The

World
at War
1914–1945

CHAPTER 26
World War I
1914–1918

C H A P T E R 27
The Interwar Years
1919–1939

CHAPTER 28
World War II
1930–1945

Themes
Nationalism in Europe caused government
rivalries and alliances that led to devastating
world wars and inspired citizens to fight for
their countries.

New inventions changed the science and

technology of modern warfare, which became
Battle between German and British

more deadly and destructive than ever before.

airplanes, artist unknown, 1916

German and British fighter pilots Entire countries were mobilized for war, and
try to outmaneuver each other in the global conflicts left millions of soldiers
this painting of World War I. and civilians dead and societies in ruins.

775

w8nafs_u07uib_u08opn.indd 775 10/10/06 8:51:18 AM

 C HAPTER

26 1914–1918

World War I A variety of powerful

forces—including growing
nationalism, a tangle of
alliances, and decades of rivalry and
competition—created conditions that
transformed a single assassination into
a worldwide war. After years of unprec-
edented bloodshed and political upheaval,
the warring nations finally reached an
uneasy peace.

.#
North Carolina Standards
Social Studies Objectives
5.01 Analyze the causes and course of World War I and
assess its consequences;
5.05 Examine governmental policies, such as the Kellogg-
Briand Pact, which were established and the role of orga-
nizations including the League of Nations, and the United
Nations to maintain peace, and evaluate their continuing
effectiveness.
Language Arts Objective
3.03.2 Support an informed opinion using various types of
evidence, such as experience or facts.

TIME LINE

June 28, 1914 July 28, 1914 May 1915 December 1915 February 1916
Archduke Franz Austria-Hungary Germany attacks The Gallipoli The Battle
Ferdinand is assas- declares war on Serbia, and sinks the Campaign ends. of Verdun begins.
CHAPTER sinated in Sarajevo. and World War I begins. Lusitania.
EVENTS
1914 1916

WORLD November 1916

EVENTS August 1914 Germany and Austria-Hungary
The Panama Canal opens. establish the Kingdom of Poland.

776 CHAPTER 26

w8ncfs_ww1_opener.indd 776 2/15/07 8:00:00 AM

 History's Impact video program
Watch the video to understand the impact of
modern warfare.

Reading
like aHistorian This photograph shows a
British tank and British
soldiers during a battle in 1917. World War I marked
November 1917 November 11, 1918 the first time that tanks were used in combat.
Communists take An armistice ends
control of Russia in the the war. Analyzing Visuals  How do you think the use of
Bolshevik Revolution. tanks during World War I would change the nature of
warfare? Explain your answer, referring to details from
1918 the photograph.
June 1917 See Skills Handbook, p. H26
The first Pulitzer
Prizes are awarded.

World War I 777

 Geography Starting Points
Interactive

European Alliances and Military Forces, 1914

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In the late 1800s and 1. Identify  Which nations were members

early 1900s, European nations began a massive of the Allied Powers in 1914? Which Listen to History
military buildup, in part to protect their overseas nations made up the Central Powers?
Go online to listen to an
colonies from rival powers. At the same time, 2. Predict  Given the alliances and the size explanation of the starting
these nations formed a complicated network of of the armed forces in Europe in 1914, points for this chapter.
alliances to protect themselves from opposing what might happen if conflict broke out?
armed forces. By 1914 the uneasy peace was go.hrw.com
Keyword: SHL WW1
about to end.

778 Chapter 26
 Section

1 The Great War Begins

Take notes
Before You Read on the
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms and People events leading up to
the outbreak of war.
Europe in 1914 was on 1. Why was Europe on the brink Triple Alliance
the brink of war. After an of war in 1914? Triple Entente
assassination, the nations 2. Why did war break out? Franz Ferdinand
of Europe were drawn one Gavrilo Princip
3. What were the results of the
by one into what would neutral
fighting in 1914? World War I Begins
be called the Great War, or Central Powers
World War I. Allied Powers
Western Front

How did an archduke’s trip lead On the day that the archduke visited Sarajevo, seven
to war? It seemed like a bad idea for members of the Black Hand positioned themselves around
Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand to the city to watch for him. One would-be assassin, 19-year-
make a trip to the Bosnian city of Sarajevo (sar-uh-yay-voh). old Gavrilo Princip, had just stepped out of a sandwich
After all, Austria had taken over Bosnia and Herzegovina shop when Franz Ferdinand’s car pulled up in front of him.
just six years earlier, and many Bosnians were still bitterly Unable to believe his luck, Princip grabbed his pistol and
opposed to Austrian rule. fired, killing both the archduke and the archduke’s wife,
Bosnia was also the home of many Serbs and ethnic Sophie. This assassination started a chain of events that,
Slavs who were equally outraged by Austria’s actions. Ser- within weeks, would pull most of Europe into the largest war
bian leaders hoped to expand Serbia by uniting the ethnic the world had ever seen.
Slavs in Bosnia, but Austria-Hungary stood in the way. Now
the future ruler of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was com-
ing to pay a visit.
Franz Ferdinand’s visit to Sarajevo fell on June 28,
which was also St. Vitus Day, a holiday that symbolized Ser-   Soldiers arrest Gavrilo Princip after
bian unity. Members of a Serbian terrorist group known as he shoots Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
the Black Hand plotted to kill Franz Ferdinand.

A Murder
in Bosnia

World War I 779

 Europe on the Brink of War causes of
In 1914, rising tensions in Europe had the con-
tinent on the brink of war. These tensions were
World War I
the result of four factors: militarism, alliances,
MILITARISM
imperialism, and nationalism. • European nations engage in a
massive military buildup.
Militarism  Throughout the late 1800s and
early 1900s, European countries had under-
taken a massive military buildup. This milita- ALLIANCES
rism was caused mostly by the desire to protect • European countries form partnerships
to protect themselves.
overseas colonies from other nations. Across
Europe, the size of armed forces and navies
had risen sharply, particularly in Germany. IMPERIALISM
The growing power of Europe’s armed • Rival empires seek to keep power.
forces left all sides anxious and ready to act at
the first sign of trouble. In this nervous envi- NATIONALISM
ronment, even a minor disagreement had the • People feel loyalty and devotion to
potential to turn quickly into armed conflict. their country or culture.

Alliances  Seeking to protect themselves from

opposing armed forces, the nations of Europe
formed a series of alliances, or partnerships.
southeastern Europe that was home to many
For example, in the late 1800s, the so-called
ethnic groups. In the early 1900s, some of
Triple Alliance united Germany, Austria-
these ethnic groups were trying to break free
Hungary, and Italy. France and Russia feared
from the Ottoman Empire, which had ruled
Germany’s growing power and formed their
the Balkans for hundreds of years but was
own alliance. Soon Great Britain joined with
now nearing collapse.
France and Russia in a less formal promise
Some of the strongest nationalist tensions
to cooperate—an entente (ahn-tahnt). France,
in the Balkans were in Serbia. At the time,
Russia, and Great Britain thus became known
Serbia was an independent nation. Many eth-
as the Triple Entente. Leaders hoped that these
nic Serbs, however, lived outside Serbia in other
alliances would help keep the peace. They
areas of the Balkans. Serbian leaders wanted
believed that no single nation would attack
to expand the nation’s borders and unite all
another, since that action would prompt the
their people in a “greater Serbia.” But Austria-
attacked nation’s allies to join the fight.
Hungary, the powerful empire to the north of
Imperialism  The quest to build empires in Serbia, opposed any Serbian expansion, fear-
the late 1800s and early 1900s had created ing that such growth might encourage ethnic
much rivalry and ill will among the nations of groups within Austria-Hungary to rebel. Ten-
Europe. Germany, France, Russia, and Great sions between Austria-Hungary and Serbs
Britain each saw themselves as great imperial would continue to rise in the early 1900s.
nations. They believed they could not afford to
Summarize  Why was Europe
stand by while a rival empire gained power.
on the brink of war in 1914?
Nationalism  An important part of the rising
tensions in Europe was an increase in nation-
alism beginning in the late 1800s. Nationalism War Breaks Out
is a strong devotion to one’s national group or In the midst of the tensions and resentment
culture. In Europe, nationalism led to the for- the Serbs felt toward Austria-Hungary, the
mation of new countries, including Germany archduke of Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand,
and Italy, and struggles for power. decided to visit the Bosnian city of Sarajevo
The most visible of these power struggles (sar-uh-yay-voh). On June 28, 1914, as Franz
was in the Balkan Peninsula, a region of Ferdinand’s car drove through the Sarajevo

780 Chapter 26
 World War I Battles, 1914 "MMJFE
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GEOGRAPHY
SKILLS Interpreting Maps
1. Location  Where was the Western Front located at this time?
What were the results of the major battles fought there?
streets, a young Serbian man, Gavrilo Princip, 2. Movement  Describe the movements of the Allied Powers and
opened fire with his pistol, killing the archduke the Central Powers.
and the archduke’s wife, Sophie.

The Impact  Princip was arrested after the

assassination. When he was identified as a Serb, west and then head east to fight Russia. Ger-
Austria-Hungary decided to use the murder as man leaders believed this strategy would be
an excuse to punish Serbia. Austria-Hungary effective because Russia’s vast size meant that
made a series of humiliating demands of Ser- the Russian military would need some time to
bia and then declared war on July 28, 1914. move toward the German border.
Russia, a country with many people of Germany began with a quick strike into
Slavic ethnicity, had previously promised to Belgium, which was located between Germany
support the Serbs if Austria-Hungary attacked. and France. Belgium was a neutral country,
When Russia prepared to fulfill its promise to or a country that takes no side in a conflict.
the Serbs, Austria-Hungary’s ally Germany Still, Germany planned to sweep through that
saw the Russian action as a threat. Germany country and then move on to France. Germa-
declared war on Russia and then on Russia’s ny’s attack on a neutral country led Great
ally, France. Thus, Europe’s alliances and rival- Britain to declare war on Germany. Reading
ries turned the action of a single assassin into The main players of what came to be called Skills
World War I, or the Great War, were now in Understanding
a major conflict.
Sequencing  In
place. Germany and Austria-Hungary made what order did the
Fighting Begins  Located in central Europe, up one side, known as the Central Powers. Allied Powers
Germany faced a war on two fronts—against Great Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia were become involved in
Russia to the east and France to the west. known as the Allied Powers. the war?
Years earlier, German military planners had
Sequence  What events led
developed the Schlieffen Plan, which called for
to the outbreak of World War I?
German troops to quickly defeat France in the

World War I 781

Faces of History trous. In the Battle of Tannenberg, German
Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor forces crushed the Russian invasion.
Albert became emperor
Kaiser of Germany when he was
The Russian attack had failed to defeat
the Germans, but it succeeded in distracting
WILHELM II1859–1941
only 29 years old. Wil-
helm believed the ideal
German forces from their advance on France.
This distraction allowed Allied forces to collect
ruler was someone who themselves and turn on the German invaders.
would make a nation powerful and respected. He was determined to
make Germany a world power. Trench Warfare Begins  In the Battle of
Under Wilhelm’s rule, the German armed forces underwent a mas- the Marne in early September 1914, the Allied
sive expansion. Wilhelm believed that his personal relationships with troops succeeded in driving the Germans back.
the leaders of Great Britain and Russia would help prevent war, but he After retreating, German forces dug a series of
was mistaken. His aggressive, tactless actions, combined with his desire trenches, or deep ditches, along the Aisne (ayn)
to build a powerful German military, helped lead the world into a River and awaited the Allied attack. One Brit-
devastating war. ish soldier described the German trenches:
Find the Main Idea How did Wilhelm help cause World War I? History’s Voices

“trenches
[German] infantry are holding strong lines of
among and along the edge of the numer-

Fighting in 1914 ous woods which crown the slopes. These trenches
are elaborately constructed and cleverly concealed.
Germany’s plans for a swift victory in France
soon failed. By the end of 1914, the Great War
In many places there are wire entanglements.
”
—British colonel Ernest Swinton, September 18, 1914
had become a bloody stalemate. From their strongly defended trenches on
the Aisne, the Germans were able to fight back
Early Battles  Beginning in August 1914,
the Allied forces. But the Allied forces soon dug
German troops fought French and British
trenches of their own. As a result, German and
forces in a series of clashes known as the Bat-
Allied positions would change little in the com-
tle of the Frontiers. Both sides suffered heavy
ing months, despite a series of major battles.
losses, but the result was a German victory.
The deadlocked region in northern France
While France was struggling to fight off
became known as the Western Front.
Germany during the Battles of the Frontiers,
Russia attacked German territory from the Summarize  What were the
east. The results for the Russians were disas- major events of the fighting in 1914?

go.hrw.com
Section 1 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL WW1 HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Identify  What were the Triple Alliance and the Triple 4. Identify Cause and Effect  Using your notes on the section
Entente? and a graphic organizer like the one below, explain how the
b. Explain  Why do you think European governments expanded events of the late 1800s and early 1900s led up to the out-
the size of their armed forces? break of World War I.
c. Draw Conclusions How did the increased size and power of
military forces make fighting more likely?
2. a. Describe  What was the crime that led to the start of World
War I?
b. Make Inferences After Franz Ferdinand was killed, why do
you think that Austria-Hungary chose to take the actions it did? 5. Persuasion  Write notes for a speech that a European leader
c. Develop How might Germany have worked to stop the war trying to prevent the outbreak of war might have given in July
from beginning? 1914. Use details from the chapter in your notes.
3. a. Recall  What forces fought in the war’s first major battle?
b. Analyze How did the construction of trenches affect the war
in 1914? Speaking Icon for SE

782 Chapter 26
 Section

2 A New Kind of War

Take notes
Before You Read on the
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms weapons and technology
of the battlefield and the
With the introduction of 1. How was the World War I trench warfare
events of the war.
new types of warfare and battlefield different than total war
new technologies, World those of earlier wars? propaganda
War I resulted in destruc- 2. How did the war affect the Battle of Verdun
tion on a scale never home front? Gallipoli Campaign
before imagined. genocide
3. What happened on the
Western Front?
4. How did the war spread
around the world?

poison
from the sky
Can you protect yourself
against the air? The exhausted
British soldiers were taking a
break from the bitter fighting with German forces.
In the distance, they could see the other end
of their own line of trenches. This section was
occupied by British allies, including soldiers from
France and from the French colony of Algeria.
The resting British soldiers noticed a curious
thing. Floating through the air from the German
lines toward the Allied trenches was a slow-
moving cloud of yellowish smoke. Soon, from
the direction of the strange cloud came a steady
stream of running men, throwing away clothing,
equipment, and anything else that might slow   Gas masks were vital equipment for
them down. soldiers in the World War I trenches.
The British were at first horrified at what they thought
was the cowardly retreat of the French and Algerians. They
soon learned, however, that the terrified men had good
reason to run. The yellow cloud that had floated into their
The World War I Battlefield
trenches was chlorine gas, a deadly poison. When inhaled, Poison gas and the other new weapons developed dur-
this gas damages lung tissue and causes victims to cough ing World War I were a response to a massive deadlock.
violently and choke. In some cases, the gas kills. By the end of 1914, two systems of trenches stretched
The poison gas used against the Allied troops was for hundreds of miles over western Europe. Across the
one of many new weapons that first appeared in World Western Front, millions of Allied and Central Powers
War I. Together these weapons produced a horrifying soldiers lived in these trenches, surrounded by flying
level of death and destruction. bullets, bombs, and grenades.

world war i 783

 Trench Warfare  The idea of trench warfare, result, each side turned to new weapons and
or fighting from trenches, was not new. Soldiers technology to win the war.
The use of had long hidden behind mounds of earth for Poison gas was one of the new weapons
chemical weapons used in the war. Different types of gas could
like poison gas
safety. But no one had ever experienced trench
was outlawed warfare on the scale seen in Europe in 1914. blind, choke, or burn the victims. Gas killed or
in 1997 by the Life in the trenches was often miser- injured thousands of people, but its value was
Chemical Weapons able. Rainstorms produced deep puddles and limited. A change in wind direction, for exam-
Convention. ple, could blow the gas back toward the troops
thick mud, and sanitation was a constant
problem. Sometimes removing dead bodies who had launched it. Also, both sides developed
from trenches or the surrounding area was gas masks, which provided some protection.
impossible. Lice, rats, and other unpleasant Other new weapons were far more effective.
creatures were always present. For example, rapid-fire machine guns came
Occasionally soldiers would be ordered “over into wide use during the war. Modern indus-
the top” of their trench to attack the enemy. try also produced artillery and high-explosive
They would jump out of their trench and sprint shells with enormous destructive power.
across the area between opposing trenches,
called no-man’s-land. As they ran, many were Tanks and Aircraft  Both tanks and aircraft
cut down by enemy guns. Thousands of sol- were first used in World War I. Tanks, armored
diers on both sides died in no-man’s-land, their vehicles that could cross rough battlefield ter-
bodies left where they fell. rain, were pioneered by the British. Because
reliability was a problem, however, they would
New Weapons  Neither the Allies nor the not make a contribution until late in the war.
Central Powers were able to make signifi- Aircraft, on the other hand, were useful
cant advances past the enemy’s trenches. As a from the beginning. At the start of the war, few

Interactive

History Close-Up

Trench Warfare
It was nearly impossible to capture an enemy
trench, protected as it was by machine guns,
rows of barbed wire, and armed soldiers. As a
result, trench warfare turned into a stalemate.
Countless troops died in the trenches, with
little real effect on the war.

Soldiers fired artillery

shells containing poison
gas into enemy trenches.

784 Chapter 26
aircraft existed, and they were used mainly Government Actions  In some countries,
to observe enemy positions. Soon, mechanics new controls resulted in changes to the nation’s
began to attach machine guns to airplanes, and industries and economy. Factories began to pro-
pilots began to drop bombs from the air. As the duce military equipment. Civilians conserved
war dragged on, new, faster airplanes proved food and other goods for military use.
useful in attacking battlefields and cities. Governments also sought to control pub-
Despite the new technologies, however, lic opinion. They censored newspaper reports
neither side was able to gain an advantage about the fighting, worried that truthful
on the battlefield. Trench warfare, with all its descriptions of casualties might discourage the
miseries, dragged on. public. Governments also created propaganda,
information designed to influence people’s
Summarize  How did new
opinions, in order to encourage support of the
technology affect the World War I battlefield?
war effort. Posters, pamphlets, and articles
urged people to volunteer or told stories of the
War on the Home Front enemy’s brutal actions.

The nations fighting in World War I soon real-

ized that winning this new type of war would
require the use of all of society’s resources. This
tactic is called total war. Governments began
to take stronger control of their citizens’ lives.

German zeppelins—large, gas-

filled airships—bombed British
and French trenches and cities.

Airplanes fought in
the skies above the
trenches, firing on
soldiers below.

Machine guns fired hundreds

of bullets each minute and
were used to defend trenches
against enemy attacks.

Skills
FOCUS Interpreting Visuals
Analyze What role did new weapons and Armored tanks could
military tactics play in trench warfare? Use flatten barbed wire and
details from the image to support your answer. cross enemy trenches.
go.hrw.com
Could You
Go online for a closer look Have Survived?
at survival and this event. Keyword: SHL WW1

world war i 785

 Linking TO Today

Women in War A nurse works in a World

War I hospital.
In World War I, only a few hundred to non-combat roles, but some
women fought as soldiers, nearly fought as soldiers or as part of
all in the Russian army. These sol- organized resistance movements.
diers were the exceptions. Today, women serve in many of the
Most women who wanted to world’s armed forces, filling roles
help the war effort had only two ranging from soldiers on the front
options: assist on the home front lines to support staff on the home
or work as nurses for the armed front.
forces. Thousands of women chose Summarize  How
to serve as nurses. Many worked in has the role of women
hospitals or medical-aid stations in war changed since
near the war’s front lines, where World War I?
they faced terrible conditions
while helping wounded soldiers.
The role of women in the armed An American soldier
forces began to change slowly fires a machine gun. 
after the war. In World War II,
most women were still limited

Women and the War  With millions of The Battle of Verdun  Meanwhile, the Ger-
men at battle, much of the work on the home mans were making plans for an assault on the
front was done by women. Some worked in French fortress of Verdun. Verdun had been an
factories producing weapons and other war important French fortress since Roman times.
supplies. These women helped send important German leaders believed that the French,
shipments of food and weapons to the front unable to bear seeing the city captured, would
lines. Others served as nurses to wounded sol- defend it at all costs. The Battle of Verdun was
diers. The contributions women made during meant solely to kill or injure as many French
the war helped transform public views of what soldiers as possible—to “bleed France white,”
women could do. In some countries, this change said the German commander.
helped women finally win the right to vote. From the start of the battle in February
1916 to its end that December, France suffered
Find the Main Idea  some 400,000 casualties. Germany, however,
In what ways did the war affect the home front? endured nearly as many. The battle left both
sides weakened, and the stalemate continued.

Battles on the Western Front The Battle of the Somme  The British
While people on the home front supported their launched their own attack, intended partly
troops, the war in Western Europe was going to pull German troops away from Verdun, in
badly for the Allied Powers. In 1915, a series of June 1916. This British attack took place in
battles had resulted in many Allied casualties. the Somme River area of France.
The Battle of the Somme was the main
The Italian Front  In May 1915, Italy entered Allied assault during 1916. On the first day
World War I by joining the Allied Powers. Ita- of fighting alone, the British suffered nearly
ly’s first move was to send its forces against 60,000 casualties. Just as in the Battle of Ver-
Austria-Hungary on the Italy-Austria border. dun, by the time fighting ended in December
In a long series of back-and-forth battles, Italy 1916 there had been no major breakthroughs.
made little progress. Both sides lost an enormous number of troops.

786 Chapter 26
The Third Battle of Ypres  The year 1917 The Gallipoli Campaign  A new power had
went badly for the Allies. That spring, a failed entered the battle on the Eastern Front in late
French offensive caused rebellion among some 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the
French soldiers. In July, the British began an Central Powers. The vast empire was weaken-
offensive near Ypres (ee-pruh), Belgium, where ing, but it still had a vital location. The Otto-
two earlier German attacks had taken place. mans controlled an important sea passage
The Third Battle of Ypres was a disaster for called the Dardanelles (dahr-den-elz), which
the British, who ended the attack in November. was part of the water route between the Black
After three years of battle in western Europe, Sea and the Mediterranean. The Allies used
the front lines were virtually unchanged. the Dardanelles to ship supplies to Russia.
To destroy the guns and forts that lined the
Summarize What was the Dardanelles, the Allies landed a force on the
result of the battles on the Western Front? Gallipoli Peninsula in the spring of 1915. After
months of fighting and nearly 200,000 casual-
ties, the Allies gave up. The Gallipoli Campaign
War around the World was a failure.
Much of the early fighting took place in The Ottoman Empire did suffer a major
Europe, but the conflict quickly became a true loss later in the war when its subjects in the
world war as fighting spread around the globe. Arabian Peninsula rebelled. To take advantage
Over 30 nations officially took sides in the war, of this revolt, the British sent officer T. E. Law-
and other countries became involved in less rence to support the Arabs. With Lawrence’s
formal ways. help, the Arabs overthrew Ottoman rule.

World War I Battles, 1915–1917

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world war i 787
   

The Armenian Massacre  As the Gal- The Armenian Massacre

lipoli Campaign went on, a different conflict
Nearly 2 million ethnic Armenians were deported to
occurred elsewhere in the Ottoman Empire. In
Mesopotamia and what is now Syria during World
late 1914, Russia had launched an attack in the War I. During this forced relocation, hundreds of
Caucasus (kaw-kuh-suhs), a mountain region thousands starved to death or were killed by
that lies between the Black and Caspian seas Ottoman soldiers and police.
and borders northeastern Turkey. The area
was home to ethnic Armenians. Because most 5PUBM
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The Turkish gov- of 1915, Ottoman leaders began forcibly
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should be consid- starvation. Ottoman leaders were accused by
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ered genocide, many of genocide—the deliberate destruction
although most his-
of a racial, political, or cultural group.
torians disagree.
Other Fighting  Battles were also fought
elsewhere in Asia and in Africa. Japan, for
example, had declared war on Germany in 1914
as part of a military agreement with Great
Britain. Far from the battlefields of Europe,   Armenians who escaped during the
Japanese forces captured German colonies relocation arrive in a refugee camp.
in China and the Pacific. British and French
troops attacked German colonies in Africa.
Allied colonies scattered around the world
Although some colonial peoples were reluctant
made many contributions to the war. For
to help their rulers, others volunteered to fight
example, soldiers from all parts of the Brit-
in the hopes that their service would help win
ish Empire—India, Australia, Canada, New
independence. They would soon discover that
Zealand—took part in the war. Some of these
these hopes were in vain.
people worked as laborers to keep the armies
supplied. Many others fought and died in battle, Summarize In what areas of
such as the Algerians who fought for France. the world did the war take place?

go.hrw.com
Section 2 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL WW1 HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Describe  How did World War I differ from previous wars? 5. Compare  Using your notes on the section and a graphic
b. Identify Cause and Effect  How did the technological organizer like the one below, explain how the war on the
developments of World War I affect trench warfare? Western Front was different from the war elsewhere in
2. a. Recall  How did civilians help support the war effort? the world.
b. Infer  How do you think total war affected life on the
home front?
3. a. Recall What were the results of the Battle of Verdun and
the Battle of the Somme?
b. Explain Why did the Western Front change very little
between 1915 and 1917? 6. Description  From the perspective of a World War I soldier,
4. a. Recall What happened in the Gallipoli Campaign? write a letter describing life in the trenches. Use details from
b. Summarize List the war’s events outside of Europe. the section in your letter.

788 Chapter 26
Section

3 Revolution in Russia
Take
Before You Read notes
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms and People on Russia during the
The war and social unrest war, during the Rev-
1. What was Russia’s experi- Bolsheviks
combined to push Russia olution, and after
ence in World War I? Grigory Rasputin
to the edge of a revolution. the Revolution.
2. What were the main events Marxism-Leninism
The events that followed led Leon Trotsky
of the Russian Revolution?
to Russia’s exit from the war New Economic Policy
and became a major turning 3. What major events took
point in world history. place after the Russian
Revolution?

How could an illiterate peasant

control the Russian Empire?
Grigory Rasputin was filthy, illiterate,
and believed by some people to be insane. But he was also
a self-proclaimed holy man and healer as well as a trusted
adviser to Russia’s Czarina Alexandra.
Rasputin’s influence on the Russian royal family began in
the early 1900s, when he first met Czar Nicholas II and Cza-
rina Alexandra. Their son, Alexis, suffered from hemophilia, a
disease in which injuries can result in uncontrolled bleeding.

The Madman
Rasputin had a reputation as a man who could heal the sick,
and the royal family was eager to see if he could help their
son. Indeed, Rasputin seemed to relieve the boy’s suffering.
Rasputin soon became a common sight at the royal palace.

Behind the Throne In the presence of the royal family, Rasputin was care-
ful to appear as a humble, holy peasant. But his actions
were very different outside the palace, where his immoral
behavior soon created a scandal. When outraged Russians
protested, the czar refused to believe their stories.
After Nicholas went off to lead Russia’s armies in World
War I, Rasputin became Alexandra’s personal adviser. He
helped her make decisions on a variety of issues, including
political appointments and military actions. Nearly all of the
decisions proved disastrous for Russia.
In December 1916, a group of Russian nobles formed
a plan to murder Rasputin and save Russia from his influ-
ence. The nobles poisoned and shot Rasputin, but he did
not die. Finally, they drowned him in an icy Russian river.
While Rasputin could do no more harm to Russia, the
nation was anything but saved.

  Known as the Mad Monk, Rasputin had

great power over Russia.

World War I 789

 Russia and World War I outbreak of fighting did help provide a burst
of patriotism. People from across the country
On the eve of World War I, Russia was a troubled rushed to join the military.
nation. Czar Nicholas II had promised reform In many other ways, however, Russia was
after the revolution of 1905, but he delivered ill-prepared for war. Russian factories were not
little real change. Economic conditions grew able to produce ammunition and other military
worse, and another revolution seemed near. supplies quickly enough to meet the army’s
needs. In addition, the nation’s transportation
The Years Before the War  A small Marxist system was weak. As a result, moving troops
group known as the Bolsheviks (bohl-shuh-viks)
and equipment to the right places at the right
sought to change life in Russia through revo-
times proved very difficult.
lution. Led by Vladimir Lenin, the Bolsheviks
To make matters worse, the Russian mil-
wanted to overthrow the czar so that the pro-
itary was not prepared to fight a major war.
letariat—the industrial workers—could gain
Its equipment was outdated, and many of its
the power to rule Russia as a socialist country.
leaders were of poor quality. Russian officers
This plan was an adaptation of Marxist ideas.
commonly advanced on the basis of personal
Marx had predicted a spontaneous uprising of
connections rather than actual ability.
the proletariat to overthrow capitalism, but Bol-
Initially, the Russians enjoyed success on
sheviks had other plans. They wanted an elite
the battlefield, but the losses soon outnumbered
group—themselves—to lead a revolution and
the victories. In both victory and defeat, how-
keep much of the power over Russia. Although
ever, Russia’s costs in human life were great.
the Bolsheviks had little influence in the early
Millions of Russian soldiers were wounded or
1900s, they gained followers as Russia’s prob-
killed during the war’s early battles.
lems grew more serious.
By 1914, economic conditions in Russia Conditions Grow Worse  In 1915, Czar
were so bad that the arrival of World War I pro- Nicholas II decided to take personal com-
vided some relief for Nicholas and his top gov- mand of the Russian forces. The move made
ernment officials. They hoped that the military little sense. As one of Russia’s top commanders
crisis would help unite the country and cause said, the czar “understood literally nothing
the people to rally around their leadership. about military matters.” Nevertheless, it was
now clear that the czar’s fate was linked with
Russia in World War I  At the start of the the fate of Russia’s armed forces. If they failed,
war, Russia had an enormous army of some
so would he.
6 million soldiers. As the czar had hoped, the

Time Line
March 1917 
Russia in Turmoil Russian citizens revolt and
force Czar Nicholas II to give
August 1914  Russia enters up power. A provisional gov-
World War I on the side of the ernment is established.
Allied Powers.

November 1917 
In the Bolshevik Revolution,
Communists led by Vladimir
Lenin take over the Russian
government.

790 Chapter 26
 The war had been going badly for Russia,
but once the czar took command, the situation
The Russian Revolution Reading
Skills
for Russia grew even worse. A few months later By the end of 1916, Russia was once again on Understanding
Sequencing  What
the Central Powers were able to stop a major the edge of a revolution. As the new year began
events took place in
Russian offensive. That defeat destroyed the and conditions in Russia continued to worsen, Russia in 1917
Russian soldiers’ faith in their leaders. With the Russian people clearly wanted change. before the czar
little strength and even less confidence, the stepped down?
Russian army seemed doomed.
Revolution Begins  On March 8, 1917,
unhappy citizens took to the streets of Petro-
Conditions in Russia itself were even
grad, the Russian capital, to protest the lack of
worse than they were on the battlefield. Food
food and fuel. Sympathetic police and soldiers
and other goods were growing scarce in Rus-
in Petrograd refused to follow orders to shoot
sian cities, and impoverished Russian peas-
the rioters. The government was helpless.
ants were growing desperate. The czar had
While protests raged in the streets, Czar
left his wife, the unpopular Czarina Alexan-
Nicholas II ordered the Duma, Russia’s leg-
dra, in control of the country when he went
islature, to disband. The Duma defied this
off with the troops. She relied on the advice of
order. With Russia’s citizens, soldiers, and gov-
Grigory Rasputin, a self-proclaimed holy man
ernment all refusing to obey Nicholas, it was
and healer whom many Russians viewed as
clear that he had lost control of the nation. On
corrupt and immoral. With the government
March 15, Nicholas was forced to abdicate, or
under his influence, the already shaky Russian
step down, as czar. The Russian monarchy had
support for the monarchy dipped even lower.
come to an end.
Find the Main Idea  The March revolution that forced Nicholas
How did World War I affect Russia? to step down is known as the February Revolu-
tion in Russia. At the time of the revolution,
Russia used an old type of calendar that was 13
days behind the one used in the rest of Europe
and the United States. Russia adopted the new
calendar in 1918.

The Provisional Government  After the

fall of the czar, the Duma established a provi-
sional, or temporary, government. This govern-
ment was led by Aleksandr Kerensky.

A Bolshevik poster seeks

to recruit soldiers during the
Russian Civil War.

December 1922 
The Soviet Union is formed.

March 1918  The Bolshevik November 1920 After Skills

government signs the Treaty of three years of fighting, the FOCUS Interpreting Time Lines
Brest-Litovsk, which ends Rus- Russian Civil War ends with
Summarize  What actions did the Bolsheviks
sian involvement in World War I. a Bolshevik victory. take in Russia between 1914 and 1922?

World War I 791

 Faces of History Guard attacked the provisional government.
The son of a teacher, The October Revolution—its name came from
Vladimir Lenin gradu-
Vladimir ated first in his class
the old Russian calendar—was brief. After a
nearly bloodless struggle, Kerensky’s govern-
LENIN 1870–1924
from high school and
seemed destined to be a
ment collapsed. Russia was now in Bolshevik
hands, and Lenin became the nation’s leader.
scholar. Instead, he soon Lenin wasted no time in establishing a
became a Marxist and fought for revolution in Russia. radical Communist program. He soon made
When Lenin was 17 years old, his older brother was hanged for private ownership of land illegal.
plotting to kill the Russian czar. Lenin himself soon turned against
History’s Voices
the Russian government. He founded the Bolshevik Party and sought
to establish a Communist social system, in which there would be no
economic classes and no private property. Today he is considered the
“ately
All private ownership of land is abolished immedi-
without compensation [payment to the own-
ers]. All landowners’ estates and all land belonging
father of the Russian Revolution.
to the Crown, to monasteries, church lands with all
Infer  Why is Lenin considered the father of the Russian Revolution? their livestock and . . . property . . . are transferred
to the disposition [control] of the township Land

Many Russians were unhappy with their

Committees.
”
—Vladimir Lenin, Decree on Land, October 26, 1917
new leadership. The government planned to
The Bolsheviks gave this land to peasants.
continue fighting in World War I, even though
Similarly, the Bolsheviks seized Russia’s facto-
most Russians were thoroughly tired of war.
ries and gave control of the factories to workers.
Russian peasants, who simply wanted land
With these actions, millions of Russians gained
and food, felt that Kerensky’s government was
new power over their daily lives, but this power
doing too little to help.
did not ensure that good times lay ahead.
Leading the opposition to Kerensky’s pro-
ACADEMIC visional government were the Bolsheviks, Summarize  What were the
VOCABULARY who wanted a fundamental change in Rus- main events of the Russian Revolution?
fundamental  sian government and society—an immediate
basic Marxist revolution. They planned to abolish
private property and enforce social equality, and After the Revolution
believed that this revolution would soon sweep
After the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin set
the world.
about ending Russia’s involvement in World
Bolshevism later became known as
War I. He sent Leon Trotsky, a top Bolshevik
Marxism-Leninism, after Bolshevik leader
official, to negotiate for peace with the Central
Vladimir Lenin. Lenin had been forced to live
Powers. Because Russia’s army was virtually
outside Russia because of his revolutionary
powerless, Trotsky had to accept an agreement
ideas, but he returned to Russia in April 1917.
that was harsh on Russia. Russia had finally
This return was arranged by Germany, which
gained peace, but was forced to give up huge
hoped Lenin would stir unrest in Russia and
chunks of its empire.
weaken the Russian effort in World War I.
Civil War  The Bolsheviks’ acceptance of the
The Bolshevik Revolution  In mid-1917,
treaty upset many Russians deeply. As a result,
Kerensky’s government ordered a final military
some of the Bolsheviks’ opponents organized
offensive against the Central Powers along the
into what came to be called the White Army.
Eastern Front. The drive failed. Even worse,
The Whites included some army leaders, politi-
it led to widespread rebellion in the Russian
cal opponents of the Bolsheviks, and wealthy
army. “I have received word,” wrote one offi-
Russians who opposed Lenin’s Communist
cer, “that in some units the officers are being
system. The only thing that united them was
slaughtered by their own men.” The weakened
their opposition to the Bolsheviks. The Whites
Russian army had collapsed.
received some military help from countries
The conditions were ideal for Lenin to lead a
that opposed the Bolsheviks, such as France
Bolshevik takeover. In November 1917, armed
and the United States.
Bolshevik factory workers known as the Red

792 Chapter 26
 For three years, civil war raged between Primary Sources
Lenin’s Bolshevik Red Army and the White
Army. Millions of Russians died in the fighting
and famines that swept across Russia, until
Lenin’s Call to Power
the Bolsheviks triumphed in late 1920. Lenin issued his “Call to Power” on October 24, 1917—according
to the old Russian calendar—urging Russians to rise up and seize
New Economic Policy  The civil war pushed power from the provisional government.
Russia’s collapsing economy to the edge of total “I am writing these lines on the evening of the 24th. The
ruin. Especially hard hit were poor peasants situation is critical in the extreme. In fact it is now abso-
and workers, who had been forced to endure lutely clear that to delay the uprising would be fatal.
terrible sacrifices in order to win the war.
“With all my might I urge comrades to realize that every-
Lenin responded to this crisis in 1921. He
thing now hangs by a thread; that we are confronted by
introduced the New Economic Policy, a plan
problems which are not to be solved by conferences or
that permitted some capitalist activity. Peas-
congresses (even congresses of Soviets), but exclusively
ants, for example, could sell their food at a
by peoples, by the masses, by the struggle of the armed
profit. The plan was meant to encourage more
people.
food production, which Russia badly needed.
“. . . We must not wait. We must at all costs, this very
The Soviet Union  By 1922 the Russian evening, this very night, arrest the government, having
economy was beginning to improve. That same first disarmed the officer cadets, and so on.
year, Russia reunited with several neighboring “We must not wait! We may lose everything! . . .
lands that had been part of the Russian Empire
“All districts, all regiments, all forces must be mobilized
before 1917. The new country was called the
at once . . .
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics—also
known as the Soviet Union. Russia’s Commu- “The government is tottering. It must be given the death-
nist leadership dominated the new country. blow at all costs.”
While the Soviet Union’s economy gained
strength, Lenin’s own health was failing. After Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
a series of strokes, he died in 1924. Lenin had
no clear successor, and his death soon led to a 1. Explain  What did Lenin want Russians to do? Why?
struggle for control of the Soviet Union. 2. Analyzing Primary Sources  What words does Lenin
use to try to convince readers to follow his instructions?
Sequence  What events took
See Skills Handbook, p. H25
place after the Russian Revolution?

go.hrw.com
Section 3 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL WW1 HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Recall  What was the condition of the Russian military at 4. Sequence  Using your notes on the section and a graphic
the beginning of World War I? organizer like the one below, identify the causes and effects of
b. Summarize  How did the Bolsheviks plan to change the Russian Revolution.
Russian society?
c. Make Judgments Do you think that Czar Nicholas II’s deci-
sion to take over as commander in chief of the Russian army
was wise? Why or why not?
2. a. Identify  What role did Vladimir Lenin have in Russia
in 1917? 5. Exposition  In a paragraph, explain why Lenin and the
b. Elaborate  Why do you think many Russians were anxious Bolsheviks took the actions they did between 1917 and 1924.
for radical change in 1917? Use details from the section to support your explanation. Be
sure to include information about Bolshevik political and
3. a. Recall  When did the Russian Civil War begin? economic goals.
b. Identify Cause and Effect  Why did the Russian economy
begin to improve after the civil war?

World War I 793

 Section

4 The War Ends

Before You Read Take
notes
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms and People on the events that
After several years of bloody led to the war’s end,
1. Why did the United States Woodrow Wilson
stalemate—and the entry the peace process,
enter the war? U-boats
of the United States into the and the war’s costs.
2. What events led to the end Zimmermann Note
conflict—the Allied Powers armistice
of the fighting?
finally prevailed. The peace, Fourteen Points
however, proved difficult to 3. What issues made the
Treaty of Versailles
establish. peace process difficult?
League of Nations
4. What were the costs of mandates
the war? Balfour Declaration

Why would Germany attack a

passenger liner? For passengers
packing their bags for the ocean voy-
age from New York to Great Britain, the advertisement

The sinking of the Lusitania, artist unknown, c. 1915

in the newspaper must have been alarming.
An
Attack
The notice was from the German government,
and it warned that any ship approaching
Great Britain was subject to attack.
Still, the Lusitania was a passenger liner. It
carried nearly 2,000 innocent civilians. Surely
on the
Innocent
German submarines would not attack a helpless,
harmless vessel like the Lusitania.
The Germans, however, felt that they could not trust
passenger ships. The British routinely hid war supplies on
civilian ships, using them to transport guns and ammuni-
tion across the ocean. Germany couldn’t afford to simply
ignore passenger ships. Sinking anything that sailed into
or out of Great Britain was a safer policy.
In early May 1915, when a German submarine spot-
ted the Lusitania off the coast of Ireland in the Atlantic
Ocean, the submarine’s commander did not hesitate. The
submarine fired a single torpedo, which struck the ship
squarely. This blast set off another, larger explosion inside
the ship. Badly damaged, the Lusitania sank in a mere 18
minutes. Nearly 1,200 people lost their lives, including
more than 120 U.S. citizens.

The Lusitania sank so quickly that

many passengers were drowned. 

794 Chapter 26
The United States Faces of History
U.S. president Woodrow
Enters the War Woodrow Wilson is often remem-
bered for his efforts for
German attacks on ships carrying American
passengers angered the American people and WILSON 1856–1924
world peace. During
the early years of World
their leaders. Those attacks, as well as infor- War I, Wilson worked
mation about a German plan to have Mexico tirelessly for peace, winning reelection in 1916 in part by promising to
attack the United States, pushed the United keep the United States out of the war.
States into World War I. By the following year, however, Wilson felt that the war was
American Neutrality  In the early years becoming a serious threat to the world’s future. He hoped that a vic-
of the war the United States was neutral,
tory by the Allied Powers could help bring about a lasting peace and
although the American public generally sup-
urged Congress to declare war. His Fourteen Points speech proposed
ported the Allies. Still, most Americans agreed
the League of Nations, which would help prevent future wars. For his
with President Woodrow Wilson, who did not
peacemaking efforts, Wilson earned the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919.
want to become involved in the huge conflict Summarize How did Wilson work for world peace?
on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. He
believed that the United States should stay out
of the affairs of other nations. In 1916, in fact,
The Zimmermann Note  The repeated
Wilson used the slogan “He kept us out of war”
attacks on shipping moved the United States
to help win reelection.
closer to declaring war against Germany. In
Trouble on the Seas  Remaining neutral February of 1917, the discovery of the so-called
was not easy when Germany attacked civilian Zimmermann Note provided the final push.
ships. These attacks were part of a policy called The Zimmermann Note was a secret message
unrestricted submarine warfare. Under this from German diplomat Arthur Zimmermann
policy, any ship traveling in the waters around to officials in Mexico in which Germany pro-
Great Britain was subject to attack by German posed that Mexico attack the United States.
submarines, or U-boats. Germany initially used In return, Germany promised, Mexico would
its U-boats to attack British naval vessels, but gain the U.S. states of Texas, Arizona, and New
then began targeting merchant ships deliver- Mexico, all of which had once belonged to Mex-
ing goods to Great Britain. Targeting merchant ico. German leaders hoped that an American
ships was an effective tactic, since the island war with Mexico would keep the United States
of Great Britain depended heavily on supplies out of the war in Europe.
shipped on the seas. The Zimmermann Note greatly angered
The passenger ship Lusitania was sunk the American public, which now began to call
under the German policy of unrestricted war- for war against Germany. After all, Americans
fare, killing some 1,200 people, including over had much in common with the Allied Pow-
120 Americans. The sinking of the Lusitania ers. Many Americans traced their ancestry to
was followed in August and September 1915 Great Britain, for example, and the two nations
by two more sinkings in which more American shared the same language and many cultural
citizens died. traditions. The United States also had strong
The U.S. government complained bitterly to financial ties to the Allied Powers and was sell-
Germany about the loss of American lives. Fear- ing millions of dollars’ worth of war goods to
ing U.S. entry into the war, Germany finally Britain each week.
agreed to stop attacking passenger ships. By early 1917, the various forces pushing
By 1917, though, German leaders realized the United States toward war were too strong to
that, to defeat the powerful British navy, they resist. In April 1917, the United States entered
would need to return to unrestricted subma- the war on the side of the Allied Powers.
rine warfare. This act might bring the United
Identify Cause and Effect 
States into the war. The German leaders hoped,
How did unrestricted submarine warfare affect U.S.
however, that they could defeat the Allied Pow-
entry into the war?
ers before U.S. forces could have an impact.

World War I 795

 Reading
like a Historian

Melting, by Lute Pease, c. 1917

U.S. Neutrality
Interpreting Political Cartoons  Many
Americans initially thought of World War I
as a far-off European conflict that had little
effect on the United States. They did not want
to become involved in the fighting. However,
as the war continued and as Germany
attacked neutral ships with American pas-
sengers, American feelings slowly changed.
This cartoon took a stand on the American
position of neutrality.
To interpret what this cartoon says about
American involvement in the war, think about
• the text and symbols used in the cartoon
• the artist’s message

The figure of Uncle This block of ice labeled

Sam represents the “Patience with Germany”
United States. is melting.

Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
1. Symbols  Why did the artist use a fan and a block of ice in this cartoon?
2. Message  Was this cartoon created by a supporter or an opponent of
U.S. entry into the war? How can you tell?
See Skills Handbook, p. H27

The End of the Fighting Germany transferred troops back to

France, and in March 1918, launched a major
German leaders knew that the U.S. decision to assault on the Western Front. For a while, Ger-
enter the war would dramatically increase the man forces made great progress against Allied
strength of the Allied Powers. To win the war, defenders, advancing to within 40 miles of the
Germany and the other Central Powers would French capital of Paris.
have to deal a decisive blow before the United The offensive came at a high cost to Ger-
States had time to raise an army, train soldiers, many, however. By the end of June, they had
and ship troops and supplies to the front lines. lost 800,000 troops. Also by that time, hun-
dreds of thousands of Americans had arrived
A New German Offensive  Germany’s in Europe. These soldiers helped on the battle-
opportunity to win the war before the U.S.
field, but they also gave the Allies hope—and
military could mobilize came with Russia’s
discouraged the Germans.
withdrawal from the war. Russia had endured
revolution and civil war, and by the end of German Collapse  Slowly, the balance
1917 was out of the war entirely. With German of power shifted. In the Second Battle of
troops no longer needed to fight Russia on the the Marne, Allied forces stopped the Ger-
Eastern Front, Germany could launch a new man assault—just as they had stopped the
offensive in the west.

796 Chapter 26
Germans at the Marne in 1914. Now the Allies anxious, for example, that Germany be able to
went on the offensive. Combining effective use stop the spread of communism from Russia.
of tanks and aircraft, Allied forces gained huge Italy’s leader Vittorio Orlando hoped to gain
amounts of territory. Many Germans simply territory for his nation. He was disappointed to
gave up without a fight, knowing that Ger- find himself largely ignored by other leaders
many was a defeated force. during the peace talks.
History’s Voices
The Treaty of Versailles  After difficult
“ [German] officers in particular inform us of the
weakness of their forces, the youth of their
negotiations, the Allies finally compromised on
the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty was named
recruits, and the influence of the American entry. after the French Palace of Versailles, where the
They are depressed by their heavy losses, by the
treaty signing took place.
poor quality of their food . . . They are worried and
The treaty came much closer to Clem-
begin to doubt German power.
”
—French report on German morale, September 1918
enceau’s vision than to Wilson’s. Germany was
forced to pay an enormous amount of money ACADEMIC
In October Allied forces broke through the to the war’s victims. The treaty also assessed VOCABULARY
heavily fortified Hindenburg Line. Germany’s responsibility for the war. Germany was forced assessed 
end was near. Soon German leaders approached to take full responsibility for the conflict. evaluated or
determined
the Allies seeking an armistice, or truce. Peace Other parts of the Treaty of Versailles
terms were agreed to on November 11, 1918. were designed to weaken Germany. The treaty
By this time, the other Central Powers had forced Germany to limit the size of its military.
admitted defeat. World War I was over. Germany also had to return conquered lands
to France and to Russia. Other German lands
Summarize How did fighting were taken to form the newly independent
come to an end? nation of Poland, and German colonies around
the globe were given to various world powers.
Germans were furious about the humiliat-
A Difficult Peace ing terms of the treaty, but they had no choice
Although peace had come to the battlefield, the but to accept them. Germany signed the treaty
leaders of the war’s major countries still had to on June 28, 1919. The reparations crippled the
work out a formal peace agreement. This task German economy and the bitterness caused by
would prove to be difficult. the Treaty of Versailles would have an effect on
German politics in the years to come.
Differing Allied Goals  In early 1918, while Yet the treaty did contain one victory for
fighting was still going on, Woodrow Wilson had Wilson. It established the organization of
announced his vision of world peace. This plan world governments he had envisioned in his
for peace was called the Fourteen Points. These Fourteen Points. This organization was called
points included the reduction of weapons and the League of Nations. The League’s main
the right of all people to choose their own gov- goals were to encourage international coopera-
ernments. He also proposed forming an organi- tion and to keep peace between nations. But
zation in which the world’s nations would join the League did not represent all the world’s
to protect one another from aggression. nations. Germany, for example, was excluded
Not everyone shared Wilson’s goals. In fact, from the League. In addition, Wilson was
the leaders of the four major Allies—Great Brit- unable to convince the U.S. government to rat-
ain, France, the United States, and Italy—had ify the Treaty of Versailles, as some Americans
very different ideas about a peace treaty. The worried that the League of Nations would drag
French, led by Georges Clemenceau, wanted them into another far-off war. The U.S. absence
to punish Germany. Clemenceau also wanted greatly weakened the League.
Germany to pay for the costs of the war.
Great Britain’s David Lloyd George stood Other Treaties  Allied leaders also cre-
somewhere between Clemenceau and Wilson. ated separate agreements with all of
He also wanted to punish Germany, yet he did the defeated Central Powers. These
not want to see Germany weakened. He was treaties made important changes to Europe.

World War I 797

 Europe and the Middle East
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SKILLS Interpreting Maps
1. Regions  List the new nations and mandates created after World War I.
2. Place  Were the Allied Powers or the Central Powers more affected by
the changes in national boundaries?

The vast lands of Austria-Hungary and the

Ottoman Empire were broken apart, forming
The Costs of the War
the independent nations of Austria, Hungary, World War I was the most devastating conflict
Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Turkey. Ger- the world had ever seen. It would take years
man territories in Africa and the Pacific Ocean for the nations involved to recover.
ACADEMIC were also given to other countries to control.
VOCABULARY Human Costs  Nearly 9 million soldiers
In the Middle East, former Ottoman lands
generation  group were killed in battle. Millions more were
of people born and
were turned into mandates, or territories to be
wounded or taken prisoner. In nations such as
living about the ruled by European powers. Syria and Lebanon
Germany, Russia, and France, almost an entire
same time became French mandates, and Palestine and
generation of young men died or were wounded
Iraq became British mandates. Meanwhile in
in the war.
Europe, the Zionist movement to create a Jew-
In the spring of 1918, the suffering became
ish state in the Middle East was growing. In
worse when a deadly outbreak of influenza
1917, Britain issued the Balfour Declaration,
Scientists today swept across the globe. The disease spread
are worried that a which favored establishing a Jewish state in
rapidly in crowded military conditions and as
type of influenza Palestine, the ancient Jewish homeland. Later,
soldiers made their way home at the war’s end.
known as avian Britain created Transjordan from the Palestine
flu, or bird flu, Worldwide, perhaps 50 million people or more
Mandate and named Abdullah as Transjor-
might turn into died in the epidemic.
another worldwide dan’s first ruler. European nations were sup-
flu epidemic. posed to control the mandates only until those Economic Costs  The war also destroyed
territories were able to govern themselves. In national economies. In places such as France,
reality, mandates became colonies. Belgium, and Russia, where much fighting
took place, farmland and cities alike were dev-
Summarize  Why was it so
astated. Economic chaos soon spread misery
difficult to work out a peace agreement?
throughout many parts of Europe.

798 Chapter 26
 The war also cost Europe its role as the dom-
inant economic region of the world. Countries
Effects of World War I
such as the United States and Japan prospered Human Costs Economic costs
during the war. In addition, countries that had
• 8.5 million soldiers died. • The war cost the world’s
formerly relied on European imports turned to
• 13 million civilians died. nations an estimated
new sources or developed their own products. • 21.2 million soldiers were $332 billion.
wounded.
Political Changes  World War I caused
widespread political unrest, including the
Communist revolution in Russia. After the war, political changes
the monarchies in Austria-Hungary, Germany, • Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were broken apart.
and the Ottoman Empire were all overthrown, • Germany was greatly weakened.
and many other countries also experienced • The Russian monarchy was overthrown.
political upheaval. This widespread political • New countries and colonies formed in Europe and the Middle East.
and social turmoil would help shape the world • European colonies in Africa and Asia changed hands.
in the years to come.

Unrest in Colonies  The growing unrest

affected European colonies as well. Many col-
onists who had fought in the war had heard
the Allied leaders speak noble words about
the importance of democracy and freedom.
After they shed blood for these ideals on behalf
of their colonial rulers, the colonists came to
expect these rights for themselves.
Instead, the colonists soon found that their
wartime sacrifices had not won them any
new freedoms. The powers of Europe simply
split up the lands controlled by the German,
Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires and
distributed them to other colonial powers.
Independence would have to wait.
  The war destroyed
Find the Main Idea  What
large areas of Europe.
were the costs of the war?

go.hrw.com
Section 4 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL WW1 HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Describe  What role did U-boats have in World War I? 5. Identify Cause and Effect  Using your notes on the section
b. Identify Cause and Effect  Why did the United States and a graphic organizer like the one below, explain what you
enter the war in 1917? believe was the most significant effect of World War I.
2. a. Recall  What was the outcome of Germany’s last offensive?
b. Explain  What effect did U.S. troops have on the war? World War I
3. a. Describe How did the Treaty of Versailles affect
Germany?
b. Compare and Contrast How did the various Allied goals
for peace differ?
4. a. Recall  What event that began in 1918 added to the suffer-
ing caused by the fighting in World War I? 6. Description  Choose one of the three types of costs of World
b. Predict How do you think the political unrest after World War I—human, economic, or political. Write a newspaper
War I will affect the world in the years that follow? article explaining those costs.

World War I 799

 CHAPTER

26 Document-Based Investigation
Causes of World War I
Historical Context The documents below provide information about the causes
of World War I.
Task Examine the documents and answer the questions that follow. After you
have studied all the documents, you will be asked to write an essay about the
causes of World War I. You will need to use evidence from these selections and from
the chapter to support the position you take in your essay.

The German Perspective my efforts to the very last moment do not succeed in bring-
ing our opponents to reason and in preserving peace, we
Wilhelm II, the ruler of Germany, gave this speech
may use the sword, with the help of God, so that we may
from the balcony of the royal palace in Berlin on
sheathe it again with honor. War will demand enormous
July 31, 1914.
sacrifices by the German people, but we shall show the
enemy what it means to attack Germany. And so I com-
A momentous hour has struck for Germany. Envious rivals
mend you to God. Go forth into the churches, kneel down
everywhere force us to legitimate defense. The sword has
before God, and implore his help for our brave army.
been forced into our hands. I hope that in the event that

The British Perspective The Allied Powers Perspective

On January 5, 1918, British prime minister David After the war’s end, the victorious Allied Powers
Lloyd George made this statement about Great Brit- formed a commission to determine responsibility for
ain’s war goals. the war. Below are the conclusions of the commission,
which were issued on May 6, 1919.
We are not fighting a war of aggression against the Ger-
man people. Their leaders have persuaded them that they 1. The War was premeditated by the Central Powers
are fighting a war of self-defence against a league of rival together with their Allies, Turkey and Bulgaria, and was the
nations bent on the destruction of Germany. That is not so. result of acts deliberately committed in order to make it
The destruction or disruption of Germany or the German unavoidable.
people has never been a war aim with us from the first day
of this war to this day. Most reluctantly, and indeed quite 2. Germany, in agreement with Austria-Hungary, deliber-
unprepared for the dreadful ordeal, we were forced to join ately worked to defeat all the many conciliatory proposals
in this war in self-defence . . . we had to join in the struggle made by the Entente Powers and their repeated efforts to
or stand aside and see Europe go under and brute force avoid war.
triumph over public right and international justice. It was
only the realization of that dreadful alternative that forced
the British people into war.

800 Chapter 26
The American Perspective

Now Then, All Together!, by Orson Lowell, 1918

The cartoon at right was created by American
artist Orson Lowell. Published in March 1918, it
shows Germany’s Kaiser Wilhelm II hanging by a
noose attached to a plank of wood marked “Greedy
Ambition.” Other figures in the cartoon represent
Great Britain, the United States, France, and
other countries that fought the Central Powers
during World War I.

Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
D ocument 1 D ocument 4
a. Interpret  Who does Wilhelm blame for the war? a. Draw Conclusions  What are the figures attempting to do
b. Make Judgments The day after Wilhelm gave this speech, to the globe? Why?
Germany declared war on Russia. Do you think that action b. Interpret  Who does the artist blame for the war? Does he
supports or contradicts what he said in his speech? believe that others feel the same way?
D ocument 2
a. Explain  What words does Lloyd George use to suggest
that Great Britain did not want war? Why might the different sides in the war view the causes of
b. Evaluate  Would Lloyd George agree or disagree with the war differently? Using the documents above and infor-
Document 1? mation from the chapter, form a thesis that explains your
D ocument 3 position. Then write a short essay to support your position.
a. Identify  What nation or nations does this document
See Skills Handbook, pp. H25, H27, H29
blame for causing the war?
b. Evaluate Do you think the authors of this document were
biased about the causes of the war? Why or why not?

World War I 801

 CHAPTER

26 Chapter Review
Visual Study Guide

Causes and Effects of World War I Key Events of World War I

Causes 1881 W Triple Alliance formed

•  Military buildup in Europe 1907 W Triple Entente formed

• European countries form alliances
1914 W Archduke Franz Ferdinand murdered
• Rival European empires try to keep and expand
their power
W Austria-Hungary declares war on
•  Growing nationalism Serbia
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand W Germany declares war on Russia and
France and invades Belgium
W Trench warfare begins

1915 W German U-boat sinks Lusitania

World War I W Czar Nicholas II takes command of
Russian forces
W Armenian Massacre takes place

1916 W Tanks first used in the war

Effects W Battle of Verdun becomes longest
• Tens of millions of people killed or wounded battle of the war
•  Much of Europe destroyed
•  Widespread political unrest and economic problems 1917 W Russian Revolution takes place
•  New countries formed in Europe W United States enters the war
•  Mandates established in the Middle East
•  League of Nations established 1918 W Armistice ends the fighting

1919 W Treaty of Versailles signed

Review Key Terms and People

Match each numbered definition with the letter of the
correct item from the list below.
Column I Column II
a. Grigory Rasputin 1. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire
b. Central Powers 2. War using all of society’s resources
c. armistice 3. Important or vital
d. League of Nations 4. German submarine
e. Bolshevik 5. Truce that ended the fighting in World War I
f. total war 6. Controversial adviser to the czar during
g. fundamental World War I
h. U-boat 7. Radical Communist group that took over
Russia in 1917
8. Organization of countries proposed in
Wilson’s Fourteen Points

802 Chapter 26
 History's Impact video program
Review the video to answer the closing question: What
impact has modern warfare had on the world today?

Comprehension and Critical Thinking Interpreting Political Cartoons

SECTION 1  (pp. 779–782) Reading Like a Historian  The cartoon below shows a
hand carving up a map of the southwestern United States.
9. a.  Recall  What were the two major alliances in
Europe in the years leading up to World War I?
b.  Explain  How did the assassination of Franz
Ferdinand contribute to the start of World War I?
c.  Elaborate  How did militarism and alliances
help cause World War I?
SECTION 2  (pp. 783–788)
10. a.  Describe  What was trench warfare?
b.  Make Generalizations  What general statement
could you make to describe the fighting in World
War I?
c.  Evaluate  How important was the role of propa-
ganda in World War I? Explain your answer. Carving up the United States, by Clifford Berryman, 1917

SECTION 3  (pp. 789–793) 16. Draw Conclusions  The eagle on the glove symbol-
11. a.   Describe  What was the general attitude of the izes Germany. Whose hands are in the cartoon?
Russian people toward their government in the 17. Analyze  To what event was the cartoonist refer-
early 1900s? ring? What do you think the cartoonist thought
b.  Identify Cause and Effect  How did World War about this event?
go.hrw.com
I affect the Russian people and their relationship Practice Online
with their government? Using the Internet Keyword: SHL WW1
c. Predict  How do you think Lenin’s death would 18. The Treaty of Versailles had an enormous effect on
affect the Soviet Union? Germany and the rest of Europe following World
SECTION 4  (pp. 794–799) War I. Using the Internet, research the Treaty
of Versailles. Then write a detailed report about
12. a.   Identify  How did the Fourteen Points affect the
the treaty, its terms, and its effects on Germany.
peace agreement at the end of the war?
Be sure to include an evaluation of the treaty’s
b.  Identify Cause and Effect  What was the result
strengths and weaknesses.
of the U.S. entry into the war?
c.  Support a Position  Which effect of World War I
do you think will have the greatest impact on the
world? Why? Think about the following issue:
The forces of nationalism and imperialism
Reading Skills played a major role in causing World War I. The
Understanding Sequencing  Use what you know war was the largest conflict the world had ever
about understanding sequencing to answer the ques- seen, and years of battles took place before the
tions below. armistice and the Treaty of Versailles finally
13. Did Austria-Hungary enter the war before or after brought an end to the fighting.
the United States did?
19. Assignment:  Did World War I resolve the dis-
14. Did the creation of mandates in the Middle East
agreements that had caused the war? Write a
take place before or after the war?
short essay in which you develop your position on
15. What events led up to Czar Nicholas II stepping this issue. Support your point of view with reason-
down as leader of Russia? ing and examples from your reading and studies.

World War I 803