UNIT SEVEN

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS (IKS) AND PRACTICES

7.1. Definition of concepts

7.1.1. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)

IKS is defined as technical insight of wisdom gained and developed by people in a particular locality through
years of careful observation and experimentation with the phenomena around them. IKS is not just a set of
information that is in the minds of the people, which can be simply taped and applied. It is accessible by recall
and practice (Mangetane, 2001). IKS is embodied in culture and is described as an integrated pattern of human
knowledge, beliefs and behavior. It consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools,
techniques, artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender. This culture is passed down from one generation
to the next generation and generally it provides a holistic view of how to use natural resources based on
traditional ethical perspectives (Atteh,1991). Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) refer to a body of empirical
knowledge and beliefs handed down through generations of long-time inhabitants of a specific locale, by cultural
transmission, about the relationship of living beings with each other and their environment (Warren 1991).
In sum, IKS refers to ― a total of knowledge and practices, whether explicit or implicit, used in the management of
socioeconomic, ecological and spiritual facets of life (Hoppers, 2005: 2), stored in the collective memory and
communicated orally among members of the community and to the future generations [through, stories, myth,
songs, etc].
7.1.2. Indigenous peoples, and Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous peoples
In international context, while the term ‗indigenous‘ is understood (mostly by Europeans) as being similar or
synonym to ‗traditional‘, ‗aboriginal‘, ‗vernacular‘, ‗African‘, ‗Black‘, and ‗native American‘, the phrase
‗indigenous people' refers to a specific group of people occupying a certain geographic area for many generations
(Loubser, 2005). Indigenous people possess, practice and protect a total sum of knowledge and skills constitutive
of their meaning, belief systems, livelihood constructions and expression that distinguish them from other groups
(Dondolo, 2005; Nel, 2005).

However, the concept ―indigenous‖ is a social and historical construct with high political, social, and economic
stakes. Definitions of indigenous in international governing organizations (IGOs), in indigenous communities,
and in the academic literature are highly contested. The World Bank's definition of indigenous peoples includes
close attachment to ancestral territories and the natural resources in them; presence of customary social and
political institutions; economic systems primarily oriented to subsistence production; an indigenous language,
often different from the predominant language; and self-identification and identification by others as members of
a distinct cultural group (The world Bank in Corntassel, 2003:86).
Indigenousness, as defined by indigenous peoples, focuses on the relationship with the community in which they
live. In each definition the distinction between the communities is cited. Both definitions also highlight the
relationship of indigenous peoples to the power structure within the state, noting that indigenous groups are
disadvantaged or lack control. Territory is also essential in the definitions. Being indigenous is about ―continuity
of habitation, aboriginality, and often a ‗natural‘ connection to the land‖ (Clifford 1997[1994]:287). For example,
in the cosmology of Native Hawaiians the land is an ancestor who gave birth to Hawaiians (Trask 1999). Thus,
the relationship to the land is a form of kinship. There is a sense of stewardship and of duty to not only use the
resources that the land gives for sustenance, but to do what each generation can to perpetuate the health and
fertility of the land.
Academic definitions focus on the following elements of indigenous identity: living in tradition-based cultures,
having political autonomy prior to colonialism, and seeking to preserve cultural integrity in the present
(Corntassel, 2003). They also recognize the role of land to indigenous peoples—noting that they are descended
from inhabitants of the land they occupy (ibid).
In 1986, however, a working definition of Indigenous peoples was offered by the UN Working Group on
Indigenous Issues, developed within the comprehensive Study by Martinez Cobo J. on the problem of
discrimination against indigenous populations. According to this definition:

Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion
and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the
societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of
society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and
their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural
patterns, social institutions and legal systems (MartinezCobo, 1982).
In sum, despite the lack of an authoritative / formal universal definition for the concept of indigenous peoples, the
United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) sets outs distinguishing features as a guide for
the identification of indigenous peoples across the globe. This includes the:
 Self- identification as Indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted by the community as their
member;
 Historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies;
 Strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources;
 Distinct social, economic or political systems;
 Distinct language, culture and beliefs;
 Formation of non-dominant groups of society; and

 Resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and
communities
Regarding their number, it is estimated that there are approximately 370 million indigenous peoples
live in some 90 countries across the world (Bartlett, 2007). While they constitute 5 per cent of the
world‘s population, they make up 15 per cent of the world‘s disadvantaged. Of the 7,000 languages
in the world today, it is estimated that more than 4,000 are spoken by the indigenous peoples
(Edmund Jan Osmanczyk ed., 1990). Practicing their respective unique traditions, indigenous people
retain social, cultural, economic and political characteristics which are distinct and different from
those of the larger societies in which they live (Bahar , 2010).
Indigenous Knowledge (IK)
According to Warren, indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a given culture
or society. Since every population is unique in terms of its environment, its resources, and its tools (both physical
and conceptual), IK will also be unique. IK contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by
universities, research institutions and private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making in agriculture,
health care, food preparation, education, natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural
communities .
(Warren, 1991). For Kwaku and Morena (2010), IK is a unique local knowledge to a given culture or society. IK
exists in rural and urban societies as part of life that their livelihood depends on specific skills and knowledge for
survival.
The World Bank refers IK as a large body of knowledge and skills which is developed outside the formal system
including development planning, environmental assessment, resource management, local conservation of
biological resources, and conflict resolution (World Bank, 1998).

IK has different but closely related names such as 'folk knowledge', 'local knowledge or wisdom', 'non-formal
knowledge', 'culture', 'indigenous technical knowledge', 'traditional ecological knowledge', 'traditional
knowledge', and others. All these terms have similar concepts and refer to how members of a community perceive
and understand their environment and resources, particularly the way they convert those resources through
labor(Akabogu, 2002).
In sum, indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that people in a given community have developed over time, and
that continues to develop. It is based on experience, often tested over centuries of use, adapted to local culture and
environment, dynamic and changing (International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, IIRR, 1996).

7.1.3. Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge

Ellen and Harris (1996) identified the following special features of indigenous knowledge that distinguish it
broadly from other knowledge. As to them IK is:
1. Local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader cultural traditions; it is a set of
experiences generated by people living in those communities. Separating the technical from the non-technical, the
rational from the non-rational could be problematic. Therefore, when transferred to other places, there is a
potential risk of dislocating IK.
2. Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily codifiable.
3. Transmitted orally, or through imitation and demonstration. Codifying it may lead to the loss of some of its
properties.

4. Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial and error, tested in the rigorous
laboratory of survival of local communities constantly reinforce IK.
5. Learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is
added. Repetition aids in the retention and reinforcement of IK.
6. Constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced, discovered as well as lost; though it is often
perceived by external observers as being somewhat static

7.2 Significance of indigenous knowledge

Until relatively recently, the development of a community‘s conception of knowledge was influenced primarily
by the philosophy and methods of western science. ―Few, outside of some anthropologists and historians
recognized that there are numerous sciences embedded in cultures of other peoples and civilizations throughout
the world (Davies, S. and Ebbe, K., editors, 1995).
Today, however, both scholars and public policy makers are recognizing the importance of various local or
culture-based knowledge systems in addressing the pressing problems of development and the environment‖
(ibid).
Indigenous knowledge is important in that people in a community value whatever resource they get from the
environment through sustainable production systems. These communities are conscious of the need to self-reliant
in capital stocks and management skills ( Mangetane et al, 2001).
The knowledge of local people is an enabling component of development. In this regard; a large percentage of the
earth's genetic diversity has been maintained and managed through farmer's IKS ( Dewes,1993).

Indigenous knowledge system enable people to develop strategies for handling household and communal
activities (Mangetane et al., 2001). For example in Ethiopia Debo and Jige are an important uniting forces in
communal activities. Members of the community unite to provide essential inputs, including direct labor to
operations. ''This deployment of manpower is strongly supported by IKS, which is composed of technologies,
rules, information, approaches, and relationships that are vital to sustainable development'' (Kalawole, 2001).
Over the years, IKS authorities (elders) make local rules to protect important resources such as useful plants,
water bodies, stone terracing, agro-forestry, watersheds and rivers, food preservations, conflict management,
calendar, fallowing as a soil regeneration practice, etc. According to Paula Puffer Paula (1995), indigenous / local
knowledge can help find the best solution to a development challenges. For example, familiarity with local
knowledge can help extensionists and researchers understand and communicate better with local people.
In general, indigenous knowledge is an important part of the lives of the poor. IK is a key element of the ―social
capital‖ of the poor; their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter
or to achieve control of their own lives. Furthermore, one cannot overlook indigenous knowledge‘s ability to
provide effective alternatives to Western know-how. IK offers local people and their development workers further
options in designing new projects or addressing specific problems and wider disasters. Instead of relying on
imported Western technologies, people in the developing nations can choose from readily available indigenous
knowledge or, where appropriate, combine indigenous and Western technology.
However, it is important to note that not all indigenous practices are beneficial to the sustainable development of
a local community; and not all IK can a priori provide the right solution for a given problem. Typical examples
are slash and burn agriculture and female circumcision. Hence, before adopting IK, integrating it into
development programs, or even disseminating it, practices need to be scrutinized for their appropriateness just as
any other technology. (A frame work for action, 1998).

7.3. Indigenous knowledge and development

Needless to mention again, indigenous knowledge refers to what indigenous people know and do, and what they
have known and done for generations – practices that evolved through trial and error and proved flexible enough
to cope with change (Melchias, 2001).
Indigenous knowledge passes from one generation to the next and enable indigenous people to survive, manage
their natural resources and the ecosystems surrounding them like animals, plants, rivers, seas, natural
environment, economic, cultural and political organization. Knowledge of these elements form a set of interacting
units known as indigenous coping systems. In other words, ''IK is relevant to development process such as
agriculture, animal husbandry, traditional medicine, saving and credit, community development, poverty
alleviation, and peaceful coexistence'' ( Boven and Morohashi, 2002).
Indigenous knowledge may help identify cost-effective and sustainable mechanisms for poverty alleviation that
are locally manageable and meaningful. It increases and enhances livelihood options, revitalize agriculture,
increase food security, improve health and promote a sense of cultural pride within the community (Kudzayi et al,
2013). Many plants currently growing wild in the ancestral domain produce natural dye, fiber, detergent and
natural oil. Several plants in the ancestral domain have medicinal uses. Chemical compounds of these plants
could be identified for the production of organic medicine (ibid).''Indigenous knowledge is used at the local level
by communities as the basis for decisions pertaining to food security, human and animal health, education, natural
resources management, and other vital activities'' (Nicolas, 2000).
Nicolas further states that indigenous institutions, indigenous technology, and low-cost approaches can increase
the efficiency of development programs because IK is a locally owned and managed resource. Utilizing IK helps
to increase the sustainability of development efforts because the IK integration process provides for mutual
learning and adaptation, which in turn contributes to the empowerment of local communities.
Since efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability are key determinants of the quality of development work,
harnessing indigenous knowledge has a clear development business case. Early indications point to significant
improvements in development project quality, if IK is leveraged with modern technologies. Building on IK
systems also empowers local communities. Empowerment, especially of the poor, is a core objective of most
development efforts( ibid ).
According to the 1998/99 World Development Report, knowledge, not capital, is the key to sustainable social and
economic development. Building on local knowledge, the basic component of any country‘s knowledge system, is
the first step to mobilize such capital.
As to the same report, the challenge for the development community is to find better ways to learn about
indigenous institutions and practices and where necessary adapt modern techniques (i.e., ―global best practices‖)
to the local practices. Only then will global knowledge be rendered relevant to the local community needs. The
key factor in the adaptation process is the involvement of those who possess indigenous knowledge. A study of
121 rural water projects in 49 countries found that 70 percent succeeded when the intended beneficiaries
participated in project design, compared to a 10 percent success rate among programs where they did not.7
In sum, indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that helps a society make decisions about activities, such as
agriculture and education, that are acceptable to their life ways. Indigenous knowledge, along with western- based
knowledge, helps create development solutions that are culturally acceptable by the community. In the past, such
knowledge has been ignored and development solutions have been created that were not economically feasible or
culturally acceptable by the local community. When western scientific ideas are paired with indigenous
knowledge systems, researchers going overseas or working with local communities can prepare an initial
development plan that has a complete picture (Puffer, 1995).

7.4. Preservation, Challenges and Limitations of IK

Indigenous knowledge, which has generally been passed from generation to generation by word of mouth, is in
danger of being lost unless it is formally documented and preserved (Amare, 2009). The future of IK, that reflects
many generations of experience and problem solving by thousands of indigenous people across the globe, is
uncertain (Warren, 2004).
The loss of IK would impoverish society because, just as the world needs genetic diversity of species, it needs
diversity of knowledge systems (Labelle, 1997). The rapid change in the way of life of local communities has
largely accounted for the loss of IK. Younger generations underestimate the utility of IK systems because of the
influence of modem technology and education (Ulluwishewa, 1999).
If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain inaccessible to other indigenous systems as well as
to development workers. Development projects cannot offer sustainable solutions to local problems without
integrating local knowledge (Warren, 1991).
"Since IK is essential to development, it must be gathered, organized and disseminated, just like Western
knowledge''(Agrawal, 1995 in Amare, 2009). As IK is the key to local-level development, ignoring people‘s
knowledge leads possibly to failure. Similarly, ''one should not expect all the expertise for third world
development to come from developed nations, academic institutions, multinational corporations or NGOs''
(Amare, 2009). In the face of dwindling resources available to African countries, and noting that even the
industrialized nation governments cannot provide for all the needs of the people, it has been suggested that IK,
and the technical expertise developed there from become vital tools for rural development(Atte, 1989).
Regarding the challenges and limitations of IK, Amare (2009) states the following :
Although the knowledge of indigenous communities has been found to be very useful, the, exploitation of natural
resources, and increased competition for employment, has set off a problematic chain of events. This
modernization has influenced indigenous traditional spread of industrialization threatens the preservation and
continued development of IK systems (Sherpa, 2005). Industrialization, along with its attendant processes of
urbanization African which generate IK and practices can break down. Added to this is the commercial society in
many ways and Ethiopia is no exception.
IK can also be eroded by wider economic and social forces. Pressure on indigenous peoples to integrate with
larger societies is often great and, as they become more integrated, the social structures pressure by multinational
agrochemical companies eager to break into new markets (Thrupp, 1989). As Grenier (1998) puts it: ―the growth
of national and international markets, the imposition o f educational and religious systems and the impact o f
various development processes are leading more and more to the ―homogenization‖ o f the world‘s cultures.
Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered and the resulting
knowledge base incomplete.
As with scientific knowledge, ( Amare, 2009), IK has the following limitations and drawbacks and these must be
recognized as well:
IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of naive notions that whatever indigenous people do is naturally in
harmony with the environment. Thrupp (1989) argues that we should reject ―romanticized and idealistic views of
local knowledge and traditional societies‖. There is historical and contemporary evidence that indigenous peoples
have also committed environmental sins‘ through over-grazing, over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is
misleading to think of IK as always being ‗good‘, ‗right or ‗sustainable‘.
Quite often the overlooked feature of IK, which needs to be taken into account, is that, like scientific knowledge,
sometimes the knowledge which local people rely on is wrong or even harmful. Practices based on, for example,
mistaken beliefs, faulty experimentation, or inaccurate information can be dangerous and may even be a barrier to
improving the wellbeing of indigenous people.
Doubleday (2003) pointed out that knowledge is power, so individuals are not always willing to share knowledge
among themselves, or with outsiders. Knowledge is a source of status and income (as is the case, for example,
with a herbalist) and is often jealously guarded. A related issue is that some indigenous peoples fear that their IK
will be misused, and lacking the power to prevent such abuses, they choose to keep quiet.

7.5. The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems(IKS)

Despite the fact that some IK is lost naturally as techniques and tools are modified or fall out of use, the recent
and current rate of loss is accelerating because of rapid population growth, growth of international markets,
educational systems, environmental degradation, and development processes — pressures related to rapid
modernization and cultural homogenization (Louise Grenier, 1998). Below, some examples are given by Grenier
to illustrate these mechanisms:
With rapid population growth—often due to in-migration or government relocation schemes in the case
of large development projects, such as dams — standards of living may be compromised. With poverty,
opportunities for short-term gain are selected over environmentally sound local practices. With increasing
levels of poverty, farmers, for example, may also have less time and fewer resources to sustain the
dynamic nature of IK systems through their local experiments and innovations.
The introduction of market-oriented agricultural and forestry practices focused on mono-cropping is
associated with losses in IK and IK practices, through losses in biodiversity and cultural diversity. For
instance, policies promoting generic rice and wheat varieties devalue locally adapted species. With the
ready availability of many commercial foods, some biodiversity seems to become less relevant, such as
seed and crop varieties selected over the years for their long-term storage attributes.
In the short term, chemical inputs seem to reduce the need to tailor varieties to difficult growing
conditions, contributing to the demise of local varieties.
With deforestation, certain medicinal plants become more difficult to find (and the knowledge or culture
associated with the plants also declines).
More and more knowledge is being lost as a result of the disruption of traditional channels of oral
communication. Neither children nor adults spend as much time in their communities anymore (for
example, some people travel to the city on a daily basis to go to school, to look for work, or to sell farm
produce; many young people are no longer interested in, or do not have the opportunity for, learning
traditional methods). It is harder for the older generation to transmit their knowledge to young people.
As IK is transmitted orally, it is vulnerable to rapid change — especially when people are displaced or
when young people acquire values and lifestyles different from those of their ancestors.
Farmers traditionally maintained their indigenous crop varieties by keeping household seed stocks and by
obtaining seed through traditional family and community networks and through exchanges with nearby
communities. Some of these traditional networks have been disrupted or no longer exist.
In the past, outsiders (for example, social, physical, and agricultural scientists, biologists, colonial
powers) ignored or maligned IK, depicting it as primitive, simple, static, ―not knowledge,‖ or folklore.
This historic neglect (regardless of its cause — racism, ethnocentrism, or modernism, with its complete
faith in the scientific method) has contributed to the decline of IK systems, through lack of use and
application. This legacy is still continued, as a result of which many professionals are still skeptical
(Louise Grenier, 1998).
In sum, indigenous peoples often have much in common with other neglected segments of societies, i.e. lack of
political representation and participation, economic marginalization and poverty, lack of access to social services
and discrimination. Despite their cultural differences, the diverse indigenous peoples share common problems
also related to the protection of their rights.