How to Effectively Conduct a PESTLE &

SWOT Analysis
 Published on October 20, 2016

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Byron Gray

Providing Digital and Business Transformation Strategies, Plans and Consuting Services
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PESTLE and SWOT are highly effective analysis tools to help you during the process
of developing a strategic plan for your business. They can be used in isolation,
however become significantly more effective when used in combination.

 PESTLE analysis considers the broad environmental context that affects the

business and the changes that occur in this context.
 SWOT analysis then interprets these findings for the business to determine
the strengths and weaknesses, and opportunities and threats.

If combined, PESTLE analysis is usually completed first to provide a context for the
SWOT analysis.

PESTLE Analysis

PESTLE analysis is, in effect, an audit or external scan of an organisation’s

environmental influences that helps guide the planning and strategic decision
making. It is often referred to as providing a ‘big picture’ of the environment in
which a business operates. 

The assumption is that, if a business is able to audit its current environment and
assess potential changes, it will be better placed than its competitors to respond to
changes. Often, the analysis will determine likely issues/events that will impact the
business – these are generally considered to be outside the control of the business.

The diagram below shows how all these different factors can influence the business
or organisation and how it operates.

Let’s consider the individual factors and how they may impact your business plan:

POLITICAL

This factor represents the way and extent to which the government influences the
economy, and certain businesses. This could be at the federal, state or local level.
Current considerations in the market that may impact planning include factors, e.g.
a potential change of government, unstable government due to the balance of
power, tax law, changing superannuation policies, labour laws, and trade
restrictions.

ECONOMIC

This factor refers to the areas unique to the economy and directly influence it.
Factors that may influence your business plan include inflation rates, interest rates,
economic growth, exchange rates, and property prices.

Economic also refers to local economic factors within your geographic area, e.g.
Newcastle, the second most populated area in NSW, is famous for its coal exports. In
comparison, Port Lincoln in South Australia is known as the Seafood Capital of
Australia. Economic factors differ for each town or city and must be analysed for
their impact on your business. 

SOCIAL

This factor refers to demographic factors, including population growth rates,

cultural aspects, age distribution of population, and changing social behaviours; e.g.
people using social media applications to discuss products and services. Many of
these factors may impact the way you do business with your clients and the methods
of interaction you may have.

TECHNOLOGICAL

This refers to the rate of technological changes and Research and Development (R &
D) activities, automation, and incentives. These factors influence outsourcing
decisions, quality, and efficiency considerations. Some examples include mobile
internet, smart phones, Skype appointments, location based searching, emergence
of Artificial Intelligence etc. Over the last 10 years, changes in technology have
massively impacted every industry and the degree and speed that this will occur in
the future is only going to increase.

LEGAL

This factor refers to all the laws directly connected to a business or company and its
area of activity. E.G. WHS, Consumer Law, Privacy and Discrimination Law.

ENVIRONMENTAL
This refers to all the factors directly related to, influenced, or determined by the
surrounding environment. This could include weather and natural disasters,
geographical position, climate changes, and sustainability. Think about the
apparent increased frequency of natural disasters (floods, drought etc.) and their
impact on the business and future planning of many affected businesses.

The traditional use of PESTLE in change management

is as follows:
Step 1 - List external PESTLE factors for the business

You may need to brainstorm and have an expert knowledge of the business and/or
the world outside the business for this.

Step 2 - Identify the implications of each PESTLE factor on the business

Decide the implications of the external factors – rank or rate them. Normally, this
involves assessing their impact over time (short, medium and long-term), impact by
type (positive or negative affects), and impact by dynamics; i.e. the
significance/importance of the implication increasing, decreasing, or remaining
unchanged.

Step 3 - Rate the impact and likelihood

Rate the potential impact on the business, high – low, and the likelihood of it
happening, low – high.

Step 4 - Further action

You can then undertake further analysis in the form of a SWOT Analysis or scenario
building. Developing ‘what if’ scenarios enables you to visualise different alternative
futures for the business, focusing on the high frequency, high impact combinations
of influences.

SWOT analysis
As discussed earlier, SWOT analysis helps to interpret the findings of the PESTLE
analysis to determine the business’s strengths and weaknesses, and opportunities
and threats. It is important, as a part of the internal focus, to conduct the SWOT
analysis prior to completing your business plan. It is a critical part of the risk
management process.

It helps to understand SWOT analysis by classifying the strengths and weaknesses as

an internal assessment of a business, so looking within a business at controllable
factors. The opportunities and threats are therefore classified as an external
assessment of the business, so looking at outside forces and influences that are
beyond the businesses control.

What are some of the questions you could ask yourself, which would also assist with
the business planning process?

Strengths

 What advantages does your business have?

 What do you do better than anyone else?
 What unique or lowest-cost resources can you draw upon, that others can't?
 What do the people in your market perceive as your strengths?
 What factors indicate that you "win business"?
  What is your Unique Selling Proposition (USP)?

Weaknesses

 What could you improve?

 What should you avoid?
 What are the people in your market likely to perceive as your weaknesses?
 What factors cause you to lose business?

Opportunities

1. What good opportunities can you spot?

2. What interesting trends are you aware of?

Useful opportunities can come from such things as:

 Changes in technology and markets on both, broad and narrow scales.

 Changes in government policies related to your field.
 Changes in social patterns, population profiles, lifestyle changes, and so on.
 Local events.

Threats

 What obstacles do you face?

 What are your competitors doing?
 Are quality standards, compliance requirements, or the specifications for
your job, products, or services changing?
 Is changing technology threatening your position?
 Do you have bad debts or cash-flow problems?
 Could any of your weaknesses seriously threaten your business?

Think about some of these considerations when conducting a SWOT analysis.

The completed SWOT analysis image provides an example of the issues that a
business owner may face. 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Byron Gray is a highly experienced senior manager and leader with more than 20
years of international business experience. He writes articles on how to develop
high performing businesses and regularly shares ideas, concepts, strategies and
insights into the latest trends in Leadership & Management.

Connect with Byron on LinkedIn by sending a request to

byron.gray@australiscollege.edu.au.

Porter's 5 Forces
By 

THE INVESTOPEDIA TEAM

 

Updated February 21, 2020

Reviewed by 

GORDON SCOTT
Fact checked by 

PATRICE WILLIAMS

What Are Porter's Five Forces?

Porter's Five Forces is a model that identifies and analyzes five competitive
forces that shape every industry and helps determine an industry's
weaknesses and strengths. Five Forces analysis is frequently used to
identify an industry's structure to determine corporate strategy. Porter's
model can be applied to any segment of the economy to understand the
level of competition within the industry and enhance a company's long-term
profitability. The Five Forces model is named after Harvard Business
School professor, Michael E. Porter.

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1:44
Porter's Five Forces

Understanding Porter's Five Forces

Porter's Five Forces is a business analysis model that helps to explain why
various industries are able to sustain different levels of profitability. The
model was published in Michael E. Porter's book, "Competitive Strategy:
Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors" in 1980. 1 The Five
Forces model is widely used to analyze the industry structure of a company
as well as its corporate strategy. Porter identified five undeniable forces
that play a part in shaping every market and industry in the world, with
some caveats. The five forces are frequently used to measure competition
intensity, attractiveness, and profitability of an industry or market.

Porter's five forces are:

1. Competition in the industry

2. Potential of new entrants into the industry

3. Power of suppliers

4. Power of customers
5. Threat of substitute products 1

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Porter's Five Forces is a framework for analyzing a company's

competitive environment.
 The number and power of a company's competitive rivals, potential
new market entrants, suppliers, customers, and substitute products
influence a company's profitability.
 Five Forces analysis can be used to guide business strategy to
increase competitive advantage.

Competition in the Industry

The first of the five forces refers to the number of competitors and their
ability to undercut a company. The larger the number of competitors, along
with the number of equivalent products and services they offer, the lesser
the power of a company. Suppliers and buyers seek out a
company's competition if they are able to offer a better deal or lower prices.
Conversely, when competitive rivalry is low, a company has greater power
to charge higher prices and set the terms of deals to achieve higher sales
and profits.

Potential of New Entrants Into an Industry

A company's power is also affected by the force of new entrants into its
market. The less time and money it costs for a competitor to enter a
company's market and be an effective competitor, the more an established
company's position could be significantly weakened. An industry with
strong barriers to entry is ideal for existing companies within that industry
since the company would be able to charge higher prices and negotiate
better terms.

Power of Suppliers
The next factor in the five forces model addresses how easily suppliers can
drive up the cost of inputs. It is affected by the number of suppliers of key
inputs of a good or service, how unique these inputs are, and how much it
would cost a company to switch to another supplier. The fewer suppliers to
an industry, the more a company would depend on a supplier. As a result,
the supplier has more power and can drive up input costs and push for
other advantages in trade. On the other hand, when there are many
suppliers or low switching costs between rival suppliers, a company can
keep its input costs lower and enhance its profits.
Power of Customers
The ability that customers have to drive prices lower or their level of power
is one of the five forces. It is affected by how many buyers or customers a
company has, how significant each customer is, and how much it would
cost a company to find new customers or markets for its output. A smaller
and more powerful client base means that each customer has more power
to negotiate for lower prices and better deals. A company that has many,
smaller, independent customers will have an easier time charging higher
prices to increase profitability.

 
The Five Forces model can help businesses boost profits, but they must
continuously monitor any changes in the five forces and adjust their
business strategy.

Threat of Substitutes
The last of the five forces focuses on substitutes. Substitute goods or
services that can be used in place of a company's products or services
pose a threat. Companies that produce goods or services for which there
are no close substitutes will have more power to increase prices and lock
in favorable terms. When close substitutes are available, customers will
have the option to forgo buying a company's product, and a company's
power can be weakened.

Understanding Porter's Five Forces and how they apply to an industry, can
enable a company to adjust its business strategy to better use its
resources to generate higher earnings for its investors.

Porter’s Generic Strategies:

Differentiation, Cost Leadership and
Focus
 April 14, 2021  Lars de Bruin  1 Comment Business Strategy, Cost Leadership, Differentiation, Focus, Porter, Porter's
Generic Strategies, Strategy, Value Disciplines

Porter’s Generic Strategies is an answer to one of two central questions underlying

the choices companies have with regard to competitive strategy. The first question is
about the attractiveness of industries for long-term profitability and how to choose
which industry to enter as a company. We are all familiar with the framework that
Porter came up with to determine this: the Five Forces Model. The second question is
about the determinants of a company’s relative competitive position in an industry
after a certain industry is chosen to enter. Because, in order to be a successful
company, being active in an attractive industry alone is not enough: you will need to
acquire a dominant competitive position by choosing among three generic
strategies: Differentiation, Cost Leadership and Focus. Failing to choose between one
of these strategies will result in strategic mediocrity and below-average performance,
or as Porter describes it: ‘being stuck in the middle’. This article will go into Porter’s
Generic Strategies with the aid of examples.

Figure 1: Porter’s Generic Strategies: Cost Leadership, Differentiation and Focus

Differentiation
Differentiation is a type of competitive strategy with which a company seeks to
distinguish its products or services from that of competitors: the goal is to be
unique. A company may use creative advertising, distinctive product features, higher
quality, better performance, exceptional service or new technology to achieve a
product being perceived as unique. A differentiation strategy can reduce rivalry with
competitors if buyers are loyal to a company’s brand. Companies with a
differentiation strategy therefore rely largely on customer loyalty. Because of the
uniqueness, companies with this type of strategy usually price their products higher
than competitors. Examples of companies with differentiated products and services
are: Apple, Harley-Davidson, Nespresso, LEGO, Nike and Starbucks.

Cost Leadership
Cost Leadership is a type of competitive strategy with which a company aggressively
seeks efficient large-scale production facilities, cuts costs, uses economies of scale,
gains production experience and employs tight cost controls to be more efficient in
the production of products or the offering of services than competitors: the goal is
to be the low-cost producer in the industry. A low-cost position also means that a
company can undercut competitors’ prices through for example penetration
pricing and can still offer comparable quality against reasonable profits. Low-cost
producers typically sell standard no-frills products or services. Examples of
companies with cost leadership positions are: Southwest Airlines, Wal-Mart,
McDonald’s, EasyJet, Costco and Amazon.

Focus
Focus is a type of competitive strategy that emphasizes concentration on a specific
regional market or buyer group: a niche. The company will either use a
differentiation or cost leadership strategy, but only for a narrow target market
rather than offering it industry-wide. The company first selects a segment or group
of segments in an industry and then tailors its strategy to serve those segments best
to the exclusion of others. Like mentioned, the focus strategy has two variants:
Differentiation Focus and Cost Focus. These two strategies differ only from
Differentiation and Cost Leadership in terms of their competitive scope. Examples of
companies with a differentiation focus strategy are: Rolls Royce, Omega, Prada and
Razer. Examples of companies with a cost focus strategy are: Claire’s, Home Depot
and Smart.

Stuck in the Middle

A company that tries to engage in each generic strategy but fails to achieve any of
them, is considered ‘stuck in the middle’. Such a company has no competitive
advantage regardless of the industry it is in. As a matter of fact, such a company will
compete at a disadvantage because the ‘cost leader’, the ‘differentiators’ and the
‘focusers’ in the industry will be better positioned to compete. It may be the case,
however, that a company that is stuck in the middle still earns interesting profits
simply because it is operating in a highly attractive industry or because its
competitors are stuck in the middle as well. If one of the two exceptions are not
present it will be very hard for companies to engage in both differentiation and cost
leadership, Porter argues, because differentiation is usually costly. Each generic
strategy is a fundamentally different approach to creating and sustaining superior
performance and requires a different operating model.   
 

Other interpretations of Porter’s Generic

Strategies
Like many business frameworks, Porter’s Generic Strategies Model has both
proponents and opponents. Among others, Miller (1992) has questioned Porter’s
notion of having to pursue one single strategy or else being caught ‘stuck in the
middle’. He claims that there is a viable middle-ground between strategies and uses
the example of Caterpillar Inc, which differentiated itself by producing the highest
quality earth-moving equipment in the world while paying attention to cost-
efficiency. Miller argues that strategic specialization, as Porter suggests, has the
danger of becoming inflexible and blind to customer needs. Also Chan Kim and
Mauborgne (2005) abandon the ‘value-cost’ trade-off that a company needs to
choose between certain strategies. With their Blue Ocean Strategy they advice
companies to pursue differentiation and low cost simultaneously: it is about driving
costs down while simultaneously driving value up for buyers. However, there are
also popular authors who do believe in Porter’s idea of competitive choice. Treacy
and Wiersema (1995) for example build further on Porter’s idea and modified
Porter’s Generic Strategies into the Value Disciplines. They advice companies to
choose between Operational Excellence, Product Leadership and Customer
Intimacy.

What is the VRIO framework, and how does it

uncover “sustainable competitive advantage”?
VRIO is an acronym for a four-question framework focusing
on value,  rarity,  imitability, and organization, the criteria used to evaluate an
organization’s resources and capabilities. You can use a decision tree to help map the
outcomes of your probe, depending on whether you deem a resource as having met
the criteria or not.
Looking for a VRIO decision tree template? Download our
free strategic planning templates to help you get started with
VRIO and other strategic planning approaches.

Before you get started, make a list of your resources and capabilities. These may be
tangible or intangible items and may consist of material, financial, or human
resources, such as patents, machinery, people skills, cost advantages, or anything else.
Intangible resources tend to be the source of most sustainable competitive
advantages, but that’s not always the case. To apply the VRIO framework, evaluate
each item on this list through the following four lenses:

 Value: Do you offer a resource that adds value for customers? Are you able to exploit
an opportunity or neutralize competition with an internal capability?

o No: You are at a competitive disadvantage and need to reassess your

resources and capabilities to uncover value.

o Yes: If value is established, move on in your VRIO analysis to rarity.

 Rarity: Do you control scarce resources or capabilities? Do you own something that’s
hard to find yet in demand?

o No: You have value but lack rarity, putting your company in a position
of competitive parity. Your resources are valuable but common, which
 makes competing in the marketplace more challenging (but not
impossible). It’s recommended to go back one step and reassess.

o Yes: With value and rarity identified, your next hurdle is imitability.

 Imitability: Is it expensive to duplicate your organization’s resource or capability? Is it

difficult to find an equivalent substitute to compete with your offerings?

o No: If your resource has value and rarity, but is affordable or easy to copy,
you have a temporary competitive advantage. It will require
considerable effort to stay ahead of competitors and differentiate your
services—go back one step and reassess.

o Yes: You offer something that’s valuable, rare, and hard to imitate—now

the focus is on your organization.

 Organization: Does your company have organized management systems, processes,

structures, and culture to capitalize on resources and capabilities?

o No: Without the internal organization and support, it will be difficult to

fully realize the potential of your valuable, rare, and costly-to-imitate
resources. Your company will have a unused competitive advantage and
will need to reassess how to attain the needed organization.

o Yes: Your company has achieved the ultimate goal of sustained

competitive advantage when it has successfully identified all four
components of the VRIO framework.

Your company has achieved the ultimate goal of sustained competitive

advantage when it has successfully identified all four components of

the VRIO framework.CLICK TO TWEET

Ready to tackle strategic planning for your organization? Use

these free templates to jump start your planning process.
A Real-life VRIO Example: Google
There’s no doubt that Google is one of the most powerful companies in the world,
and its success arguably stems from a sustained competitive advantage in human
capital management. If we were to break down Google’s VRIO framework from the
HR perspective, it might look something like this:

 Value: Use human capital management data to hire and retain innovative, productive
employees. These employees consistently create some of the most popular consumer
products and services in the world.
  Rarity: No other companies are using data-based employee management so
extensively.

 Imitability: Data-based human capital management is both costly and difficult to

imitate, at least for the near future. Companies have to build the software and invest
in training their HR staff on the new technology and strategy.

 Organization: Google is organized to capture value from this capability. The IT

department has the skills to collect and maintain the data, while HR and team leaders
are trained on how to use the data to hire, promote, manage, and improve
performance of employees.

Having a VRIO framework in place allowed Google to take a completely different

approach to human capital management and make decisions using massive amounts
of objective data. For example, Google’s People Operations team set out to identify
which characteristics make a great manager. The data used to determine this
included surveys, performance evaluations, and great-manager nominations. Google
also conducted double-blind interviews with the company's highest- and lowest-
rated managers. By determining what qualifies as a great manager, Google
strengthens its internal team and the foundation of its sustained competitive
advantage. (Source: Strategic Management Insight, “VRIO Framework.”)

What are some benefits and limitations of the

VRIO framework?
Few organizations take the time to delve into their core competencies to determine
what makes them unique. In our view, it’s a worthwhile exercise because:

 It allows you to take advantage of previously unrecognized competitive advantages.

 It can help set the course for future plans and help you better allocate business
resources.

 It can produce insights that may help identify and evaluate potential opportunities
and threats to determine which ones are more important.

While the VRIO framework is useful for understanding your competitive position and
providing strategic insights, it also has some limitations:

 The business environment is constantly changing, making it difficult (but not

impossible) to have a sustainable competitive advantage for the long term; three to
five years is more realistic.

 New and small businesses may find it more difficult to apply the VRIO framework
simply because they haven’t yet fully developed their resources or capabilities to
establish a sustained competitive advantage.
  VRIO is solely an internal analysis, so you will need other frameworks (like the SWOT
analysis) to fill in the gaps.

What’s the difference between the VRIO framework and a SWOT analysis?

If you’re familiar with strategic planning, you’ve probably also heard of a SWOT analysis. While you can use
both SWOT and VRIO in the early stages of strategic planning, they are different tools that produce different
insights.

The VRIO framework focuses solely on evaluating internal resources and is intended to help identify the
specific resources that make your firm more competitive.

SWOT, on the other hand (an acronym for “Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats”), is a high-
level strategic planning model that helps organizations identify areas where they’re doing well and where they
can improve, both from an internal and  an external perspective. It does not thoroughly evaluate your internal
resources like VRIO but rather aims to help you assess your future prospects based on your current position
and external conditions.

What do you do with the resulting VRIO insights?

It’s important to conduct a VRIO analysis in the early stages of strategy planning,
before making your strategic plan. In particular, this exercise will inform your vision
statement, which is a forward-thinking proclamation of where your company wants
to be in the future. The differentiators and advantages you identify through VRIO will
help determine how to approach the marketplace and inform strategic decisions that
shape the fate of your company. So, think about how you can best exploit your VRIO
resources to provide the most value to your customer, and use those ideas to
formulate a precise vision statement.

The VRIO framework can also inform your SWOT analysis. Whatever competitive
advantages you uncover should be included in the “Strengths” section of your SWOT
analysis. Even some resources that don’t pass the full VRIO test may still be
considered strengths (for instance, if something is VRO—valuable and rare, and your
organization can capitalize on it); however, don’t identify a resource or capability as a
sustainable competitive advantage unless it meets all the criteria—that’s where your
uniqueness lies. On the flip side, if an existing resource isn’t yet a sustainable
competitive advantage and you would like to change that, you could identify it as a
“weakness” or an area that needs improvement.

The VRIO framework and SWOT analysis are important parts of the strategy
development phase. Once you’ve developed your strategic plan, you’ll then need to
take specific actions to make it come to fruition. Many organizations use a strategic
framework (like the Balanced Scorecard) to help transform their strategy ideas into
an actionable plan and strategy software (like ClearPoint) to break those ideas into
manageable goals they can then organize and track.

Exemples de FCS :
Voici des éléments qui constituent des facteurs clés de compétitivité. Ce sont des
prérequis pour intégrer un marché. 

  commercialiser ses produits via une marketplace (clé du succès de nombreux

marchands) ou à l'inverse vendre en direct. 

  détenir une image de marque forte, facteur clé de réussite dans l'industrie du
luxe

  posséder une  supply chain efficace dans des activités digitales d'e-commerce

(critère de succès d'une stratégie digital B2C)

  utiliser un réseau de distribution maillant finement le pays cible pour une

stratégie d'export

  être doté de solides ressources financières (ou capitaux propres) pour sécuriser
son développement

  pouvoir mobiliser de grandes capacités de production

  maîtriser le management de projet

  posséder un fort niveau d'intégration verticale  pour avoir la main mise sur la

relation client en direct ou bien pour sécuriser ses approvisionnements auprès
de fournisseurs clés

  fidéliser sa clientèle ou encore construire une solide relation client (notamment

dans un environnement hautement concurrentiel, ou en B2B)

  faire preuve d'agilité dans un environnement incertain, savoir mener la conduite

du changement
A l'inverse, leur non-maîtrise constitue des facteurs d'échec. 

Qu'apporte la maîtrise des FCS d'un marché ?

Leur maîtrise ne délivre pas obligatoirement un avantage concurrentiel, tout
dépend du niveau offert par la concurrence face aux attentes des clients. On
parle donc de F.C.S pour des caractéristiques vues côté marché . De point de
vue interne, on évoque l'expression "compétences distinctives" ou encore
"compétences clés" pour qualifier ses atouts. Le rapprochement des 2 notions
permet :

  d'évaluer  la compétitivité de l'entreprise dans un secteur d'activité donné,

  de définir ses orientations stratégiques

  d'élaborer sa proposition de valeur ,

La vue externe d'une part et la vue interne de l'autre, livrent une lecture
puissante de la situation stratégique d'une entreprise et des leviers à actionner
pour atteindre ses objectifs.

Comment connaître et utiliser les facteurs

critiques pour vendre à ses cibles ?
Les facteurs clés de succès sont étudiés (par exemple via une étude de marché)
et évalués lors des démarches stratégiques, notamment à travers l'analyse
SWOT (Force-Faiblesses / Opportunités-Menaces). 

Comment identifier les F.C.S ?

Pour connaître les points clés critiques, sources de performance sur un marché,
il convient d'associer les connaissances possédées en interne (CRM, ERP,
expertise de collaborateurs...) et des données externes récoltées à travers des
études de marché, des interviews d'experts, etc.

Voici des outils d'aide à leur identification :

- méthode PESTEL  : pour une analyse macro-environnement

- outils de Michael porter : chaine de valeur et 5 forces concurrentielles : permet
de comprendre pour le premier les spécificités des acteurs en place qui leur
permettent de maintenir leur rang ou de développer leur position - et pour le
second la dynamique concurrentielle des gagnants et des perdants.

Leur utilisation dans l'analyse des DAS

Lors d'un travail de segmentation stratégique pour construire des DAS , les
FCS permettent de constituer les segments. Comment procéder ?  En
regroupant les microactivités qui partagent des F.C.S semblables et en séparant
les opposés. 

Pour rappel un domaine d'activité stratégique, aussi appelé DAS, est composé
d'un ensemble d'activités qui possèdent des FCS proches et requiert des savoir-
faire et ressources bien identifiés. A savoir que les  DAS gardent une portée
stratégique sur lesquels l'équipe dirigeante applique des stratégies génériques
(croissance externe, alliances, intégration verticale...). Pour des actions plus
opérationnelles, la stratégie marketing prend le relais.