the bricks themselves or the mortar, leading to a discolouration
and breakdown of the fireskin of the brick, leaving the softer material beneath
vulnerable to further attack (Fig. 52). Chemicals may also be absorbed into the
mortar leading to a breakdown of the binder and accelerated decay.

Many chemicals may also introduce salts or cause the mobilisation of inherent
soluble salts already present in the brickwork. It is therefore important to be
aware of what chemicals are present within the product being used and the likely
consequence of their use. It is also vital to undertake cleaning trials and allow
these to properly dry out over time before consideration is given to extending
the treatment further, thus hopefully avoiding costly damage. Glazed bricks are
particularly vulnerable to damage from acid cleaning, and other cleaning options
should be considered.

With these considerations in mind where a chemical is to be used for cleaning

brickwork it is important that the appropriate type and strength is employed
and it is applied in accordance with the recommended instructions. If acidic
substances are being used this should be in a diluted form and the substance not
left in contact with the brickwork for any length of time. There are proprietary
biodegradable acids available which may be more appropriate. The brickwork
should be wetted before application and fully washed off afterwards, with
care being taken not to force water deep into the brickwork. At all times the
manufacturers’ advice should be adhered to.

Where specific areas of heavy soiling have occurred it may be acceptable to use an
appropriately specified poultice as the cleaning product. The poultice will usually
take the form of clay or cellulose mixed with an approved chemical cleaning agent.
As previously stated, preliminary trials should be undertaken before a particular
technique is applied.

Abrasive cleaning: Mechanical abrasive cleaning should be avoided as it can

remove the outer surface from the bricks. This will leave them scarred and pitted
producing a roughened, textured surface more prone to decay. The use of sand or
grit blasting should never be permitted as it will quickly remove the surface of the
brick, and lead to rapid re-soiling leaving it highly vulnerable to subsequent decay
and damage.

A variety of soft textured, round shaped abrasives, designed to cause less damage
to the brickwork are available as are various systems of application which form a
vortex that swirls over and gently abrades surface deposits from the brickwork.
In skilled and experienced hands these may be suitable in certain situations to
clean traditional brickwork but it is vital that an approved contractor is used, and
in general abrasive methods of cleaning should be avoided. Here, again, the vital
importance of monitored trials on test panels is stressed.

38
 Scottish traditional brickwork
13. Contacts and further reading

13. Contacts and

further reading
Contacts

Historic Scotland
Longmore House
Salisbury Place
Edinburgh
EH9 1SH
0131 668 8600
www.historic-scotland.gov.uk

Historic Scotland Technical Research Unit

(Technical enquiries)
0131 668 8668
hs.conservationgroup@scotland.gsi.gov.uk

Historic Scotland Heritage Management Team

(Planning/listed building matters)
0131 668 8600
hs.listingsandconsents@scotland.gsi.gov.uk

Historic Environment Grants Team

(Funding options)
0131 668 8801
hs.grants@scotland.gsi.gov.uk

Brick Development Association

(Brick Manufacturers)
020 7323 7030
www.brick.org.uk

British Brick Society

(Brick History)
www.britishbricksoc.free-online.co.uk

Scottish Lime Centre Trust

(Advice on lime mortars)
01383 872 722
www.scotlime.org

39
Scottish traditional brickwork
13. Contacts and further reading

Further reading

Allen J. (1893), Practical Building Construction, Crosby: Lockwood

Brick Development Association (2000), BDA Guide to Successful Brickwork,

Butterworth-Heinemann

English Heritage (2014), Practical Building Conservation, Earth, Brick and Terracotta
Ashgate: London

Gibbons P. (2003), Preparation and Use of Lime Mortars, Historic Scotland

Hammond A. (1875), The Rudiments of Practical Bricklaying, Crosby: Lockwood

Hasluck P. (1905), Practical Brickwork, Cassell

Jenkins M. (2009), Building Scotland, John Donald

Lynch G. (1994), Brickwork: History, Technology and Practice volumes 1 and 2

Donhead

Lynch G. (2007), History of Gauged Brickwork: Conservation, Repair and Modern

Application, Elsevier

Nicholson P. (1838), Practical Masonry, Bricklaying and Plastering, Kelly

Scott Burn R. (1870), The New Guide to Masonry, Bricklaying and Plastering,
Theoretical and Technical, McCready, Thompson and Niven

Sutcliffe G. (ed.) (1898), Modern House Construction Vol. 1, Blackie and Son

Warren J. (1999), Conservation of Brick, Butterworth-Heinemann

40
 Scottish traditional brickwork
14. Glossary

14. Glossary
Aggregate: Any material which, when combined with a binder, forms a
mortar.

Arch bricks: Bricks tapered in length or width to serve as voussoirs in arches.

Arris: The sharp edge of a brick.

Ashlar: Masonry constructed of stones with a polished surface, of

regular size and tight mortar joints.

Bat: A broken section of brick, larger than a quarter brick, often used
in Scottish brickwork as an alternative to a closer.

Bed joint: The horizontal joint between two courses of brickwork.

Binder: A material that binds together the aggregate in a mortar; in

traditional brickwork this is usually lime.

Block bonding: The use of several courses of brickwork in joining parts of a wall
or building together. This is particularly common where a front
wall of stone or facing brick joins to a side wall of common brick.

Bond: The arrangement of bricks in a pattern for strength or

occasionally decoration and particularly designed to ensure
joint is broken.

Bond timbers: Pieces of timber built into the inner face of a wall to provide
horizontal reinforcement.

Brick ashlar: A wall with a facing of ashlar backed by brickwork.

Bullnose bricks: Bricks with one or two arris rounded.

Camber arch: An arch whose upper edge or extrados is horizontal, but whose
lower edge or intrados is slightly curved or “cambered”.

Cant bricks: Bricks with either one corner (single cant) or two corners
(double cant) cut off diagonally.

Closer: A brick cut or specifically moulded to expose a half header on

the face of a wall and used to complete bonding patterns.

Clamp: A fairly crude but effective method of firing bricks in large

numbers, a clamp is formed by interspersing unfired bricks
and fuel.

Collar joint: The joint between the front face of one brick and back of the
brick in front in a wall more than half a brick thick.

Common bricks: Bricks used where strength or appearance is not of the utmost
importance. Can have a variegated colouring and texture, often
used in Scotland for hidden elevations of buildings and referred
to as “colliery” or “composition” bricks.

41
Scottish traditional brickwork
14. Glossary

Compressive strength: The ability of a brick or other building element to resist

compressive or crushing pressure.

Course: A horizontal layer of bricks.

Cross joints: The vertical joints between two bricks in a course also called
perpends or “perps”.

Dog leg bricks: Bricks specially made for use where two walls join at an obtuse
angle.

Dooks: Wooden blocks or plugs inserted into brickwork to allow fixings.

Durability: The ability of a brick or other building element to resist the

effects of weathering and frost action.

Efflorescence: A deposit or build-up of salts on the surface of brickwork.

Engineering bricks: Dense bricks, of a uniform size and often darker colour which
have a high crushing strength and low porosity.

Extrados: The upper or exterior curve of an arch.

Face: The exposed side of a brick visible when looking at a wall.

Facing bricks: Bricks selected or manufactured to be used on the exposed

surface of a wall because of superior appearance.

Glazed bricks: Bricks which have had a glaze applied to them, often only on
one face, and used in situations for cleaning or light reflecting
properties.

Harling: A thrown or cast on finish of lime and aggregate.

Hoop iron: A type of re-enforcement in which flat bars of wrought iron,

often dipped in tar and sand, are laid at regular intervals in a
wall such as every 4th or 6th course.

Hydrated Lime: Commonly used to describe non-hydraulic lime powder which

is used in modern cement/lime/sand mortars. It is important to
distinguish between this and hydraulic Lime which is the material
most commonly used in lime mortar mixes in repair work.

Hydraulic Limes: Limes which give a chemical set that is quicker and harder than
the carbonation of pure limes.

Intrados: The inner or lower curve of an arch.

Jointing: The finishing of the mortar between adjacent bricks in a jointing

style.

Knocking up: The re-working of a mortar mix to regain plasticity before use.

Mortar: A material which can be worked or placed in a plastic state,

becomes hard when in place and which can be used for bedding
or pointing bricks in a wall. It is formed of a binder, aggregate
and enough water to make it workable.

42
 Scottish traditional brickwork

Nogging: Brick used as an infill material to a timber frame.

Ordinary The most common modern cement, it is often suggested for use
Portland Cement as a binder in re-pointing work but is wholly unsuited for use
(OPC): in traditional brickwork.

Perpend: The vertical joint between two bricks in a course.

Plasticity: A description of the ease of spreading and cohesiveness of mortar.

Pointing: The application of a superior mortar to the raked out joints

of ordinary mortar commonly carried out to allow for the
application of a joint profile.

Polychromatic The use of different coloured bricks for decorative effect, most
brickwork: commonly in Scotland cream or yellow bricks are used at quoins
or window and door openings in contrast to the red brick used
for the main body of the work.

Porosity: The level at which a brick absorbs water; the higher the porosity
of a brick the more water will be absorbed into the brick in a
given period of time.

Quoin: A corner of a building or section of brickwork.

Rubble: Masonry using irregular and variable sized pieces of stone as

distinct from ashlar.

Segmental arch: An arch whose curve forms part of a circle smaller than a half
circle.

Shale: Hard laminated rocks which may be crushed and mixed with
water to form a plastic material suitable for brick making. A
common material in the making of bricks, particularly common
bricks in Scotland from the late 19th century.

Skewback: The section of brickwork which has an inclined face to provide

an abutment for an arch.

Slaking: The controlled process of combining quicklime with water to

form slaked lime.

Spalling: The loss of surface material from a brick due to decay.

Specials: Any purpose-made bricks of non-standard shape.

Springer: The first brick on each side of an arch.

Straight joints: Vertical joints directly above or below other vertical joints in
successive courses; the main purpose of bonding is to avoid this
as it results in a reduction of strength within a wall.

Subfloresence: The formation of salt deposits within the structure of a brick.

Voussoirs: A brick shaped to form part of an arch.

43
Scottish traditional brickwork

Decorative brickwork,
Templeton’s Carpet Factory in Glasgow.

44
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