SVR ENGINEERING

COLLEGE
Approved by AICTE& Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA
Ayyalurmetta, Nandyal – 518503.Website: www.svrec.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

MICROWAVE & OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS LABORATORY

IV B.Tech (ECE) R19 I Semester
2022-23

STUDENT NAME
ROLL NUMBER
SECTION

Dept. of ECE, SVREC Page 1

 SVR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Approved by AICTE & Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA
Ayyalurmetta, Nandyal – 518503.Website: www.svrec.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2022-23

This is to certify that the bonafide record work done by

Mr./Ms.
bearing H.T.No. of IV
B.Tech I Semester in the MICROWAVE & OPTICAL
COMMUNICATIONS LABORATORY.

Faculty In-Charge Head of the Department

Dept. of ECE, SVREC Page 2

 ECE DEPT VISION & MISSION PEOs and PSOs


To produce highly skilled, creative and competitive Electronics and Communication

Engineers to meet the emerging needs of the society.



 Impart core knowledge and necessary skills in Electronics and Communication

Engineering through innovative teaching and learning.
 Inculcate critical thinking, ethics, lifelong learning and creativity needed for industry
and society
 Cultivate the students with all-round competencies, for career, higher education and
self-employability

I. PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOS)

PEO1: Graduates apply their knowledge of mathematics and science to identify,

analyze and solve problems in the field of Electronics and develop
sophisticated communication systems.

PEO2: Graduates embody a commitment to professional ethics, diversity and social

awareness in their professional career.

PEO3: Graduates exhibit a desire for life-long learning through technical training and
professional activities.

II. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)

PSO1: Apply the fundamental concepts of electronics and communication

engineering to design a variety of components and systems for applications
including signal processing, image processing, communication, networking,
embedded systems, VLSI and control system

PSO2: Select and apply cutting-edge engineering hardware and software tools to
solve complex Electronics and Communication Engineering problems.

Dept. of ECE, SVREC Page 3

III. PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (PO’S)
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

IV. COURSE OBJECTIVES

 To familiarize the students with basic Microwave communication systems.

 Integrate theory with experiments so that the students appreciate the knowledge
gained from the theory course.
 Understand all types of Optical modulation / demodulation principles.

Dept. of ECE, SVREC Page 4

  Capable of Applying microwave Concepts/ Microwave components and test them.
 Able to design and analyze an optical fiber communications link

V.COURSE OUTCOMES
After the completion of the course students will be able to

Course Course Outcome statements BTL

Outcomes
CO1 Understand different Optical modulation techniques & Laser L1
receiver characteristics
CO2 Analyze different modulation techniques using LED & LASER. L3
CO3 Design and implement different modulation and demodulation L4
techniques
CO4 Observe the performance of system by plotting graphs & Measure L2
Microwave devices &itscharacteristics.
CO5 Observe the performance of system by plotting graphs & Measure L5
Optical devices & its characteristics.

VI.COURSE MAPPING WITH PO’S AND PEO’S

Course P P P
P P P P P P P P P P P P
Title E E E
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
Microwav 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3
e&
Optical
communi
cations
Lab
V MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PEO’S AND PO’S

Course P P P
P P P P P P P P P P P P
Title E E E
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO1 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
CO2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2
CO3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
CO4 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
CO5 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

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 LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS:

1. While entering the Laboratory, the students should follow the dress code.
(Wear shoes and White apron, Female Students should tie their hair back).

2. The students should bring their observation book, record, calculator,

necessary stationery items and graph sheets if any for the lab classes without
which the students will not be allowed for doing the experiment.

3. All the Equipments and components should be handled with utmost care.
Any breakage or damage will be charged.

4. If any damage or breakage is noticed, it should be reported to the concerned

in charge immediately.

5. The theoretical calculations and the updated register values should be noted down
in the observation book and should be corrected by the lab in-charge on the same
day of the laboratory session.

6. Each experiment should be written in the record note book only after
getting signature from the lab in-charge in the observation notebook.

7. Record book must be submitted in the successive lab session after completion of
experiment.

8. 100% attendance should be maintained for the laboratory classes.

Precautions:

1. Check the connections before giving the supply

2. Observations should be done carefully.
3. Maintain some distance from test bench while taking readings.
4. All connections should be tightly connected with the help of screws.

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 LAB SYALLUBUS COPY
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
ANANTAPUR B.Tech (ECE)– IV-I Sem L T PC
0 03 1.5

(19A04701P) MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS LAB

Note: All the experiments shall be conducted and there is no

choice. Microwave Engineering:

1. Set up the Full Microwave bench and know the importance of each block. Identify the pin
configuration of Reflex Klystron with the help of its power supply cable connected from the
power supply unit. Also identify the Microwave signal coupling from Klystron Oscillator to
the waveguide.
2. Make use of the bench set up and conduct the experiment to find mode characteristics of
Reflex Klystron: (i) Repeller voltage vs output power (ii) Repeller voltage vs Frequency.
3. Measurement of Frequency and wavelength of generated Microwave signal using Reflex
Klystron oscillator.
4. Verify the negative resistance characteristics of Gunn oscillator using the Microwave bench
set up with Gunn oscillator set up.
5. Find the Scattering matrix of E-plane, H-plane, and Magic Tees experimentally.
6. Make use of Microwave bench setup to find VSWR and impedance of an unknown load that is
connected at the end of the bench set up. Make use of VSWR meter for the measurement of
VSWR of a given load.
7. Determine directivity, insertion loss and coupling factor of a given Directional Coupler
experimentally.
8. Making use of Microwave bench set up, find the radiation characteristics in both the planes
and determine HPBW and directivity of a pyramidal horn antenna.

Optical Communication:

Dept. of ECE, SVREC Page 7

 9. Conduct the experiment to draw the DC characteristics of LED and Photo diode.
10. Make use of Fiber optic kit to determine the numerical aperture and bending losses of a
given optical fiber (transmission line).
11. Establish an optical link between transmitter and receiver and determine the signal
strength at the receiver. Give the comments about the experiment by transmitting
(i) analog signal (ii) digital signal.
12. Attenuation measurement in Fibers for various lengths.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

INDEX
Sl. No. Date Name of the Experiment Page Mar Signature of
No. ks Lab in-
Obtai charge
ned
Microwave E n g i n e e r i n g Lab (PART – A)

1 Set up the Full Microwave bench and know the

importance of each block. Identify the pin configuration of
Reflex Klystron with the help of its power supply cable
connected from the power supply unit. Also identify the
Microwave signal coupling from Klystron Oscillator to the
waveguide.

2 Make use of the bench set up and conduct the experiment

to find mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron: (i)
Repeller voltage vs output power (ii) Repeller voltage vs
Frequency.

Measurement of Frequency and wavelength of generated

3
Microwave signal using Reflex Klystron oscillator.

4 Verify the negative resistance characteristics of Gunn

oscillator using the Microwave bench set up with Gunn
oscillator set up.

5 Find the Scattering matrix of E-plane, H-plane, and Magic

Tees experimentally.

6 Make use of Microwave bench setup to find VSWR and

impedance of an unknown load that is connected at the
end of the bench set up. Make use of VSWR meter for the
measurement of VSWR of a given load.

7 Determine directivity, insertion loss and coupling factor of a

given Directional Coupler experimentally.

8 Making use of Microwave bench set up, find the radiation

characteristics in both the planes and determine HPBW
and directivity of a pyramidal horn antenna.

Optical Communication Lab (PART – B)

9 Conduct the experiment to draw the DC characteristics of

LED and Photo diode.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15
10 Make use of Fiber optic kit to determine the numerical
aperture and bending losses of a given optical fiber
(transmission line).

11 Establish an optical link between transmitter and

receiver and determine the signal strength at the
receiver. Give the comments about the experiment
by transmitting

(i) analog signal (ii) digital signal.

Attenuation measurement in Fibers for various lengths.

12

Beyond the syllabus experiments

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Microwave Engineering Lab

(PART – A)

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11
 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Experiment No.1 Date:

1. Set up the Full Microwave bench and know the importance of each block. Identify the pin
configuration of Reflex Klystron with the help of its power supply cable connected from the power
supply unit. Also identify the Microwave signal coupling from Klystron Oscillator to the waveguide.

AIM:

To study the microwave components of each block.

RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE:
Waveguides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and mechanical
tolerance to meet internal specifications, L and S band waveguides are fabricated by precision brazing of
brast plate and all other waveguides are in extrusion quality. Waveguide sections of specified length can
be supplied with flinges, painted outside and silver or gold plated inside.

VARIABLE ATTENUATOR:
Model 5020 is a simple and conveniently variable type set level attenuators to provide at least 20db of
continuously variable attenuation. These consist of a movable lossy vane inside the section of a
waveguide by means of a micrometer. The configuration of lossy vane is so designed to obtain the low
VSWR characteristics over the entire frequency band. These are meant for adjusting power levels and
isolating a source and load.

FREQUENCY METER MICROMETER TYPE:

Model 4055 are absorption type cavity wave meter called frequency meter. These are made of tunable
resonant cavity of particular size. The cavity is connected to the source of energy through a section of
waveguide. The cavity absorbs some power at resonance, which is indicated as a sip in the output
power. The tuning of the cavity is achieved by means of a plunger connected to a Microcontroller. The
readings of the micrometer at resonance gives frequency from the calibration chart, provided calibration
is normally provided at 200Mhz internals.
 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

TUNABLE PROBE:
Model 6055 tunable probes are designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These are meant for
exploring the energy of the electric field in a suitable fabricated section of the waveguide. The depth of
penetration into a waveguide section is adjustable by knob of the probe. The tip picks up the RF power
from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is then fed to the VSWR meter or
indicating instrument.

WAVEGUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT:

Model 4051 tunable detector mounts are simple and easy to use instruments for detecting microwave
power through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of waveguide and
a shorting plunging for matching purpose. The output of the crystal may be fed to and indicating
instrument. In K and R band detector mounts, the plunger is driven by a micrometer.

THREE PORT FERRITE CIRCULATOR:

Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y type of the three port ferrite circulators respectively. These are
precisely machined and matched three port devices and these are meant for allowing microwave energy to
flow in clockwise direction with negligible loss but almost no transmission in anticlockwise direction.

Purpose and for measuring reflections and impedance. These consist of a section of waveguide thus
making it a four-part network. However, the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These two
parallel sections are coupled to each other through many holes almost to give uniform coupling minimum
frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These are available in 3,6,10,20 and 40 db couplings.

E-PLANE BEND:
Model 7071 E-plane bends are fabricated from a section of waveguide to provide one 90° ± 1 bend in E-
plane. The cross section of bent waveguide is kept throughout uniform to give VSWR less than 1.05 or
1.08 or 1.02 over the entire frequency band. Bends other than 90° can also be fabricated.

RESULT:
Thus the various microwave components were studied.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Experiment No.2 Date:

2. Make use of the bench set up and conduct the experiment to find mode characteristics of Reflex
Klystron: (i) Repeller voltage vs output power (ii) Repeller voltage vs Frequency.

AIM:

1) To study the mode characteristics of the reflex klystron.

2) To determine the mode numbers.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Klystron Power Supply with Cooling Fan---------------1No.

2. Reflex Klystron 1No.
3. Isolator 1No.
4. Frequency Meter 1No.
5. Variable Attenuator 1No.
6. Detector Mount 1No.
7. Indicating Meter 1No. 8. Oscilloscope with Probe
1No.
9. Waveguide Stands 3Nos.

THEORY:

The Reflex Klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into
microwave power. Electron emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the positive
resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and, finally, reflects the electron; and the electron turns
back through the resonator. Suppose an hf-field exists between the resonator, the electron travelling forward
will be accelerated or retarded, as the voltage at the resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons
leave the resonator at an increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The
electrons leaving the resonator will need different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result,
returning electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through resonator, they interact
with voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such time that the electrons are slowed down
by the voltage, energy will be delivered to the resonator; and Klystron will oscillate. the schematic of a
typical Klystron tube. the relationship between output power, frequency and reflector voltage. The frequency
is primarily determined by the dimension of resonant cavity. Hence, by changing the volume of resonator,
mechanical tuning range of Klystron is possible.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Also, a small frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called Electronic
Tuning Range. The same result can be obtained, if the modulation voltage is applied on the reflector voltage

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCUDURE:

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in above figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position (on 20mm).
3. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
4. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the
knobs in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
5. Note the Modulation knob in — AM position
6. First switch on the cooling fan and Beam voltage knob is set near 270 volts (fixed)
7. Repeller voltage knob is to vary from 110v to 0v
8. Observe detector output on CRO to get square wave pulses .
9. Increase the Repeller voltage in steps of readings of and record the detector mount output in
terms of voltage in the CRO by tuning the repellar voltage knob to have a dip in the output each
time for each modes (3or 4 values until zero comes).
10. Plot the graph between Repellar voltage verses output voltage
11. The mode number is calculated by using the following formula.

V2 n 1 3 4
= (n----> mode number)
n3 4
V1

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

OBSERVATIONS:

Beam voltage =----------V

Beam current =----------V

TABULAR COLUMN:

Repellar voltage(V) Output voltage(V)

CALCULATIONS:

For n1:
3
n1
v2 =
4
3
v1 n
4

n1 =

For n2:

n2 = For n3:
n3 = --------

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

EXPECTEDGRA:

fig 4 Modes of 2K25

RESULT:

Hence the characteristics of the reflex – klystron has been studied. The tuning range of 1 2 3 modes is
Observed.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply of VSWR /
Klystron power supplies. Note: For klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before switching
‘ON’ the main supply.
ii. Beam knob should be completely in anticlockwise direction and repeller voltage knob should be
completely clockwise direction.
iii. Switch on the main supply and give some warm up time to get current / accurate reading. 5
iv. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
v. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs
in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
vi. Don’t increase the repeller voltage more than -70V(i.e.) it should be between -70Vto - 270V.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the operating principle of reflex klystron?

2. What are the applications of reflex klystron?

3. What is transit time?

4. What modes are generally used in a reflex klystron?

5. What is the operating frequency and power output of a reflex klystron?

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Experiment No.3 Date:

3. Measurement of Frequency and wave length of generated Microwave signal using Reflex Klystron
oscillator.
AIM:

1) To measure the guide wave length.

2) To calculate the frequency of the microwave signal travelling in the bench set up.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) Klystron Power Supply-----------------------1No

2) Reflex Klystron with Cooling Fan-----------1No.
3) Isolator 1No.
4) Variable Attenuator----------------------------1No.
5) Detector Mount 1No.
6) Indicating Meter
1No. 7) Matched Termination-------------------1No.
8) Frequency Meter 1No.
9) Slotted Section 1No.
10) Tunable Probe 1No.
11) Cathode RayOscilloscope----------------------1No.
12) C.R.O. Probe 1No.
13) Wave Guide Stands
3Nos.

THEORY:

a) Standing Wave Distribution: If a transmission lines is terminated in an independence not equal to its characteristic
impedance, the termination is said to be ‘not matched’ to the line. Waves traveling down the line are partially or
wholly reflected from the termination. Total reflection occurs when the terminal impedance is not dissipative, i.e. a short,
open or reactive termination. Standing waves are the result of two wave trains of equal wavelength incident and
reflected along the line in opposite directions.

b) High VSWR by Double Minimum Method: The voltage standing wave ratio of

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15
where Vmax and Vmin are the voltage at the maxima and minima of voltage standing wave distribution. When the VSWR
is high ( , the standing wave pattern will have a high maxima and low minima. Since the square law characteristic of a
crystal detector is limited to low power, an error is introduced if ≥ 5)V max is measured directly. This difficulty can be
avoided by using the ‘double minimum method’ in which measurements are take on the standing wave pattern near
the voltage minimum. The procedure consists of first finding the value of voltage minima. Next two positions about the
position of Vmax are found at which the output voltage is twice the minimum value. If the detector response is square

where λ g is the guide wavelength and d is the distance between the two
points where the voltage is 2 Vmin.

positions about the position of Vmax are found at which the output voltage is twice the minimum value. If the detector
response is square

where λ g is the guide wavelength and d is the distance between the two
points where the voltage is 2 Vmin.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in above figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position (on 20mm).
3. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
4. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the
knobs in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
5. Note the Modulation knob in — AM position
6. First switch on the cooling fan and Beam voltage knob is set near 270 volts (fixed)
7. Repeller voltage knob is to near 70to90v
8. Connect the matched termination to get tunable probe for output and second SS-tuner and
matched termination on CRO to get square wave pulses and note down the maximum output
voltages
9. After setting the mode in reflex klystron by precautions, move the probe of the slotted section to locate
a point on the vernier scale of the slotted section corresponding to the voltage two minimas.
10. Find the average distance between the consecutive minima. Calculate the guide wave length.
11. Calculate the cut-off wave length as
λc = 2 X length of the broadwall of the wave guide.
12. Calculate the free space wave length(λ) as
12 1 1
 = g  2
2
c

c
7) Calculate the frequency (f) as f =

1st Minima =------------------------------- + cm.

2nd Minima = --------- +-- - -cm.

The guide wave length (λg) = 2X2nd Minima - 1st Minima

= 2X------------cm.

(λg) = cm.

Cut-off wave length (λc) = 2Xa (where a= 2.286)

(λc) = cm.

1
The free space wave length is 2 1
=
g 2
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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

1 c2


λ= c. m.

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

c
Frequency, f = (where c =3X1010)


f= GHz.
RESULT:

Thus the frequency and wavelength of rectangular waveguide has been determined. Frequency = 9.6 GHz

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply of VSWR /
Klystron power supplies. Note: For klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before
switching ‘ON’ the main supply.
ii. Beam knob should be completely in anticlockwise direction and repeller voltage knob should be
completely clockwise direction.
iii. Switch on the main supply and give some warm up time to get current / accurate reading.
iv. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
v. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs
in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
vi. Don’t increase the repeller voltage more than -70 V(i.e.) it should be between -70V to -270V.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. .How is slotted line used to measure frequency and wavelength?

2. For what purpose is a slotted line is used?

3. Which of the following steps are carried out while measuring the impedance using slotted line?

4. What are the applications of frequency and wave length using slotted section?

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15

Experiment No.4 Date:

4. Verify the negative resistance characteristics of Gunn oscillator using the Microwave bench
set up with Gunn oscillator set up.

AIM:

To study Gunn Oscillator as a source of micro wave power and to study the V-I Chacteristics.

APPARATUS REQUIRD:

1. Gunn Power Supplywith Cooling Fan--------1No.

2. Gunn Oscillator 1No.
3. Isolator 1No.
4. Pin Modulator 1No.
5. Frequency Meter 1No.
6. Variable Attenuator
1No.
7. Matchtermination 1No.
8. VSWR Meter
1No. 9. Waveguide Stands-------------------------3No.

THEORY:

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity intermediate between that of a conductor and an insulator. In
semiconducting materials thermal energy is enough to cause a number of electrons to release from valance band to
conduction band, in which they are relatively free. Common semiconducting materials are silicon, germanium, gallium,
arsenide etc.

Semiconductors are classified as;

Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconducting materials like crystalline form of germanium and silicon, with equal
concentration of electrons and holes.

Extrinsic semiconductors: Semiconducting material with the addition of suitable impurity atoms through doping.

Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type or n-type depending on the impurities added to it. A p- type semiconductor is
formed when adding pentavalent impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc. to an intrinsic semiconductor. If the
impurities added are trivalent atoms, we get the n- type
semiconductor. Semiconductor diode is simply the combination of a p-type and an n-type material. It is formed
by doping half of the silicon crystal with trivalent impurity (p-type) and the other half with pentavalent impurity (n-type).

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 MW&OFC Lab Manuals 1V B.Tech 1-Sem Reg.15
It has the characteristics of passing current in one direction only. If there is no voltage is applied across the junction,
electrons will diffuse through the junction to p - side and holes will diffuse through the junction to n - side and they
combine with each other. Thus the acceptor atom near the p - side and donor atom near n – side are left unutilized and is
called the depletion layer. An electron field is generated by these uncovered charges which called the barrier potential.
This opposes further diffusion of carriers and is known as depletion region

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

V-I characteristics:

1. Set the components as shown in above figure.

2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below
 Meter switch should be off
 Gunn bias knob-fully anticlockwise
 Pin bias knob (mod amp) – fully anticlockwise
 Pin mode frequency – any position
3. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
4. Switch on the Gunn power supply.
5. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various Gunn bias voltages throughthe digital
panel meter and meter switch. 0.5 volts to 10 volts and note down the correspondingcurrent.
6. Plot the voltage and current reading on the graph and compare with expectedgraph.
7. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.

Frequency versus voltage characteristics:

5. At any one of these two frequencies set the Gunn biasing just above the threshold voltage Vo,
and adjust the attenuator for suitable power level. Record frequency using the frequency
meter.
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6. Plot the frequency versus Gunn bias characteristics.

EXPECTED GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN :

Sl.No. Gunn Voltage (V) Current (mA)

CALCULATIONS:
V
Negative resistance region =
I

V2 V1
=
I 2  I1

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RESULT:

The V-I characteristics of Gunn diode has been observed. The threshold voltage is -56.25Ω.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at the threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
ii. Reading should be obtained as fast as possible otherwise due to excessive heat Gunn diode may burn
iii. Care should be taken such that the bias voltage should not exceed above 10V

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Why can’t conventional tubes be used at microwave frequencies?

2. What is transit time?

3. What are the applications of Gunn diode characteristics?

4. What is velocity and current modulation in a reflex klystron

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Experiment No.5 Date:

5. Find the Scattering matrix of E-plane, H-plane, and Magic Tees experimentally.

AIM: To find the characteristics of given E-plane and H-plane

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1) Klystron Power Supply--------------------------------1No.

2) Reflex Klystron tube with Cooling Fan--------------1No.
3) Isolator 1No.
4) Variable Attenuator 1No.
5) Frequency Meter
1No. 6) Matched Termination
1No.
7) Tunable Probe with Detector-------------------------1No.
8) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope with Probe---------------1No.
9) Detector mounts 1No.
10) Magic Tee 1No.
11) Waveguide Stands 3Nos.

THEORY:

In E-plane tee, axis of the side arm is parallel to the E field, the same is shown in the figure-1.As shown in
figure, this E-plane tee type is perfectly matched using screw or capacitive or inductive windows at junction.
As there is no reflection, diagonal S parameters of scattering matrix will be zero. Hence S11, S22 and S33 are
zero. For matched junction, S matrix will be as depicted in the figure-1 in equation-(1). When the waves are
fed into port- 3(side arm), the waves at port-1 and port-2 of collinear arms will be of same magnitude but
opposite in the phase. Hence ,S13 = -S23 Equation-(1) is for the perfectly matched junction, but in practice it
will be poorly matched. S matrix when collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm is mentioned in
equation-(2). Here, |S13| = |S23| and S11 = S22.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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In H-plane tee, axis of the side arm is parallel to the H field, the same is shown in the above figure

In H plane tee, when two inputs are fed into port-1 and port-2 of the arms(collinear), output at port-3 will be
in phase and also additive in nature. On the other side, if input is fed at port-3, the waves get split equally
into port-1 and port-2 with in-phase and will have same magnitude. These properties of H-plane tee is used
in waveguide power combiner and power divider.
S matrix of H-plane tee is same as mentioned for E-plane tee. The same is mentioned equation-(1) and
equation-
in figure-1 except here S13 = S23.

As they are poor in providing good match, tuning screw is used to adjust the reactance of the system to
obtain perfect impedance match.

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PROCEDURE:

1) Adjustments are made such that the microwave engine is perfectly horizontal and
C.R.O
2) Before switching on klystron power supply, rotate the beam voltage knob fully
in anticlockwise direction and rotate the repeller voltage knob fully in clockwise
direction, switch on the cooling fan.
3) After switching on the klystron power supply, keep the beam voltage and the
beam current at 240v and 16ma. respectively.
4) Connect the port3 to the output and port2 to the Detector mount, port1 is connected to the
matched termination.
5) Calculate S31 by using the
V1
formula S31 = .
V3

6) Repeat the above procedure for measuring the other parameters of E-Plane Tee & H-Plane Tee.

CALCULATIONS:

By using this formula we have to substitute S12 = Input port1&port3 is matched termination

V1 =-----V
V2 =-----V

V3 =-----V

S11 =------V

S12 =------V

S13 =------V

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Input port2&port1 is matched termination V1 = V

V2 =-----V
V3 =-----V

S21 =------V
S22 =------V

S23 =------V

Input port3&port2 is matched termination

V1 =-------V

V2 =-------V

V3 =------V

S31 =-------V
S32 =------V
S33 =------V

RESULT:

S=

We have studied the Characteristics of E-Plane and H-Plane Tee is verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. How are E and H plane tees used?

Ans. The E-plane and H-plane are reference planes for linearly polarized waveguides, antennas and other
microwave devices.....In microwave circuits, a waveguide with three independent ports is called a
TEE junction. The output of E-Plane Tee is 180° out of phase where the output of H-plane Tee is in
phase.

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2. What are the properties of scattering parameters?

Ans. Properties of [S] Matrix
[S] is always a square matrix of order nxn. [S]n×n.
[S] is a symmetric matrix. i.e., Sij=Sji.
[S] is a unitary matrix. i.e., [S][S]∗=I.
The sum of the products of each term of any row or column multiplied by the complex conjugate of
the corresponding terms of any other row or column is zero. i.e.,

3. Why is H-plane called 3 db splitter?

Ans. H plane Tee is so called because the axis of side arm is parallel to planes of H-field of main
transmission line. As all three arms of H plane tee lay in the plane of magnetic field,the magnetic
field divide itself in arms this is thus the current junction.

4. How H-plane & E-plane tee are formed?

Ans. H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to a rectangular waveguide which
already has two ports. The arms of rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e.,
Port1 and Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or H-arm. This H-plane Tee is also
called as Shunt Tee.

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Experiment No.6 Date:

6.Make use of Microwave bench setup to find VSWR and impedance of an unknown load that is
connected at the end of the bench set up. Make use of VSWR meter for the measurement of VSWR of a
given load.

AIM: To study the method of measurement of VSWR and to determine the refection cofficient

APPARATUS:

1. Klystron power supply with cooling fan----1no.

2. Klystron tube ----1no.
3. Isolator ---1no.
4. Variable attenuator ----- 1no.
5. Frequency meter ------ 1no.
6. Slotted line sectin ----- 1no.
7. Tunable probe ----- 1no.
8. CRO ---- 1no.
9. CRO Probe -----1no.
10. Wave guide stands -----1no.
11. Detector mount -----1no.
12. i

THEORY:

The standing wave ratio can be defined as the ratio of the highest RF voltage & the minimum RF voltage
through the transmission line. Once standing wave ratio is identified in terms of highest & least AC voltage
through the transmission lines & it is also called VSWR or voltage SWR.

The ratio of the highest RF current & the lowest RF current in the transmission line is called current SWR. In
physics, standing waves are also called stationary waves. These waves fluctuate n time; however, the amplitude
does not go but remains stable through time.

In telecommunications & microwave engineering, the impedance matching measure with loads toward the
transmission line impedance is called as standing wave ratio.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in above figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position (on 20mm).
3. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
4. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs
in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
5. Note the Modulation knob in — AM position
6. First switch on the cooling fan and Beam voltage knob is set near 270 volts (fixed)
7. Repeller voltage knob is to near 70to90v
8. Calculate the voltage levels in cro

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

What is VSWR formula?

What is a good VSWR?
What does VSWR equal to 1 mean?
Why is VSWR important?

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Experiment No.7 Date:

7. Determine directivity, insertion loss and coupling factor of a given Directional Coupler
experimentally.

AIM:

To measure the coupling factor and directivity and isolation of directional coupler.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Microwave sources with Cooling Fan------------1No.

2. Isolator ------------ 1No.
3. Frequency Meter ------------ 1No.
4. Variable Attenuator ------------ 1No.
5. Slotted line Tunable Probe ------------ 1No.
6. Direction coupler ------------ 1No.
7. Detector Mount ------------ 1No.
8. Matched Termination ------------ 2No.
8. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope ------------ 1No.
9. C.R.O. Probe ------------ 1No.
10 Waveguide Stands ------------ 2Nos.

THEORY:

A directional coupler is a four-port microwave junction with the properties described below. With reference to Fig.1,
which is schematic illustration or a directional coupler, the ideal directional coupler has the property that a wave incident
in part 1 couples power into ports 2 and 3 but not into part 4. Similarly, power incident in part 4 couples into ports 2 and
3 but not into part 1. Thus ports 1 and 4 are uncoupled. For wave incident in port 2 or 3, the power also uncoupled. In
addition, all four ports are matched. That is, if three ports are terminated in matched loads, the fourth port appears
terminated –coupling and directivity. Let be the incident power in port 1 and left

in a matched load, and an incident wave in this port suffers no reflection. Directional couplers are widely used in
impedance bridges for microwave measurements and for power monitoring. Since these devices are required to operate
over a band of frequencies, it is not possible to obtain ideal performance over the whole frequency band. The
performance of a directional coupler is measured by two pameters 1f P be the pled power in the forward direction in port
3. The coupling in decibels is then given by

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Connect the components and equipments as shown.
4. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position (on 20mm).
5. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
6. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the
knobs in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
7. Note the Modulation knob in — AM position
8. First switch on the cooling fan and Beam voltage knob is set near 270 volts (fixed)
9. Repeller voltage knob is to near 70to90v
10. Observe detector mount output on CRO to get square wave pulses and note down the maximum
output voltages.
11. Observe the above figure output for three steps i.e., V1 for detector mount. V2, V3and V4

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RESULT:

Hence we have measured the coupling factor and directivity and isolation of directional coupler.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply of VSWR /
Klystron power supplies. Note: For klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before switching ‘ON’
the main supply.
ii. Beam knob should be completely in anticlockwise direction and repeller voltage knob should be
completely clockwise direction.
iii. Switch on the main supply and give some warm up time to get current / accurate reading.
iv. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in minimum
position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
v. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs
in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
vi. Don’t increase the repeller voltage more than -70V(i.e.) it should be between -70V to -270

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is Directivity in a Coupler?

2. What are the applications of directional coupler characteristics?

3. What is the Difference between a 3-Port Coupler and 4-Port Coupler?

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Experiment No.8 Date:

8. Making use of Microwave bench set up, find the radiation characteristics in both the
planes and determine HPBW and directivity of a pyramidal horn antenna.

Aim : To plot the radiation pattern of horn and parabolic reflector antenna.
Apparatus/Components Required :
1. Klystron Power supply 2. Klystron with mount
3. Isolator 4. Variable Attenuator
5. Horn Antenna[2 nos] 6. Detector Mount
7. CRO 8. Probes
9. Cooling Fan 10. Stands
11. Parabolic reflector antenna
Theory :
Radiation pattern of an antenna is obtained by plotting the voltage or power or gain at
various angles from the antenna. Both horn and parabolic reflector antenna the radiation
pattern is uni-directional i.e. maximum energy is radiated in a particular direction and in other
directions minimum or zero radiation. In addition to the major lobe there may be few minor
side lobes existing. Half-power or 3-dB beam width may be found by measuring the angle
between the two half-power points or the 3-dB points or the angle between two points where
the voltage is Vmax/√2. Similarly the beam width between first nulls[BWFN] may be found by
measuring the angle between two tangential lines to the major lobe from the origin.

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MODEL GRAPH

Tabulation :

1. Horn Antenna & PARABOLIC ANTENNA:

Vin= Volts d= cms
Sl.No Angle in Output Angle in Output
degrees Voltage degrees Voltage
[Volts] [Volts]
1. 0 350
2. 10 340
3. 20 330
4. 30 320
5. 40 310
6. 50 300
7. 60 290
8. 70 280
9. 80 270
10. 90 260
11. 100 250
12. 110 240

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Precautions :
1. Before switching ON the Klystron power supply ensure that the beam voltage
knob is in the minimum position[Left extreme] and the repeller voltage knob is
in the maximum position[right extreme].
2. While doing the experiment ensure that the beam voltage and beam current do
not exceed 250 Volts and 20 mA respectively.
3. Before switching OFF the Klystron power supply ensure that the beam voltage
knob is in the minimum position [Left extreme] and the repeller voltage knob is
in the maximum position [right extreme].
Procedure :
1. Obtain square wave output without the antenna in the set-up and maximize the
output by adjusting beam voltage, repeller voltage, modulating amplitude and
the attenuator and note down this voltage as Vin.
2. Now connect the two horn antenna in the set-up and align the two antenna both
vertically and horizontally for maximum output. Ensure a minimum distance(end
to end) of 15 cms between the antenna.
3. Set the angle where maximum output obtained as zero degrees and note down the
output voltage.
4. Vary the angle from zero degrees through 360 degrees and note down the
corresponding output voltages. Tabulate the readings.
5. Plot the Output voltage Vs Angle in degrees in a polar sheet.
6. Find the 3dB beam width and BWFN.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 with parabolic reflector antenna in the receiving antenna
position instead of horn antenna.
Result :
Thus the radiation pattern of horn and parabolic reflector antenna were plotted and the 3-dB
beam width and BWFN were found to be :
3-dB beam width = degrees
BWFN = degrees

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Optical Communication Lab (PART – B)

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Experiment No.9 Date:

9. Conduct the experiment to draw the DC characteristics of LED and Photo diode.

AIM:

To study the characterization of LED.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) Fiber Optic Analog Transmitter Trainer Kit (2105) ------------ 1No.

2) Fiber Optic Analog Receiver Trainer Kit (2105) ------------- 1No.
3) Digital Multimeter ------------ 2No.
4) 2105 Adapters ------------- 2No.
5) Fiber Optic Cables 1mtr. & 2 mtr. ------------- 2No

THEORY:

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in forward
direction of the device as in simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-
spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction.

For optical communication systems requiring bit rates less than approximately 100-200 Mb/s together with multimode fiber-
coupled optical power in tens of microwatts, semiconductor light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are usually the best light source
choice. LEDs require less complex drive circuitry than laser diodes since no thermal or optical stabilization circuits are
needed and they can be fabricated less expensively with higher yields.

To be useful in fiber transmission applications and LED must have a high radiance output, a fast emission response time and
high quantum efficiency. To achieve a high radiance and a high quantum efficiency, the LED structure must provide a
means of confining the charge carriers and the stimulated optical emission to the active region of the pn junction where
radiative recombination takes place.

The two basic LED configurations being used for fiber optics are surface emitters and edge emitters.

Internal Quantum Efficiency:

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The internal quantum efficiency ηint is an important parameter of an LED. It is defined as the fraction of the electron-hole
pairs that recombine radiatively. If the radiative recombination rate is Rr and the non-radiative recombination rate isRnr, then
the internal quantum efficiency is the ratio is the ratio of the radaitive recombination rate to the total recombination
rate. ηint is typically 50% in homojunction LEDs, but ranges from 60 to 80% in double-heterostructure LEDs.

Optical Power:

If the current injected into the LED is I, then the total number of recombinations per second is I/q, where q is the electron
charge. Total number of radaiative recombinations is equal to (ηint I/q). Since each photon has an energy hν, the optical
power generated internally by the LED is: Pint = (ηint I/q)(hν).

External Quantum Efficiency:

The external quantum efficiency (ηext)of a LED is defined as the ratio of the photons emitted from the LED to the number
of internally generated photons. Due to reflection effects at the surface of the LED typical values of ηout are < 10%.

i) Light Intensity (Optical Power) vs. Current:

This is a very important characteristic of an LED. It was shown earlier that the optical power generated by an LED is directly proportional to the
injected current I (current through the LED). However, in practice the characteristic is generally non-linear, especially at higher currents. The near-linear
light output characteristic of an LED is exploited in small length fiber optic analog communication links, such as fiber optic closed-circuit TV.

ii) Junction Voltage vs. Current:

The junction voltage vs. current characteristic of an LED is similar to the V-I characteristics of diodes. However, there is
one major difference. The knee voltage of a diode is related to the barrier potential of the material used in the device.
Silicon diodes and bipolar junction transistors are very commonly used whose knee voltage or junction voltage is about

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0.7 V. Very often it is wrongly assumed that other diodes also have the same junction voltage. In an LED, depending on
the material used its junction voltage can be anywhere between 1.5 to 2.2 Volts.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

An electrical current consists of the movement of electrons within a material. Good conductors have a large number of
free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the action of a potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance
have very few free electrons, and therefore it is hard to make the them move and hence a current to flow.An LDR or
photoresistor is made any semiconductor material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance because there are very
few electrons that are free and able to move - the vast majority of the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and
unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance.As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons
are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some of
them sufficient energy to break free from the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a
lowering of the resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance. The process is progressive, and as
more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more electrons are released to conduct electricity and the resistance falls
further.

Characteristics of LDR:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1) Connect one end of cable1 to the LED1 port of fiber optic Analog Transmitter
and the other end of the fiber optic pin to power meter(PO) port of fiber optic analog Receiver.
(Re ading )
Po = dB.
10

2) Set digital multimeter1 to the 2000mV range and connect the green wires marked Po on the RX-
unit to it. The power meter is ready for use.
3) Set digital multimeter2 to the 2000mV range and connect it between the Vo1 and ground in the
TX- unit.
IF1 = Vo1(mV) in mA.

100
4) Plug the alternate current mains for both units. Adjust the SET Po knob on the
TX-unit to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce I F1 to 0. The reading
on the power meter should be out of range.
5) Slowly turn the SET Po knob clockwise to increase IF1. The power meter
should read -30.0 dB approximately. From here change IF1 in suitable
steps and note the power meter readings, Po. Record upto the extreme
clockwise position.
6) Repeat the complete experiment for Po LED2 and tabulate the readings
for Vo2 & Po.
IF2 = Vo2 in mA.

50
EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

i) Light Intensity (Optical Power) vs. Current

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ii) Junction Voltage vs. Current

I-V Characteristics of LDR

FOR 660 N.M.:

V0
Sl.No. (Vo) = IF P0
100

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FOR 850N.M.

(V0) V0 P
Sl.No. = IF
0
50

RESULT:

We have studied the characterization of LED and we have ploted the graph between forward voltages versus
forward current.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the characteristics of LEDs?

2. What are the different types of losses in optical fiber?

3. What are the IV characteristics of LED?

4 What are the applications of LED?

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Experiment No.10 Date:

10 Make use of Fiber optic kit to determine the numerical aperture and bending losses of a given optical
fiber (transmission line).

AIM:

To study various types of losses that occurs in optical fibers in 660n.m. and
850n.m. wave length.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) Fiber Optic Cables (1mtr. & 5mtr.)................................................1 No.

2) Digital Multimeter..........................................................................2 No.
3) 2105Adapters..................................................................................2 No.
4) Fiber Optic Analog Transmitter Kit (2105)...................................1 No.
5) Fiber Optic Analog Receiver Kit (2105)........................................1 No.

THEORY:

Attenuation or loss in optical fibers basically refers to the loss of power. During transit, light pulse loses some of
their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer.
The degree of attenuation depends on the wavelength of light transmitted.

Attenuation measures the reduction in signal strength by comparing the output power with input power.
Measurements are made in decibels (dB). The basic measurement for loss is done by taking the logarithmic ratio
of input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).

Material absorption losses - It is a loss mechanism related to the material composition and fabrication process of
the fiber which results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted optical power as heat in waveguide. The
absorption of light may be intrinsic (caused by one or more major components of glass) or extrinsic (caused by
impurities within the glass).

Linear scattering losses - Linear scattering mechanisms cause the transfer of some or all of the optical power
contained within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly(proportionally) into a different mode. This
process tends to result in attenuation of the transmitted light as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode
which does not continue to propagate within the fiber core, but is radiated from the fiber. It is mainly of two
types:

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a) Rayleigh scattering (b) Mie scattering

Bending loss

Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature. Fibers can be
subjected two types of bends:

Macroscopic bends (having radii that is large as compared with the fiber diameter)

Random microscopic bends of fiber axis

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1) Connect one end of the cable1 to the LED1 port of the fiber optic Analog Transmitter and the other end
to the fiber optic pin port (power meter port) of fiber optic analog receiver.
2) Set the digital multimeter to the 2000m.v. range. Connect the pair of wires marked optic analog receiver to
the digital multimeter, red lead of the digital multimeter to Po+ back lead of the digital multimeter to Po-
terminals. Turn the digital multimeter on. The power meter is now ready for use.
3) Plug the alternate current mains for both units. Connect the optical fiber with patch card, cable1 securely,
as shown, after releiving all twists and strains on the fiber. While connecting the cable please note that
minimum force should be applied. At the same time ensure that the connector is not loosely coupled to
the receptacle. After connecting the optical fiber cable properly, adjust set Po knob to set power of L.E.D1
to a suitable value, say, -15.0 d. b. Note this as Po1.
4) Wind one turn of the fiber on the mandrel as shown in exp.1 and note the new
reading of power meter Po2. Now the loss due to bending and strain on the plastic
fiber is Po1-Po2 d. b. For more accurate readout set the digital multimeter to the
200m.v. range and take the measurement. Typically the loss due to the strain
and bending the fiber is 0.3 to 0.8 d. b.
5) Next remove the mandrel and relieve cable1 of all twists and strains. Note the reading Po1. Repeat the
measurement and with cable2 and note the reading Po2. Use the in line SMA adapter and connect the
two cables in series as shown. Note the measurement Po6.
6) Repeat the entire experiment with LED2 at 850n.m. and tabulate it.

CALCULATIONS:

1meter (fiber optic cable)

Initial Without 1st 2rd bend 3rd bend Average
power bending bend
P0
P1
P2
5meter (fiber optic cable)

Initial Without 1st 2rd bend 3rd bend Average

power bending bend
P0
P1
P2

RESULT:

We have been studied various types of losses that occurs in optical fibers in 660n.m. and 850

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. How is loss measured in a fiber optic system?

2. What are the different types of losses in optical fiber?

3. Which of the following loss occurs inside the fiber?

4. How is fiber optic cable measured

5. What are the applications of fiber optic losses?

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Experiment No.11 Date:

11. Establish an optical link between transmitter and receiver and determine the signal strength at
the receiver. Give the comments about the experiment by transmitting

(i) analog signal (ii) digital signal.

AIM:

To study the optical power (Po) of a laser diode verses laser diode forward current
(IF).
(i) analog signal

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) Optical Fiber Modulator Trainer Kit (2107) ---------------- 1No.

2) Optical Fiber Demodulator Trainer Kit (2107) ---------------- 1No.
3) Digital Multimeters ---------------- 2No.
4) 2107 Adapters ---------------- 2No.
5) 2mtr.Cable ---------------- 1No.

THEORY:

Laser diodes and light emitting diodes have a number of elements in common with respect to their theory of operation.
However the laser diode theory of operation incorporates more elements, taking in additional processes to provide the
coherent light it produces.

While there are many different forms of laser diode, the basis of the laser diode theory of operation is very similar - the
basic precepts remain the same, although there are a number of minor differences in the way they are implemented..

There are three main processes in semiconductors that are associated with light:

 Light absorption: Absorption occurs when light enters a semiconductor and its energy is transferred to the
semiconductor to generate additional free electrons and holes. This effect is widely used and enables devices like to
photo-detectors and solar cells to operate.
 Spontaneous emission: The second effect known as spontaneous emission occurs in LEDs. The light produced in
this manner is what is termed incoherent. In other words the frequency and phase are random, although the light is
situated in a given part of the spectrum.
 Stimulated emission: Stimulated emission is different. A light photon entering the semiconductor lattice will strike

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an electron and release energy in the form of another light photon. The way in which this occurs releases this new photon
of identical wavelength and phase. In this way the light that is generated is said to be coherent

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the 2-meter PMMA fiber optic cable1 to TX unit of TNS20EL and
couple the laser light to the power meter on the RX unit as shown. Select
ACC mode of operation.
2) Set digital multimeter1 to the 2000mV range. On the RX side connect the green wires marked Po to it
on. The power meter is now ready for use.
(Re ading )
Po = dB.
10

3) Set digital multimeter2 to the 2000mV range and connect it between the
red wire and ground (Black wire) on the TX unit. Vo
IF =
50
4) Adjust the set If the TX knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce
IF to 0.. The power meter reading will normally be below -40dBm. or out of range
5) Slowly turn the set If knob clockwise to increase IF and Po readings. Take
closer readings prior to and above the laser threshold. Plot the graph Po verses
IF current,IF (mA) on x-axis and power(PodB) on y-axis.

EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

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TABULAR COLUMN:

V0
Sl.No. (V0) IF = P0
50

RESULT:

We have been studied an optical link between transmitter and receiver and determined the signal strength
at the receiver by transmitting the analog signal

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are characteristic of laser?

2. What is LED application and characteristics?

3. What are the applications of laser diode?

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AIM:

ii) Digital signal

To study the following encoding methods used in optical fiber digital transmission.
1) Non Return to Zero Inverted Coding (NRZI).
2) Bi-Phase Coding.
3) Manchester Coding.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) 2106 Transmitter Trainer Kit ---------------- 1No.

2) 2106 Receiver Trainer Kit ---------------- 1No.
3) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope ---------------- 1No.
4) Patch Chords ---------------- Few Nos.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

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PROCEDURE:

1) Connect one end of cable1 to the LED port of the FT 2106-TX and the other end
to the fiber optic port of FT 2106-RX. While connecting the cable please note
that minimum force should be applied. At the same time ensure that the
connector is not loosely coupled the receptacle.
2) Connect NRZ encoder output to Vin on the TX side. Also connect it to Ch1 of
a dual trace oscilloscope. Connect Vo on the RX side to Channel2 of the
oscilloscope.
3) Set Rin to 200Ω using a digital multimeter to measure the resistance.
4) Now turn the power on for the TX and RX units. The NRZ waveform should appear on channel1.
It should be a 5 kHz square wave.
5) Adjust Rth until the waveform on channel2, is almost identical to the NRZ.
6) Next connect Vo to NRZ input of the decoder on the RX side and connect the oscilloscope channel2
to Vout. Reset both the TX and RX systems once. Observe the decoded Vout and compare with the
NRZ encoder output. Read the serial code 1100 (this is repeated cyclically).
7) Repeat step6 for other waveforms one after the other, connecting the appropriate jumper on the TX and
RX sides and resetting the system each time. The oscilloscope probes shall remain on the NRZ output
(as this is the base band test signal for other codes) and Vout. Match the received signals with the
expected waveforms.

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EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

1) The DHM20B modules require external 5v DC power supply, digital

signal generator and a PMMA patch chord terminated with SMA
connectors.
2) The LED current when on is approximately 33m.a. when of it is 0m.a.
3) 5th diagram sets the threshold detection level for the internal comparator in the receiver.
4) Using this the rise time and fall time distortions may be suitably selected. Rin sets receiver gain
and bandwidth.

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RESULT:

We have studied the following encoding methods used in optical fiber digital transmission.
1) Non Return to Zero Inverted Coding (NRZI).
2) Bi-Phase Coding.
3) Manchester Coding.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is optical digital link?

Ans. An optical link is a telecommunications link that consists of a single end-to-end optical circuit. A
cable of optical fibers, possibly concatenated into a dark fiber link, is the simplest form of an optical link.
Other forms of optical links include free-space optical telecommunication links.

2. What are the important specifications of an optical fiber *?

Ans. Optical specifications of particular concern are attenuation and bandwidth, which are currently
Specified at two operating wavelengths for each fiber type. Performance is specified at 850 and 1,300
nm for multimode fiber and 1,310 and 1,550 nm for single mode.

3. What are the two main causes of losses in signals of an optical fiber?
Ans. There are two main causes of intrinsic attenuation. One is light absorption and the other one is
scattering. Light absorption is a major cause of losses in optical fiber during optical transmission.
The light is absorbed in the fiber by the materials of fiber optic

4. What are the applications of measurement of data rate for digital optical link?
Ans.Typical bit rates used in modern optical transmission systems are 2.5 Gbit/s and 10 Gbit/s. With WDM,
several optical channels are combined, in the optical domain, into a single optical beam, which is
launched into the transmission fiber.

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BEYOND THE
SYLLABUS
EXPERIMENTS

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Experiment No.1 Date:

SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF THE CIRCULATOR

AIM: 1) To study the operation of a ferrite based circulator.

2) To determine the s-parameters of the circulator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1) Klystron Power Supply--------------------------------1No.

2) Reflex Klystron with Cooling Fan-------------------1No.
3) Isolator 1No.
4) Variable Attenuator 1No.
5) Frequency Meter
1No. 6) Matched Termination
1No.
7) Tunable Probe with Detector-------------------------1No.
8) Circulator 1No.
9) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope with Probe---------------1No.
10) Waveguide Stands 3Nos.

THEORY:

A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only from nth
port to (n+1)th port in one direction. Please refer the figure given below.Although there is no
restriction on the number of ports, four port microwave circulatoris the most common.

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Fig 4.4: Four port Microwave Circulator

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Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their principles of operation remain
the same. Figure given below shows a four port circulator constructed of two magic tees and a phase
shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180o.

Fig 4.5: Circulator using 2 magic tees and one gyrator

Input from port 1: Gets splitted in two H-arms and enters the second magic Tee from right side
path and left side path in phase, both gets cancelled in port 4 and gets added in port 2. Therefore
output is available only from port 2.
Input from port 2: Gets splitted in two H-arms and enters the second magic Tee from right side
path with 180o phase shift and left side path with zero phase shift.Both the signals gets cancelled
in port 2 and gets added in port 4. Therefore output is available only from port 4.

Input from port 4: Gets splitted in two E-arms and enters the second magic Tee from both the
sides with in phase due to the gyrator. the signals gets cancelled in port 3 and gets added in port 1.
Therefore output is available only from port 1.

Circulator using ferrite

Faraday rotation circulator consists of a piece of circular waveguide capable of carrying wave in the
dominant mode TE11 with transitions to a standard rectangular guide which can carry TE 10 at both
the ends. The transition ports 1, 2 and two rectangular side ports 3 and 4 place with their broader
wall along the length of the waveguide are twisted through 45o. A thin ferrite rod is placed inside the

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circular waveguide supported by polyfoam and the waveguide is surrounded by a permanent magnet
which produce dc magnetic field in the ferrite rod as shown below.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1) Adjustments are made such that the microwave bench is perfectly horizontal and in the C.R.O.
2) Before switching on the klystron power supply, rotate the beam voltage knob
full in clockwise direction, switch on the cooling fan.
3) After switching on the reflex klystron power supply, keep the beam voltage
and the beam current at 220v and 16m.a. respectively.
4) By adjusting the modulation voltage and observe the wave form in the C.RO. (once the perfect square
wave is observed in the C.R.O., it is said that a particular mode has been obtained for the reflex
klystron.)
5) Connect the port-1 of the circulator to the input, i.e., to the frequency meter and the port-2 to the indicating
meter and the port-3 to the matched termination.
6) Note down the signals at port-1 and port-2.
7) Calculate the scattering parameter S12 by using the following formula

S12
V2
= V1

8) Repeat the above procedure from point (5) to point(7) and calculate the remaining parameters by
properly connecting the circulator.

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CALCULATIONS: S31 =---------V

S32 =----------V
By using this formula we have to substitute S12
= S33 =----------V

Input port1&port3 is matched

termination V1 = V
V2 =---------V

V3 =---------V

S11 =---------V

S12 =----------V

S13 =----------V

Input port2&port1 is matched

termination V1 = V
V2 =---------V
V3 =---------V

S21 =---------V

S22 =----------V

S23 =----------V

Input port3&port2 is matched

termination V1 = V
V2 =---------V

V3 =---------V

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V
2

V
1

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RESULT:

We have studied the scattering parameters of the circulator.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

2. Why do we use scattering parameters?

Ans. S (scattering) parameters are used to characterize electrical networks using matched impedances.
Here, scattering refers to the way traveling currents or voltages are affected when they meet a
discontinuity in a transmission line.

3. What are the properties of scattering parameters?

Ans. Properties of [S] Matrix
[S] is always a square matrix of order nxn. [S]n×n.
[S] is a symmetric matrix. i.e., Sij=Sji.
[S] is a unitary matrix. i.e., [S][S]∗=I.
The sum of the products of each term of any row or column multiplied by the complex conjugate of the
corresponding terms of any other row or column is zero.

4. How do you find scattering parameters?

Ans. The relationships between the two-port S parameters and the common network parameters are given in
Table 2.3. 1. It is interesting to note that S21/S12=z21/z12=y21/y12=h21/h12.
2.3. 3 Two-Port S Parameters

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Experiment No.2 Date:

AIM: To find the characteristics of given E-plane and H-plane

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

1) Klystron Power Supply--------------------------------1No.

2) Reflex Klystron tube with Cooling Fan--------------1No.
3) Isolator 1No.
4) Variable Attenuator 1No.
5) Frequency Meter
1No. 6) Matched Termination
1No.
12)Tunable Probe with Detector-------------------------1No.
13)------------------------------------------------------------Cathode Ray Oscilloscope with Probe 1No.
14)Detector mounts 1No.
15) Magic Tee 1No.
16) Waveguide Stands 3Nos.

THEORY:

In E-plane tee, axis of the side arm is parallel to the E field, the same is shown in the figure-1.As shown in
figure, this E-plane tee type is perfectly matched using screw or capacitive or inductive windows at junction.
As there is no reflection, diagonal S parameters of scattering matrix will be zero. Hence S11, S22 and S33
are zero. For matched junction, S matrix will be as depicted in the figure-1 in equation-(1). When the waves
are fed into port- 3(side arm), the waves at port-1 and port-2 of collinear arms will be of same magnitude but
opposite in the phase. Hence ,S13 = -S23 Equation-(1) is for the perfectly matched junction, but in practice it
will be poorly matched. S matrix when collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm is mentioned in
equation-(2). Here, |S13| = |S23| and S11 = S22.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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In H-plane tee, axis of the side arm is parallel to the H field, the same is shown in the above figure

In H plane tee, when two inputs are fed into port-1 and port-2 of the arms(collinear), output at port-3 will be
in phase and also additive in nature. On the other side, if input is fed at port-3, the waves get split equally into
port-1 and port-2 with in-phase and will have same magnitude. These properties of H-plane tee is used in
waveguide power combiner and power divider.
S matrix of H-plane tee is same as mentioned for E-plane tee. The same is mentioned equation-(1) and
equation-
iv. in figure-1 except here S13 = S23.

As they are poor in providing good match, tuning screw is used to adjust the reactance of the system to
obtain perfect impedance match.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Adjustments are made such that the microwave engine is perfectly horizontal and
C.R.O
2. Before switching on klystron power supply, rotate the beam voltage knob fully
in anticlockwise direction and rotate the repeller voltage knob fully in clockwise
direction, switch on the cooling fan.
3. After switching on the klystron power supply, keep the beam voltage and the
beam current at 240v and 16ma. respectively.
4. Connect the port3 to the output and port2 to the Detector mount, port1 is connected to the
matched termination.
5. Calculate S31 by using the
V1
formula S31 = .
V3

6. Repeat the above procedure for measuring the other parameters of E-Plane Tee & H-Plane Tee.

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CALCULATIONS:

By using this formula we have to substitute S12 = Input port1&port3 is matched termination

V1 =-----V
V2 =-----V

V3 =-----V

S11 =------V

S12 =------V

S13 =------V

Input port2&port1 is matched termination V1 = V

V2 =-----V
V3 =---------V

S21 =---------V
S22 =----------V

S23 =----------V

Input port3&port2 is matched termination

V1 =---------V

V2 =---------V

V3 =---------V

S31 =----------V
S32 =----------V
S33 =----------V

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RESULT:

We have studied the Characteristics of E-Plane and H-Plane Tee is verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. How are E and H plane tees used?

Ans. The E-plane and H-plane are reference planes for linearly polarized waveguides, antennas and other
microwave devices.....In microwave circuits, a waveguide with three independent ports is called a
TEE junction. The output of E-Plane Tee is 180° out of phase where the output of H-plane Tee is in
phase.

2. What are the properties of scattering parameters?

Ans. Properties of [S] Matrix
[S] is always a square matrix of order nxn. [S]n×n.
[S] is a symmetric matrix. i.e., Sij=Sji.
[S] is a unitary matrix. i.e., [S][S]∗=I.
The sum of the products of each term of any row or column multiplied by the complex conjugate of
the corresponding terms of any other row or column is zero. i.e.,

3. Why is H-plane called 3 db splitter?

Ans. H plane Tee is so called because the axis of side arm is parallel to planes of H-field of main
transmission line. As all three arms of H plane tee lay in the plane of magnetic field,the magnetic
field divide itself in arms this is thus the current junction.

4. How H-plane & E-plane tee are formed?

Ans. H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to a rectangular waveguide which
already has two ports. The arms of rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e.,
Port1 and Port2, while the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or H-arm. This H-plane Tee is also
called as Shunt Tee.

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13. Attenuation measurement in Fibers for various lengths.

AIM:

To study the substitution method for the measurement of attenuation and hence to
determine the attenuation due to a component or device under test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Klystron Power Supply with Cooling Fan------------1No.

2. Klystron Tube 1No.
3. Isolator 1No.
4. Variable Attenuator 1No.
5. Frequency Meter 1No.
6. 6. Slotted Line with Detector-----------------------1No.
7. Tunable Probe with Detector---------------------------1No.
8. Device under Test(SS tuner)------------------------------1No.
9. Matched Termination-----------------------------------1No.
10. Waveguide Stands 3Nos.

THEORY:

Attenuation is loss of power. During transit light pulse lose some of their photons thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for
a fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. For commercially available fibers, attenuation ranges from 1db/km for
premium small core glass fibers to over 2000 dB/km for a large core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In
common usage, discussions of loss omit the negative sign. The basic measurement for loss in a fiber is made by taking the
logarithmic ratio of the input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).

α (dB) = 10 log10 Pi/P0

where α is Loss in dB/meter.

Another impairment to the signal, besides attenuation is called dispersion. This effect limits the highest frequency that can
transmitted through a certain length of fiber, and one of its causes (called ‘mode’ dispersion) results from the fact that there are
different path lengths for each ray – those rays with larger values of angle of incidence travel less distance than those with
smaller angle of incidence. Since the light in a fiber contains rays with all angels up to the critical angle, the time of arrival at
the receiver of a short transmitted pulse will be spread over a time that is determined by the path lengths over which the
individual rays travel, as the speed over a time that is determined by the path lengths over which the individual rays travel, as
the speed of the light is the same in all directions. If the two short pulses are transmitted one after the other in quick succession,

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then the spreading of each pulse may cause the two to overlap at the receiver. Thus dispersion limits the frequency at which
pulses can be detected, since the received could not be easily identified as having been generated from two separate pulses

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in above figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position (on 20mm).
4. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in minimum position
(i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
5. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the knobs in
minimum positions and switch off main switches.
6. Note the Modulation knob in — AM position
7. First switch on the cooling fan and Beam voltage knob is set near 270 volts (fixed)
8. Repeller voltage knob is to vary to near 70to90v
9. Observe output on CRO to get square wave pulses and to get maximum output voltages.
Connect the probe to the Tunable Detector, SS-tuner and matched termination from the slotted section in
the above setup.Set any reference level on the CRO with the help of variable attenuator and. Let it be V1.

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10. Carefully disconnect the detector mount the slotted line and detector mount to the other port of
test variable attenuator to zero and record the reading of voltage on the CRO . Let it be V2

test variable attenuator to zero and record the reading of voltage on the CRO. Let it be V2

V1
attenuator will be 10log10

V2

In case of variable attenuator, change the attetunator reading and record the values in the
CRO.
Find out attenuation value for different readings.

CALCULATIONS:

1) For 5dB:

Reference level in CRO input (V1) =

CRO reading output using SS tuner
V2=

Attenuation = V1
10log10 =
V2
2) For10dB:
Reference level in CRO input (V1) =
CRO reading output using SS tuner (V2)
V
= Attenuation = 10log10 1 =
V2

3)For 15dB:
Reference level in CRO input (V1) =
CRO reading output using SS tuner (V2)
=

Attenuation = V1
10log10 =
V2
RESULT:

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Thus, various fixed attenuation measurement have been studied.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Keep all the knobs in minimum position before going to switch ‘ON’ the power supply of VSWR /
Klystron power supplies. Note: For klystron power supply “HT” should be ‘OFF’ before switching ‘ON’ the
main supply.
ii. Beam knob should be completely in anticlockwise direction and repeller voltage knob should be
completely clockwise direction.
iii. Switch on the main supply and give some warm up time to get current / accurate reading.
iv. After the completion of experiment, before going to switch off the mains keep all the knobs in
minimum position (i.e.) as those are in rule 1.
v. If the main supply failed in the middle of the experiment, come to 1st condition (i.e.) keep all the
knobs in minimum positions and switch off main switches.
vi. Don’t increase the repeller voltage more than -70V (i.e.) it should be between -70Vto - 270V.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1 What is the microwave frequency range?

2. What is the range of wavelength of micro wave frequency?

3. Which is the band of frequency used usually in laboratory experiments?

4. What are the applications of attenuation measurement?

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