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Phones 4357468 & 998508716

Special Vocabulary

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abandon: relinquish verb [transitive]

to let someone else position, power, or rights, especially unwillingly: The Duke was
obliged to relinquish all rights and claims to the territory.
relinquish sth to sb: He refused to relinquish sovereignty to his son. relinquish your
hold/grip on sth: Richard stubbornly refused to relinquish his hold on the family
business.
leave, desert, quit, forsake verb past tense forsook
past participle forsaken / / noun [transitive] literary

1 to leave someone, especially when you should stay because they need you: God will
never forsake you.

2 to stop doing or leave something that you have or enjoy: We had to forsake the
comfort of our hotel room and spend the night waiting at the airport.

abate /@'beIt/ verb [intransitive, transitive]

to become less strong or decrease, or to make something do this: We waited for the
storm to abate.
abatement noun [uncountable]
:reduce, let up, decrease, diminish verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to become or make something become smaller or less

important: The party's share of the electorate has diminished steadily. | diminish sth:
These drugs diminish blood flow to the brain.

2 [transitive] to deliberately make someone or something appear less important or

valuable than they really are: Don't let him diminish your achievements.

3 diminishing returns the idea that a point can be reached at which the profits or
advantages you are getting stop increasing in relation to the effort you are making,
lessen
abbreviate: shorten, curtail, brief, truncate, abridge

abhor verb abhorred, abhorring [transitive not in progressive]

to hate a kind of behavior or way of thinking, especially because you think it is morally
wrong: Some genuinely abhorred slavery, others were simply convinced by the
economic arguments against it.
:hate, detest, loathe verb [transitive not in progressive] to hate someone or something
very much: Lucinda loathes spiders. | loathe doing sth: I absolutely loathe travelling.

abide:remain, sojourn, reside, inhabit

abject adjective

1 abject poverty/misery/failure etc the state of being extremely poor, unhappy,

unsuccessful etc

2 an abject action or expression shows that you feel very ashamed: an abject apology
abjectly adverb
abjection noun [uncountable] :humiliate /hju:'mIlieIt/ verb [transitive]
to make someone feel ashamed and upset, especially by making them seem stupid or
weak: Her boss humiliated her in front of all her colleagues.
humiliated adjective : I've never felt so humiliated in all my life!
contemptible adjective so unacceptable that you have no respect for the person
involved: They were portrayed as contemptible cowards.
contemptibly adverb , base, mean

abolish:
annul verb annulled, annulling [transitive often passive]
technical to state that a marriage or legal agreement no longer exists
annulment noun [countable, uncountable] nullify / verb [transitive]
1 law to officially state that something has no legal force: The claim was nullified by the
court.2 formal to make something lose its effect or value: Inflation has nullified the
recent wage increases.
noun [uncountable] revoke

abound: teem, swarm

abreast adverb

1 walk/ride etc abreast to walk, ride etc next to each other : two/three/four abreast
etc (=with two or more people next to each other)

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2 keep abreast of to make sure that you know all the most recent facts or information
about a particular subject or situation: Henry tries to keep abreast of the latest
developments in computing.
alongside

abrupt:sudden, hasty adjective

done in a hurry, especially with bad results: He soon regretted his hasty decision. | a
hasty breakfast
hastily adverb
hastiness noun [uncountable]

absent-minded: oblivious adjective [not before noun]

not knowing about, or not noticing, something that is happening around you;
unaware[+ of/to]: Mallory set off, utterly oblivious of the danger.obliviousness noun
[uncountable] inattentive

absolute: complete, perfect

absorb: swallow, engulf

abstract: theoretical, unpracticed

absurd adjective
completely stupid or unreasonable; ridiculous: Don't be absurd! | It seems quite
absurd to expect anyone to drive for 3 hours just for a 20 minute meeting.
absurdity noun [countable, uncountable] ridiculous, foolish, stupid
abundance noun [singular, uncountable]
a large quantity of something : an abundance of: an abundance of wavy red hair | in
abundance: Wild flowers grow in abundance on the hillsides.
plenty, profusion noun [singular, uncountable]
a supply or amount that is almost too large
[+ of]: The house was overflowing with a profusion of strange ornaments. | in
profusion: Corn marigolds grow in profusion in the fields.

abuse: misuse, maltreat, ill-use,

reproach noun formal

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1 [uncountable] blame or disapproval for the things you have done: Are you going
already? he cried, his voice full of reproach. | Beyond/above reproach formal
(=impossible to criticize; perfect): His behavior throughout this affair has been beyond
reproach.

2 [countable] a remark that expresses criticism or disapproval: Her question was

clearly a reproach.

3 a reproach to something that makes a person, society etc feel bad or ashamed;
disgrace1: These derelict houses are a reproach to the city.
,slander

accelerate* : hurry, speed, hasten, quicken, speed up, expedite.

accept : admit, approve, acknowledge
access : approach

accidental adjective
happening without being planned or intended: an accidental discharge of toxic waste
casual, contingent adjective formal
dependent on something that is uncertain or that will happen in the future
[+ on/upon]: Further investment would be contingent upon the company's profit
performance, contingently adverb

accommodate verb

1 [transitive] to have or provide enough space for a particular number of people or

things: The hall can only accommodate 200 people. | building bigger and bigger
highways to accommodate more cars

2 [transitive] to give someone a place to stay, live, or work

suit, fit, adapt, hold, contain

accompany :escort, convoy

accomplish verb [transitive]

to succeed in doing something, especially after trying very hard; achieve: We have
accomplished all we set out to do. fulfill, complete, achieve, execute

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accord noun

1 of your own accord without being asked or forced to do something: It's better that
she comes of her own accord.

2 [uncountable] formal a situation in which two people, ideas, or statements agree

with each other: be in accord with: These results are in accord with earlier research. |
in total/perfect accord: For once the President and myself were in total accord. | speak
with one accord (=if two or more people speak with one accord they show total
agreement with each other by what they say)

3 [countable] a formal agreement between countries or groups: the Helsinki accord on

human rights

4 with one accord formal if two or more people do something with one accord they do
it together: With one accord they rushed down to the lake.
agree, assent,concur verb concurred, concurring [intransitive] formal

1 to agree with someone or have the same opinion as them

[+ with]: The judge stated that he concurred with the ruling.

2 to happen at the same time; coincide (1): concur to do sth: Everything concurred to
produce the desired effect.

account: explanation, exposition noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a clear and detailed explanation: a lucid exposition of

educational theories

2 expressed in a way that is clear and easy to understand: a lucid and accurate account
of the day's events

3 a word meaning able to understand and think clearly, used especially about someone
who is not always able to do this: In her more lucid moments the old lady would talk
about her past.
lucidly adverb
lucidity noun [uncountable]

accurate: correct, precise

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accuse :indict verb [intransitive, transitive] law especially AmE
to officially charge someone with a criminal offence : indict sb for sth: He was indicted
for fraud before a grand jury.
indictment noun [countable, uncountable]

1 [countable, uncountable] a method of illegally getting money from someone, often

by using clever and complicated methods: financial losses due to theft or fraud |
tax/share/bankruptcy etc fraud (=fraud in a particular financial area)

2 [countable] someone who deceives people to gain money, friendship etc: She
realized later that the insurance salesman had been a fraud.
, charge, impeach, blame

accustomed: customary, habitual noun old-fashioned

as is sb's wont used to say that it is someone's habit to do something: He spoke for too
long, as is his wont.

achieve: accomplish, perform , effect 10 PERSONAL THINGS effects [plural] formal the
things that someone owns; belongings: Don's few personal effects were in a suitcase
under the bed.

acid :sour, biting

acknowledge :admit, confess, own

acquaintance 1 [countable] someone you know, but who is not a close friend

2 make sb's acquaintance formal to meet someone for the first time: I'm pleased to
make your acquaintance.

3 of your acquaintance formal a person of your acquaintance is someone that you

know: a certain lawyer of my acquaintance

4 [uncountable] formal knowledge or experience of a particular subject : have a

passing/nodding acquaintance with (=have only slight knowledge or experience of
something): I must admit I have only a passing acquaintance with his books.

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5 on further/closer acquaintance formal when you start to know someone or
something better: associate, companion

Acquire : gain, win, earn, secure1 verb [transitive]

1 to get or achieve something that will be permanent, especially after a lot of effort:
Negotiators are still trying to secure the release of the hostages. | a deal to secure the
company's future

2 to make something safe from being attacked, harmed, or lost

[+ against]: Extra men will be needed to secure the camp against attack.

3 to fasten or tie something firmly in a particular position: a tent secured with heavy
wooden pegs | secure sth to sth: John secured the boat firmly to the jetty.

4 to legally promise that if you cannot pay back money you have borrowed, you will
give the lender goods or property of the same value instead: a secured loan

actual :tangible, definite, genuine adjective

1 a genuine feeling, desire etc is one that you really feel, not one you pretend to feel in
order to deceive people; sincere: The reforms are motivated by a genuine concern for
the disabled.

2 something genuine really is what it seems to be; real: It's either a genuine diamond
or a very good fake.

3 someone who is genuine is honest and friendly and you feel you can trust them:
Dan's a real genuine guy.

4 the genuine article informal a person, or sometimes a thing, that is a true example of
their type: If you want to meet a real Southerner, Jake is the genuine article.
genuinely adverb : He genuinely believes in what he sells.
genuineness noun [uncountable]

acute : pointed, sharp, intense adjective

1 having a very strong effect or felt very strongly: intense pain | The heat was intense.

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2 there is intense activity, effort etc when people are working, trying, or thinking
extremely hard: a period of intense concentration and study

3 having feelings or opinions that are extremely strong, serious etc: She can be so
intense, it makes me exhausted. | an intense young man
intensely adverb : intensely exciting
intensity noun [uncountable] , poignant, severe, fierce,violent, keen, shrewd

adapt :suit, adjust, fit

address:1. residence, abode

2. speech, lecture, discourse noun

1 [countable] a serious speech or piece of writing on a particular subject

[+ on/upon]: Professor Grant delivered a long discourse on aspects of moral theology.

2 [uncountable] serious conversation between people: You can't expect meaningful

discourse when you two disagree so violently.

3 [uncountable] the language used in particular kinds of speech or writing: scientific

discourse

adequate: sufficient, suitable

adhere :stick, cleave, cling

adjourn :suspend, postpone, defer verb deferred, deferring [transitive]

to delay something until a later date: Let's defer the decision for a few weeks.

defer to sb/sth phrasal verb [transitive] formal

to agree to accept someone's opinion or decision because you have respect for that
person, delay

adjust : fit, adapt, suit

administer: manage, conduct, execute, direct, supervise

admirable : praiseworthy, fine, excellent

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admire : esteem, revere

admit : acknowledge, own, confess, receive

adore : worship, esteem, revere

adorn : decorate, beautify, ornament

advance: improve, progress, propose, offer

advantage: benefit, profit, behalf noun on behalf of also in behalf of

a) instead of someone, or as their representative: On behalf of everyone here,
may I wish you a very happy retirement. | The President can't be here today, so I'm
going to speak in his behalf.

b) because of someone: Oh, don't go to any trouble on my behalf.

adversary: antagonist, opponent, enemy, foe

adversity: calamity, catastrophe, disaster, misfortune

advocate: support, argue for, speak for

affect : 1. influence, impress, touch, stir

2. pretend, feign, assume

affectation noun [countable, uncountable]

behaviour that is not sincere or natural: Those beatnik clothes of his are just an
affectation: airs, pretense,
affection : attachment noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a feeling that you like or love someone or something and
that you would be unhappy without them
[+ to/for]: I did feel a certain sense of attachment for the strange old guy.

2 [uncountable] belief in and loyalty towards a particular idea

[+ to/for]: old people's attachment to traditional customs and ways

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3 [countable] a part that you can put onto a machine to make it do different things: a
versatile food mixer that comes with a range of attachments

4 on attachment working for a particular organization, especially for a short period of

time: He was sent on attachment to their offices in Hong Kong, amity, love

affluent: rich, opulent adjective

1 a) very beautiful, highly decorated, and made from expensive materials; luxurious:
the opulent splendour of the Sultan's palace

b) very rich: opulent officials in large limousines

2 growing healthily and in large amounts; luxuriant, abundant

Affront: verb [transitive usually passive]

to offend or insult someone, especially by not showing respect
:offend, insult, abuse

Aggregate: noun [countable]

1 the total after a lot of different parts or figures have been added together: Society is
not just an aggregate of individuals. | on aggregate (=when the points are added
together): Manchester United won 2-1 on aggregate. | in (the) aggregate (=as a group
or in total)

2 [singular, uncountable] technical sand or small stones that are used in making
concrete1 : assemble, collect, accumulate, gather

aggressive: offensive, assaulting, militant adjective

a militant organization or person is willing to use strong or violent action in order to
achieve political or social change: militant trade unionists | After the assassination of
Martin Luther King, black leaders became more militant.

agile adjective
1 able to move quickly and easily: Andy climbed the tree, agile as a monkey.

2 agile mind the ability to think very quickly and intelligently quick, light,
: nimble adjective

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1. able to move quickly and easily with light neat movements: a nimble climber |
nimble fingers

2. a nimble mind/brain/wit an ability to think quickly or understand things easily: They

liked his nimble mind - his ability to come up with original ideas.
nimbly adverb
nimbleness noun [uncountable]

agree :assent, consent, accede, concede, comply

ail verb

1 [transitive] formal to cause difficulties for someone or something

2 old-fashioned [intransitive, transitive] to be ill, or to make someone feel ill or

unhappy: sick, ill, unwell

aim : direct, point

alarm : fright noun

1 [singular] the feeling you have when something frightens you : give sb a fright (=do
something that makes someone feel afraid): You gave me such a fright creeping up on
me like that! | get/have a fright: I got an awful fright when your dog rushed out at me.
| get/have the fright of your life (=to feel extremely afraid)

2 [uncountable] a feeling of fear: The child was wild with fright and began to scream.

3 take fright to be very afraid of something, especially so that you run away from it:
The bird took fright and flew away.

4 look a fright old-fashioned to look untidy or unattractive

, terror, panic, dismay

alert : attentive, vigilant adjective

giving careful attention to what is happening, so that you will notice any danger or
illegal activity: Please remain vigilant at all times and report anything suspicious.
vigilantly adverb , watchful, wary, heedful

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alien : strange, foreign

allege / verb [transitive]

to say that something is true or that someone has done something wrong even though
this has not been proved : allege (that): It was alleged that policemen had accepted
bribes. | be alleged to be/do sth: The new missiles are alleged to be capable of
travelling enormous distances.
: declare, affirm, assert

alleviate verb [transitive]

to make something less painful or difficult: a medicine to alleviate cold symptoms |
measures to alleviate poverty
alleviation / noun [uncountable] :ease, lessen, abate

alliance: association, partnership, affiliation noun [countable, uncountable]

1 the fact of being involved with or a member of a political or religious organization:

What are her political affiliations?

2 the act of a smaller group or organization joining a larger one, union

allot :divide, distribute, assign, allocate verb [transitive]

to decide officially that a particular amount of money, time etc or something such as a
house or job etc should be used for a particular purpose : allocate sb sth: The duty
officer allocated us a cabin for the night. | allocate sth for sth: one million dollars
allocated for disaster relief | allocate sth to: You need to decide how much time to
allocate to each exam question.

:permit, grant

ally : align, confederate, join, combine, affiliate, conjoin.

alter : modify, change, vary

alternate: adjective [usually before noun]

1 two alternate actions, situations, or states happen one after the other in a repeated
pattern: walls painted with alternate strips of yellow and green | alternate rain and
sunshine

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2 especially used instead of the one that was intended to be used; alternative1 (1): We
have to have an alternate plan in case it rains.

3 happening or doing something on one of every two days: He works alternate days. |
alternate Mondays/weekends etc: She visits her parents on alternate weekends:
interchange, occur successively

alternative : choice, option

altitude: height, elevation,

amass : collect, gather, accumulate

amaze : astound, surprise, astonish

ambiguous adjective

1 having more than one meaning, so that it is not clear which is intended: an
ambiguous sentence

2 difficult to understand: His role in the affair is ambiguous.

ambiguously adverb
ambiguity /"{mbK'gju:Kti/ noun [countable, uncountable]
: unclear, vague

amicable adjective
an amicable agreement, relationship etc is one in which people feel friendly towards
each other and do not want to quarrel: an amicable settlement that was acceptable to
both sides
?amicably adverb
?amicability /"{mIk@'bIlKti/ noun [uncountable] kind, friendly

ample : large, spacious, vast, great

amplify : enlarge, expand, magnify

amuse : entertain, please, cheer

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ancestor : forefather (Ant) descendant

anchor : fix, secure verb [transitive]

1 to get or achieve something that will be permanent, especially after a lot of effort:
UN negotiators are still trying to secure the release of the hostages. | a deal to secure
the company's future

2 to make something safe from being attacked, harmed, or lost

[+ against]: Extra men will be needed to secure the camp against attack.

3 to fasten or tie something firmly in a particular position: a tent secured with heavy
wooden pegs | secure sth to sth: John secured the boat firmly to the jetty.

4 to legally promise that if you cannot pay back money you have borrowed, you will
give the lender goods or property of the same value instead: a secured loan, fasten
ancient : old, aged, antique, antiquate
anger : resentment noun [uncountable]
a feeling of anger because something has happened that you think is unfair
wrath, fury noun

1 [uncountable] extreme, often uncontrolled anger: I was shaking with fury.

2 [countable] a feeling of extreme anger : in a fury: 밎o on then! ?shouted Jamie in a

fury. 밪ee if I care! ?| fly into a fury (=quickly become very angry): Paul flew into one
of his furies.

3 much to sb's fury/ to the fury of sb if something is done much to someone's fury, it
makes them very angry: The report was leaked to the press, much to the president's
fury.

4 a fury of a state of very busy activity or strong feeling: She was listening with such a
fury of concentration that she did not notice Arthur had left.

5 like fury informal with great effort or energy: We went out and played like fury.

6 the fury of the wind/sea/waves etc used to describe bad weather conditions: At last
the fury of the storm lessened.

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7 [countable] Fury one of the three snake-haired goddesses in ancient Greek stories,
who punished crime, indignation, rage

angry : indignant adjective

expressing anger and surprise, because you feel insulted or unfairly treated: Harriet
was indignant at the suggestion that she might need help. | anger expressed by an
indignant snort
indignantly adverb :becourse I didn't tell her!Sasha said indignantly.
, resentful, irate ***snort1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to express anger, impatience, or amusement by breathing air

noisily through your nose: 밅ertainly not, ?he snorted.
[+ with]: She snorted with contempt at the suggestion.

2 [intransitive] to make a loud noise by forcing air out through your nose: The horse
snorted and stamped its hoof impatiently.

3 [transitive] slang to take drugs by breathing them in through your nose: snorting
cocaine

anguish noun [uncountable]

mental or physical suffering caused by extreme pain or worry: the anguish of not
knowing what had happened to her
anguished adjective : pain, pang, suffering, agony noun [countable,
uncountable]

1 very severe pain: the agony of arthritis | be in agony: The poor guy was in agony. |
be agony spoken: It was agony having my wisdom teeth out.

2 a very sad, difficult, or unpleasant situation: It was agony not knowing if she would
live.
see also pile on the agony pile2, prolong the agony prolong

annihilate* : remove, clear, abolish, liquidate verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to close a business or company in order to pay its debts

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2 [transitive] technical to pay a debt: The stock will be sold to liquidate the loan.

3 [transitive] informal to kill someone, erase, exterminate verb [transitive]

to kill large numbers of people or animals of a particular type so that they no longer
exist
exterminator noun [countable]
extermination noun [countable, uncountable] , obliterate verb [transitive]

1 to destroy something so completely that no sign of it remains: The entire village was
obliterated by incendiary bombs.

2 to cover something completely so that it cannot be seen

3 to remove a thought, feeling, or memory from someone's mind: Nothing could

obliterate the memory of those tragic events.
obliteration noun [uncountable] , eradicate

announce : proclaim, publish, declare

annoy : harass verb [transitive]

1 to treat someone unfairly by threatening them or being continuously unpleasant to

them: Black teenagers are being constantly harassed by the police.

2 to annoy someone by continually interrupting them: Stop harassing me will you! I'm
trying to work!

3 to continually attack an enemy, bother, worry, trouble

anonymous adjective

1 unknown by name: The benefactor wishes to remain anonymous.

2 done, sent, or given by someone who does not want their name to be known: an
anonymous donation of ?,000 | anonymous phone call/letter etc (=often unpleasant
or containing threats)

3 uninteresting features or qualities: grey, anonymous housing estates

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anonymity noun [uncountable]
anonymously adverb : unnamed, unsigned

antagonist : opponent, adversary

antagonize also -ise verb [transitive]

to annoy someone very much by doing something that they do not like: Do not do
anything to antagonize your customers: counteract verb [transitive]
to reduce or prevent the bad effect of something, by doing something that has the
opposite effect: a drug that counteracts the poison
counteraction noun [countable, uncountable]

anticipate : foresee, forecast

antipathy : dislike, disgust, hatred (Ant) sympathy

apathetic adjective
not excited about something and not caring whether it happens, or not interested in
anything and unwilling to make an effort to change and improve things: an apathetic
electorate
apathetically adverb : indifferent, unconcerned, uninterested

apex : tip, summit, zenith, acme, climax

appalled adjective
very shocked by something very bad or unpleasant
[+ by/at]: Rescue workers were appalled at what they saw.
: frighten, horrify, terrify, shock

apparel : clothes, dress, garb, attire, costume

apparent : plain, clear, evident, obvious, conspicuous adjective

1 someone or something that is conspicuous is very easy to notice, especially because

they are different from everything or everyone else around them: I felt very
conspicuous in my suit - everyone else was in jeans.

2 unusually good, bad, skilful etc; remarkable: The campaign had been a conspicuous
success.

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3 conspicuous by your absence used to say that people noticed that you were not in
the place you should have been
Opposite: inconspicuous

conspicuously adverb
conspicuousness noun [uncountable] ,manifest

appeal noun

1 [countable] an urgent request for something important such as money or help,

especially to help someone in a bad situation
[+ for]: The United Nations' appeal for a ceasefire has been largely ignored by both
sides. | appeal to sb to do sth: an appeal to parents to supervise their children |
make/launch an appeal: In 1988 Bob Geldorf launched an urgent appeal for the famine
victims.

2 [uncountable] a quality that makes you like someone or something, be interested in

them, or want them: Much of Corfu's appeal lies in its lively night life.
[+ for]: The film has great appeal for young audiences. | popular/wide appeal (=liked
by many people): CD-ROMs now have wider popular appeal. | sex appeal (=the quality
of being sexually attractive): Marilyn Monroe had amazing sex appeal.

3 [countable, uncountable] a formal request to a court or to someone in authority

asking for a decision to be changed
[+ to]: an appeal to the European court of Human Rights
뾱ee also Court 쟯f 잸ppeal : entreaty noun [countable, uncountable]
formal a serious request in which you ask someone to do something for you
, request, petition1 noun [countable]

1 a written request signed by a lot of people, asking someone in authority to do

something or change something
[+ against]: They wanted me to sign a petition against experiments on animals. | draw
up a petition: Local residents have drawn up a petition to protest the hospital closure.

2 an official letter to a law court, asking for a legal case to be considered: She is
threatening to file a petition for divorce.

3 formal a formal prayer or request to someone in authority or to God or to a ruler

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appease verb [transitive]
to make someone less angry or stop them from attacking you by giving them what
they want : pacify, quiet, soothe, calm, tranquil adjective
pleasantly calm, quiet, and peaceful: a tranquil village scene
tranquilly adverb
tranquillity BrE tranquility AmE noun [uncountable]: the tranquillity of the Tuscan
countryside

appendix noun plural appendixes or appendices [countable]

1 a small organ near your bowel (2) which has little or no use : have your appendix out
(=have it removed)

2 a part at the end of a book containing additional information : supplement,

adjunct noun [countable]

1 [+ to] something that is added or joined to something but is not part of it

2 technical an adverbial word or phrase that adds meaning to another part of a

sentence, such as `on Sunday' in `They arrived on Sunday.'

applause noun [uncountable]

the sound of many people hitting their hands together and shouting, to show that they
have enjoyed something : thunderous applause (=very loud) | a round of applause (=a
short period of applause): Let's have a round of applause for our speakers today. :
acclamation noun [countable, uncountable]
formal a loud expression of approval or welcome, acclaim

appliance noun [countable]

a piece of electrical equipment such as a cooker (1) or washing 쟭achine (1), used in
people's homes: labour-saving domestic appliances
see machine1 : instrument, apparatus noun plural plural apparatuses or
appartus [countable, uncountable]

1 tools and machines used especially for scientific, medical, and technical purposes:
the apparatus shown in the diagram | The astronauts have special breathing
apparatus.

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2 a system or process for doing something: the apparatus for settling industrial
disputes, device, tool

apply : use, employ, utilize

appoint : nominate, name, designate

apportion : divide, allot, assign, allocate, appreciate verb

1 [transitive] to understand how good or useful someone or something is: Her abilities
are not fully appreciated by her employer.

2 [transitive] to thank someone or be grateful for something they have done: I

appreciated his help when we moved. | I would appreciate it if (=please do what I ask):
I would appreciate it if you would turn the music down.

3 [transitive not in progressive] to understand how serious a situation or problem is or

what someone's feelings are: I don't think you appreciate the difficulties his absence
will cause.

4 [intransitive] to gradually become more valuable over a period of time: Most

investments are expected to appreciate at a steady rate.
See pposite depreciate (1) : value, estimate

apprehension noun

1 [countable, uncountable] anxiety about the future, especially the worry that you
will have to deal with something unpleasant or bad: a natural apprehension about
being in hospital

2 [uncountable] the act of apprehending someone; arrest2

3 [uncountable] old use understanding: our apprehension of the nature of God

: anxiety, misgiving /"mIs'gIvI ? noun [countable, uncountable]

a feeling of doubt, distrust, or fear about what might happen or about whether
something is right: She eyed Bert's pistol with misgiving. | have deep/serious
misgivings: Opponents of nuclear energy have deep misgivings about its safety.

- 20 -
appropriate : suitable, proper, assign, apportion, allocate

apt adjective

1 apt to do something having a natural tendency to do something: Some of the staff

are apt to arrive late on Mondays.

2 exactly right for a particular situation or purpose: an apt and telling remark

3 formal quick to learn and understand

?aptness noun [uncountable] :
1. incline1 verb [not in progressive] formal

1 TEND TO DO STH
a) to think that a particular belief or opinion is most likely to be right
[+ to/towards]: He has always inclined to the belief that all men are capable of great
evil. | incline to do sth: I incline to accept the official version of events.

b) to tend to behave in a particular way or to show a particular quality

[+ to/towards]: The child has always inclined towards laziness.

2 INFLUENCE [transitive] if a situation, fact etc inclines you to do or think something, it

influences you towards a particular action or opinion : incline sb to do sth: I know that
you acted hastily, but that does not incline me to forgive you.

3 incline your head to bend your neck so that your head is lowered

4 TO SLOPE [intransitive, transitive] to be sloping at a particular angle or to make

something do this
, disposed, prone adjective

1 likely to do something or suffer from something, especially something bad or harmful

[+ to]: Some plants are prone to a particular disease.
[prone to do sth]: Kids are all prone to eat junk food. | strike-prone/accident-prone
etc: I never saw a girl more accident-prone.

2 formal lying down with the front of your body facing down: Colley lay prone in his

- 21 -
bunk.
compare prostrate1 (1)

-proneness noun [uncountable] , liable, likely

2. proper, appropriate, correct

aptly* : appropriately aptitude noun [countable, uncountable]

natural ability or skill, especially in learning
[+ for]: She has a real aptitude for drawing and painting.
: aptness, fitness, suitability

archaic : ancient, antiquated, antique

ardent adjective

1 showing strong positive feelings about an activity and determination to succeed at it:
an ardent supporter of free trade

2 literary showing strong feelings of love: an ardent suitor

?ardently adverb : passionate, fervent, intense, eager, enthusiastic

ardor : eagerness, zeal, passion, enthusiasm

argue : debate, discuss, dispute

arouse verb [transitive]

1 arouse interest/expectations etc to make you become interested, expect something

etc: Matt's behavior was arousing the interest of the neighbors.

2 arouse anger/fear/dislike etc to make someone feel very angry, afraid etc

3 to make someone feel sexually excited

4 formal to wake someone

[+ from]: Anne had to be aroused from a deep sleep.
: animate, awaken, excite, incite, stimulate

- 22 -
arrange : order, array

arrogant adjective
so proud of your own abilities or qualities that you behave as if you are much more
important than anyone else: I found him arrogant and overbearing.
arrogantly adverb : He strutted about the room arrogantly.

***strut1 /str ?/ verb strutted, strutting [intransitive]

1 to walk proudly with your head high and your chest pushed forwards, showing that
you think you are important
[+ about/across etc]: Ryan was strutting around the office, issuing orders.

2 strut your stuff informal to show your skill at doing something: Look at Dave strutting
his stuff on the dance floor.
haughty /adjective haughtier, haughtiest
behaving in a proud unfriendly way: a haughty laugh
?haughtily adverb
?haughtiness noun [uncountable] , insolent / / adjective
rude and not showing any respect: an insolent tone of voice | You insolent child!
insolently adverb
insolence noun [uncountable] overbear verb [transitive usually passive]
past tense overborepast participle overborne to defeat someone or something

arrest : seize, apprehend verb [transitive]

1 formal if a criminal is apprehended, they are found and taken away by the police;
arrest1 (1)

2 old use to understand something, capture

ascend : mount, soar, arise ascertain verb [intransitive, transitive]

formal to find out if a fact that you think is true is really true: The police were never
able to ascertain the true facts.
[+ how/when/why etc]: He could not ascertain where the clouds ended and the snow-
covered rocks began.
ascertainable adverb : determine, settle, discover

aspect : appearance, look, countenance1 noun formal

- 23 -
1 [countable] your face or your expression: the gloomy countenance of a disappointed
child

2 [uncountable] support or approval aspire verb [intransitive]

to desire and work towards achieving something important
[+ to/after]: It was clear that Mrs Thatcher aspired to the leadership of the party. |
aspire to do sth: At that time, all serious artists aspired to go to Rome and paint.
: desire, long, yearn

assail : assault, attack

assassinate : murder, kill, slay

assemble : gather, congregate, collect, convene verb [intransitive,

transitive] formal
if a group of people convene, or someone convenes them, they come together,
especially for a formal meeting: The President's foreign policy advisers convened for an
emergency session. | Shouldn't we convene a meeting about this?

assembly : congress, legislature, parliament noun [countable]

1 the group of people who are elected to make a country's laws and discuss important
national affairs

2 Parliament the main law-making institution in the United Kingdom, which consists of
the house 쟯f 쟠ommons and the house 쟯f 쟫ords : enter Parliament/get into
Parliament (=be elected as a member of Parliament)

3 the period during which this institution meets: We expect to get these laws passed
during the present parliament.

, diet 5 MEETING [countable] old use an official meeting to discuss political or church
matters

assent : accede, consent

- 24 -
assess verb [transitive]

1 to make a judgment about a person or situation after thinking carefully about it: It's
difficult to assess the effects of the new legislation just yet. | assess what/how etc:
We've tried to assess what went wrong.

2 to calculate the value or cost of something : assess sth at: They assessed the value of
the house at over $250,000.

* : estimate, calculate, evaluate, appraise /@'preIz/ verb [transitive]

to officially judge how successful, effective, or valuable someone or something is;
evaluate: A dealer came to appraise the furniture.

assign : distribute, allot

associate : join, affiliate, unite, combine

assort : separate, classify / verb [transitive]

1 to decide what group a plant, animal, book etc belong to according to a system :
classify sth as: Is this plant classified as a moss or a lichen?

2 to regard people or things as belonging to a particular type because they have the
same physical features, qualities etc
classifiable adjective group, sort, categorize

assume : 1. undertake 2. pretend, affect

assure : convince

astonish : amaze, surprise, astound, shock, startle, daze, stun

attach : fasten, affix, join, annex verb [transitive]
to take control of a country or area next to your own, especially by using force
?annexation /"{nek'seISFn/ noun [countable, uncountable]
?
attachment /@'t{tSm@nt/ noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a feeling that you like or love someone or something and

- 25 -
that you would be unhappy without them
[+ to/for]: I did feel a certain sense of attachment for the strange old guy.

2 [uncountable] belief in and loyalty towards a particular idea

[+ to/for]: old people's attachment to traditional customs and ways

3 [countable] a part that you can put onto a machine to make it do different things: a
versatile food mixer that comes with a range of attachments

4 on attachment working for a particular organization, especially for a short period of

time: He was sent on attachment to their offices in Hong Kong. : affection
attain verb [transitive] formal

1 to succeed in reaching a particular level or in getting something after trying for a long
time: More women are attaining positions of power in public life.

2 to reach a high level: Share prices attained a high of $3.27.

?attainable adjective : This target should be attainable.
1. reach
2. acquire, procure, win

attempt : try, seek

attend : 1. wait on, serve

attentive : heedful, alert, watchful, careful

attire* : clothing

attitude: position, bearing, pose1 verb

1 pose a problem/threat/challenge etc to cause a problem, danger, difficulty etc:

Newton's challenge poses no threat to the leadership. | Rising unemployment is
posing serious problems for the administration.

2 [intransitive, transitive] to sit or stand in a particular position in order to be

photographed or painted, or to make someone do this
[+ for]: We posed for photographs after the graduation ceremony.

- 26 -
3 pose a question to ask a question, especially one that needs to be carefully thought
about: The first chapter poses the question: What constitutes a democracy?

4 pose as sb to pretend to be someone else, in order to deceive people: Bryce was

caught posing as a lawyer.

5 [intransitive] especially BrE to dress or behave like a fashionable, rich etc person in
order to make other people notice you or admire you

attract : draw, allure, charm

authority : power

authorize : empower, allow, permit, let

auxiliary1 adjective

1 auxiliary workers provide additional help for another group of workers, especially
nurses or soldiers: an auxiliary nurse | auxiliary staff

2 an auxiliary motor, piece of equipment etc is kept ready to be used if the main one
stops working properly: an auxiliary power supply

: subsidiary, subordinate, additional

available : usable

avenge : revenge

avid adjective
avid reader/listener/fan etc someone who does something, listens to something etc as
much as they can: an avid collector of old jazz records

: greedy, avarice /'{v@rKs/ noun [uncountable]

formal a desire to have a lot of money that is considered to be too strong; greed
avaricious adjective
avariciously adverb , desirous, acquisitive adjective formal
showing too much desire to get new possessions, covetous / adjective
having a very strong desire to have something that someone else has, especially

- 27 -
wealth: They began to cast covetous eyes on their neighbours' fields.
?covetously adverb
?covetousness noun [uncountable]

avoid : shun verb [transitive]

to avoid someone or something deliberately: a shy woman who shunned publicity |
Victims of the disease found themselves shunned by society.

, evade, escape, elude

aware : conscious

awe1 noun [uncountable]

1 a feeling of great respect and admiration for someone or something : with awe/in
awe: Kate gazed at the mountains with awe. | fill sb with awe: The sight of so many
jewels in one place filled them with awe.

2 be/stand in awe of sb to have great respect and admiration for and sometimes a
slight fear of someone: Because of his reputation as a dancer we were all rather in awe
of him.
: wonder, amazement

awkward adjective

1 making you feel so embarrassed that you are not sure what to do or say: The more
she tried to get out of the situation, the more awkward it became. | an awkward pause
| make things awkward (=cause trouble and make a situation very difficult): She could
make things very awkward if she wanted to.

2 not convenient: I'm sorry, have I called at an awkward time?

3 moving or behaving in a way that does not seem relaxed or comfortable, especially
because you feel nervous or embarrassed: I felt a bit awkward on my first day there,
but I soon settled in. | an awkward wave | an awkward teenager

4 difficult to use or handle: The camera has a lot of small buttons, which makes it
rather awkward to use.

- 28 -
5 an awkward person is deliberately unhelpful
[+ about]: I wish you'd stop being so bloody awkward about everything. | an awkward
customer (=someone who is difficult to deal with)
awkwardly adverb : are you the head tutor... ?she began awkwardly.
awkwardness noun [uncountable] : clumsy, unskillful

***** (B) *****

ban : forbid, inhibit, prohibit, enjoin verb [transitive]

1 formal to order someone to do something

2 AmE law to legally prevent someone from going near a person or place

, outlaw, proscribe,disallow, interdict.

banish verb [transitive]

1 to not allow someone or something to stay in a particular place : banish sth from/to:
The children were banished to the backyard.

2 to send someone away permanently from their country or the area where they live,
especially as an official punishment : banish sb from/to: Many Soviet dissidents were
banished to Siberia.

3 banish sb/sth (from your mind) to try to stop thinking about something; especially
something that worries you
banishment noun [uncountable] : expel, exile, deport

bar : hinder, obstruct verb [transitive]

1 to block a road, passage etc: A small aircraft now obstructed the runway. | an
accident obstructing northbound traffic | Our view was obstructed by a high wall.

- 29 -
2 to try to prevent someone from doing something by making it difficult for them: A
small minority obstructed policies that would help the majority of people. |
obstructing a police officer in the course of his duty, deter, stop, impede

barbarian : savage, primitive, barbaric, barbarous

bare : naked, nude, exposed

bargain1 noun [countable]

1 something bought cheaply or for less than its usual price: I might buy a TV, if I can
find a bargain in the sales. | be a bargain: These shoes are a bargain at $22. | bargain
holiday/clothes/prices etc (=a holiday etc that is very cheap) | bargain hunting
(=looking for things to buy at a cheap price): a bargain hunting housewife at the
January sales

2 an agreement, made between two people or groups, to do something in return for

something else : make a bargain: We've made a bargain that he'll do the shopping and
I'll cook. | drive a hard bargain (=succeed in making an agreement that is very much to
your advantage): Fischer was determined to drive a hard bargain. | keep your side of
the bargain (=do what you promised as part of an agreement) | strike a bargain
(=reach an agreement): Management and unions have struck a bargain over wage
increases.

3 into the bargain especially BrE in addition to everything else: He was short, fat, and
spotty into the bargain.

4 make the best of a bad bargain to do the best you can under difficult conditions
bargainer noun [countable]: a wage bargainer
see cheap1 : contract, trade, sell

barren : sterile, infertile, unproductive

barrier : bar, obstruction, barricade, obstacle

barter : trade, exchange

base : mean, degraded

beam : shine, gleam1 verb [intransitive]

- 30 -
1 to shine softly: The spire of the Golden Temple gleamed in the autumn sun.
[+ with]: the table's surface gleaming with wax polish

2 gleam with happiness/joy etc if your eyes or face gleam with a feeling, they show it:
His face gleamed with amusement.
gleaming adjective : gleaming glass skyscrapers, glitter, radiate

bear : carry, transport, convey

bearing : manner, behavior, conduct

becoming : attractive, comely adjective literary

a comely woman has an attractive appearance
comeliness noun [uncountable] , suitable, appropriate

beg : entreat verb [transitive]

formal to ask someone to do something for you in a way that shows you are very
upset,
crave verb [transitive]
1 to have an extremely strong desire for something, especially a drug: She's an
insecure child who craves attention.

2 formal to ask seriously for something: May I crave your pardon?

, implore / / verb [transitive] formal

to ask for something in an emotional way; plead (1): John, I implore you, stop now
before it's too late. | implore sb to do sth: She implored the soldiers to save her child.,
beseech verb [transitive] literary past tense and past participle besought / or
beseeched
to eagerly and anxiously ask someone for something, petition, request

behave : conduct

bend : curve, crook1 noun [countable]

1 informal someone who is dishonest: I wouldn't buy a car from them - they're a bunch
of crooks.

- 31 -
2 a long stick with a curved end, used by people who look after sheep

3 the crook of your arm the part of your arm where it bends, used for holding things:
She cradled the little dog in the crook of her arm.

cradle1 noun [countable]

1 BED a small bed for a baby, especially one that you can move gently from side to
side: She rocked the cradle to quieten the child.

2 the cradle of the place where something important began: Athens is often regarded
as the cradle of democracy.

3 from/in the cradle from or in the earliest years of your life: Sara had learned that
language from the cradle.

4 from the cradle to the grave all through your life: a promise of security from the
cradle to the grave

5 BrE a structure that people working on the sides of high buildings stand in which can
be moved up and down: a window-cleaner's cradle

6 the part of a telephone where the part that you hold in your hand is put when it is
not being used
see also cat's , rob the cradle rob (5), bow

beneficial : helpful, profitable, advantageous

benevolent adjective
kind and generous: A benevolent uncle paid for her to have music lessons. | a
benevolent smile
benevolence noun [uncountable]
benevolently adverb : kind, humane, tender, generous

betray : be unfaithful to, be a traitor to noun [countable]

someone who is not loyal to their country or friends: He was hanged as a traitor. | a
traitor to the cause of women's rights

- 32 -
bewilder verb [transitive]
to confuse someone : confuse, perplex, puzzle

bias1 noun

1 [uncountable singular] a tendency to consider one person, group, idea etc more
favourably than others: a newspaper with a strong right-wing bias
[+ against/towards/in favour of]: There was a definite bias against commerce and
science in the educational curriculum.

2 [singular] a natural skill or interest in one particular area: Lydia has a strong artistic
bias.

3 on the bias in a diagonal direction

* prejudice1 noun

1 [countable, uncountable] an unreasonable dislike and distrust of people who are

different from you in some way, especially because of their race, sex, religion etc:
Women still have to face a great deal of prejudice in the workplace.
[+ against]: Prejudice against black people is common in many parts of America. |
racial/sexual prejudice (=prejudice against people who belong to a different race or
sex): victims of racial prejudice

2 [uncountable] to the prejudice of formal having a harmful effect or influence on

something else: Harry continued to smoke, to the prejudice of his health.

3 without prejudice law without harming or affecting something else

bid1 noun [countable]

1 an offer to pay a particular price for something, especially at an auction1

[+ for]: They put in the highest bid for the house.

2 an offer to do work or provide services for a specific price

[+ for]: rival bids for the cleaning contract

3 an attempt to achieve or obtain something

[+ for]: a bid for power | bid to do sth: a desperate bid to free herself from a loveless

- 33 -
marriage

4 a statement of how many points you hope to win in a card game

: command, order, direct

bind : band, bond, tie, fasten

bite : gnaw, chew

bitter : harsh, acrid adjective

1 an acrid smell or taste, is strong and unpleasant and stings your nose or throat: a
cloud of acrid smoke

2 formal an acrid comment, discussion etc is very critical or angry

, biting adjective

1 a biting wind is unpleasantly cold: A biting wind blew down from the hills.

2 a biting criticism, remark is cruel or unkind: biting sarcasm

bitingly adverb

blame : reproach, censure, condemn, disapprove

blast1 noun

1 AIR/WIND [countable] a sudden strong movement of wind or air

[+ of]: A blast of cold air swept through the hut.

2 EXPLOSION [countable] an explosion, or the very strong movement of air that it

causes: Thirty-six people died in the blast.

3 NOISE [countable] a sudden very loud noise: a blast of rock music | The guard gave a
blast on his whistle and we were off.

4 (at) full blast as strongly, loudly, or fast as possible: The radiators were on full blast,
but it was still freezing. | a radio going at full blast

- 34 -
5 FUN [singular] AmE informal an enjoyable and exciting experience: The concert was a
blast. | We had a blast at the fair.
: explosion, outburst, burst

blaze : flame

blemish: stain, defect, peck noun [countable]

a very small mark, spot, or piece of something: The boat was soon just a speck on the
horizon.

blend : mingle, mix

blind : sightless

blink1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to shut and open your eyes quickly: I blinked as I came out
into the sunlight.

2 [intransitive] if lights blink, they shine unsteadily or go on and off rapidly: The light on
your answering machine is blinking.

3 not (even) blink to not seem at all surprised: She didn't even blink when I told her
how much it would cost.

4 before you could blink spoken extremely quickly

: wink, twinkle

block : obstacle, blocking, blockade

bloody : cruel, ruthless

blow : shock, calamity, disaster

blunt1 adjective

1 not sharp or pointed: All I could find was a blunt pencil.

pposite sharp1 (1), sharp1 (11)

- 35 -
2 speaking in an honest way even if this upsets people: Jan was straightforward and
blunt as always.
also bluntly

bluntness noun [uncountable] : dull (Ant) sharp

boast : brag, swagger1 verb [intransitive]

1 [always + adv/prep] to walk proudly, swinging your shoulders in a way that shows
too much confidence
[+ down/in/out etc]: He swaggered down the street with a foolish grin on his face.

2 old-fashioned to talk or behave in a very proud way; boast1 (1)

?swaggerer noun [countable]
?swaggeringly adverb

bold : courageous, daring, valiant

bond : union

bondage noun [uncountable]

1 the practice of being tied up for sexual pleasure

2 literary the state of being a slave: Since the age of 13 he had been in bondage.

3 the state of having your freedom limited, or being prevented from doing what you
want: He wanted to be free from the bondage of social conventions. : slavery,
confinement

boom* : flourish, thrive, prosper

bore : weary, tire

bother : annoy, worry, trouble, harass, disturb

bound : boundary, border, limit, precinct noun

- 36 -
1 [countable] AmE an area within a town or city that has its own police force, local
government representatives etc: the 44th Precinct

2 [countable] AmE the main police station in a particular area of a town or city: Book
him and take him down to the precinct.

3 [countable] shopping/pedestrian precinct BrE an area of a town where people can

walk and cars are not allowed

4 precincts [plural] the area that surrounds an important building: the precincts of the
cathedral

boundary : edge,

bow : stoop, bend, yield, submit

brain : intellect

brave : courageous, gallant, dauntless, bold

bravery : boldness, courage, daring

break : shatter, batter1 verb [intransitive always + adv/prep, transitive]

to keep hitting something hard, especially in a way that causes damage
[+ at/on/against etc]: The waves battered against the shore.
?battering noun [countable, uncountable] , destroy

breed : create, generate, raise, rear, nurture

brief : short, transitory, transient, temporary

bright : radiant, glowing, beaming, brilliant

brisk adjective

1 quick and full of energy: a brisk walk

2 quick, practical and showing that you want to get things done quickly: She spoke in a

- 37 -
brisk tone.

3 trade or business that is brisk is very busy, with a lot of products being sold

4 weather that is brisk is cold and clear

?briskly adverb
?briskness noun [uncountable] :active, lively, energetic

broad : wide, extensive, vast, spacious

brood1 verb [intransitive]

1 to keep thinking for a long time about something that you are worried, angry, or
upset about: After the argument Simon sat in his room, brooding.
[+ over/about/on]: There's no point brooding over it - she's gone.

2 if a bird broods, it sits on its eggs to make the young birds break out
: dwell on, ponder, meditate

brook : stream

brutal : savage, cruel, inhuman, ruthless, barbarous

brute1 noun [countable]

1 often humorous a man who is rough, cruel and not sensitive: Don't hit him, you
brute!

2 literary an animal, especially a large or strong one

: beast, animal

burden : load

burst : explode, blow up

bury : entomb, hide

- 38 -
 ***** (C) *****

calamity : tragedy, disaster, catastrophe, cataclysm.

calculate : count, figure, reckon, compute

cancel : annul, revoke

candid adjective
directly truthful, even when the truth may be unpleasant or embarrassing: The
Governor's brutally candid assessment struck a new blow to Mr Major's reputation.
also candour

candidly adverb
: frank, open, outspoken

capacious : spacious, roomy

capacity : 1. magnitude, dimensions 2. ability

capital : principal, chief, prime, primary, major, leading,

captivate : charm, enthralled adjective

so interested that you pay a lot of attention to what you are seeing or hearing: Richard
listened, enthralled by the Captain's stories.
, enchant, fascinate

captivity : bondage, confinement

capture : seize, catch, snare1 noun [countable]

1 a trap for catching an animal, especially one that uses a wire or rope to catch the
animal by its foot

2 literary something that is intended to trick someone and get them into a difficult
situation

- 39 -
careful : cautious, watchful, vigilant, discreet adjective

1 done or said in a careful way so that you do not offend, upset, or embarrass people:
It wasn't very discreet of you to ring me up at the office. | That morning I began
making discreet inquiries.

2 careful not to talk about things that other people want to keep secret: Don't worry
about my secretary hearing us; he's very discreet.
opposite indiscreet, compare discrete

discreetly adverb , prudent

careless: heedless, reckless, indiscreet

cargo : freight, load, burden

carriage : vehicle, conveyance

carry : convey, transport, transfer

cast : throw, fling , hurl, pitch

casual adjective

1 NOT CARING not caring or seeming not to care about something: His casual manner
annoyed me. | Karla tried to sound casual, but her excitement was obvious.

2 CLOTHES casual clothes are comfortable clothes that you wear in informal situations:
casual shoes

3 casual worker/employment/labour etc a worker, employment etc that a company

uses or offers only for a short period of time: They're making do with casual staff.

4 WITHOUT ATTENTION without any clear aim or serious interest: a casual glance at
the Times | casual observer (=someone not looking very carefully): Even to the most
casual observer it was obvious she was sick.

5 NOT PLANNED happening by chance without being planned: a casual meeting |

casual remark (=something you say for no particular reason)

- 40 -
6 casual sex sex that you have without intending to have a serious relationship with
the other person

7 casual visitor/user etc someone who does not often visit a place, use something etc:
a casual user of the library service
?casually adverb : a casually dressed young man
?casualness noun [uncountable] : unexpected

catastrophe : disaster, mishap, calamity, misfortune

celebrate : observe, commemorate

celebrated : famous, renowned, well-known, distinguished

celebrity : N. a famous person, hero, notable.

celestial* : heavenly

change : alter, turn, transform, vary

character : feature, trait noun [countable]

formal a particular quality in someone's character: Anne's generosity is one of her
most pleasing traits, characteristic

charge : load

generous : benign, kind

cheat : deceive, defraud, trick, delude verb [transitive]

to make someone believe something that is not true; deceive : delude sb/yourself:
You're deluding yourself if you think you'll change Rob's mind. | delude sb into doing
sth: That new job title is just a way of deluding her into thinking she's been promoted.

check : study, examination, inspection

cheer : inspirit, animate, encourage

cheerful : gay, joyful, buoyant, jolly

- 41 -
herish verb [transitive usually passive]

1 to love someone or something very much and take care of them well: his most
cherished possession

2 to be very important to someone : cherished hopes/dreams/ideas etc: one of our

cherished hopes, a community centre for the village | cherished memories :
treasure

chill : cold, coldness

chop : cut, mince

chronic : habitual, confirmed

civil : polite, courteous adjective

having good manners and respect for other people: The staff are always courteous and
helpful. | I received a courteous reply from the manager.
뾬pposite discourteous

?courteously adverb
?courteousness noun [uncountable] , civilized

claim : demand, request, requirement

clash : collide

clasp : grasp, grip, clutch

clean : unstained, clear, pure

cleanse : clean, purify

clear : distinct, evident, plain, obvious, apparent, manifest

clever : smart, intelligent, ingenious

climb : mount, ascend, scale

- 42 -
clumsy : awkward

coarse adjective

1 having a rough surface that feels slightly hard: Hannah's skin was coarse from years
of working outdoors.

2 consisting of threads or parts that are thicker or larger than usual: The coarse sand
was hot and rough under her feet.

3 talking in a rude and offensive way, especially about sex: coarse jokes
coarsely adverb
coarseness noun [uncountable] : crude, rude, rough

coax : cajole verb [intransitive, transitive]

to gradually persuade someone to do something by being nice, etc : cajole sb into
doing sth: Can't you cajole her into coming?, persuade
cohere : stick, cling, adhere, bond, cleave.

cohesion cohesive adjective noun [uncountable]

1 if there is cohesion among a group of people, a set of ideas etc, all the parts or
members of it are connected or related in a reasonable way to form a whole: Religious
beliefs can provide cohesion in diverse societies.

2 a close relationship, based on grammar or meaning, between two parts of a sentence

or a larger piece of writing
cohesively adjective
cohesiveness noun [uncountable] * : bond, adhesion noun

1 [uncountable] the state of one thing sticking to another

2 [countable] technical a piece of tissue (=flesh) that has grown around a small injury
or diseased area

collect : assemble, amass, accumulate, aggregate

- 43 -
column : pillar

combat : struggle, fight, battle

combination : conjunction, association, union

combine : unite, join, associate, incorporate

comfort: soothe, console1 verb [transitive]

to make someone feel better when they are feeling sad or disappointed: No one could
console her when Peter died. | console sb with: Console yourself with the thought that
no one was injured!
, solace1 noun

1 [uncountable] formal a feeling of emotional comfort at a time of great sadness or

disappointment : seek/find solace in: After the death of her son, Val found solace in
the church.

2 be a solace to to bring a feeling of comfort and calmness to someone, when they are
sad or disappointed: Mary was a great solace to me after Arthur died.

command : order, bid1 noun [countable]

1 an offer to pay a particular price for something, especially at an auction1

[+ for]: They put in the highest bid for the house.

2 an offer to do work or provide services for a specific price

[+ for]: rival bids for the cleaning contract

3 an attempt to achieve or obtain something

[+ for]: a bid for power | bid to do sth: a desperate bid to free herself from a loveless
marriage

4 a statement of how many points you hope to win in a card game

****auction1 /'O:kSFn ? ?k ? noun [countable]

a public meeting where land, buildings, paintings etc are sold to the person who offers
the most money for them : put sth up for auction (=try to sell something at an
auction): The house was put up for auction. | auction house (=a company that arranges

- 44 -
auctions)
, instruct

commence verb [intransitive, transitive]

formal to begin or to start something
[+ with]: A trial commences with opening statements. | commence sth: Your first
evaluation will be six months after you commence employment. | commence doing
sth: You may commence reading, Jeremy.
: begin, start, originate

commend verb [transitive] formal

1 to praise or approve of someone or something, especially publicly : commend sb for

sth: A Chester man was commended for his public-spirited action. | highly
commended: Bartholomew's work has been highly commended.

2 to tell someone that something is good or deserves attention; recommend: I

commend this bill to the House. | not have much to commend it (=not be satisfactory):
The hotel doesn't have much to commend it.

3 old use to give someone to someone else to take care of

: entrust, intrust verb [transitive]
to make someone responsible for doing something important : entrust sb with sth: I
was entrusted with the task of looking after the money. | entrust sth to sb: The infant
Prince was entrusted to an English nurse, Miss Shaw.
, laud, praise, exalt, applaud

communicate : transmit, convey

compact : tightly, packed

companion : associate, partner, fellow, mate

company : companionship, society

comparable : similar, equivalent, like, uniform, analogous adjective formal

similar to another situation or thing so that a comparison can be made
[+ to/with]: Scharf's findings are analagous with our own., alike

- 45 -
compassion : pity, sympathy, mercy

compel : force, impel verb [transitive]

an idea, emotion etc that impels you to do something makes you feel very strongly
that you must do it : impel sb to do sth: Donnelly felt impelled to write and complain.

compensate : atone verb [intransitive]

formal to do something to show that you are sorry for having done something wrong
[+ for]: Richard was anxious to atone for his thoughtlessness.

compete : contend, vie, rival

competent adjective

1 having enough skill or knowledge to do something to a satisfactory standard: She's a

highly competent linguist. | competent to do sth: I don't feel competent to give an
opinion at the moment.

2 a piece of work, performance etc that is competent is satisfactory but not especially
good: The workmen did a competent job.

3 [not before noun] having the legal power to deal with something in a court of law :
be competent to do sth: This court is not competent to hear your case.
competently adverb : qualified, capable, proficient adjective
able to do something well or skilfully
[+ in/at]: Martha's proficient in Swedish. | a proficient typist
proficiently adverb

complain : grumble

complex : compound, complicated

comply : acquiesce verb [intransitive]

formal to unwillingly agree to do what someone wants, or to let them do what they
want, without arguing or complaining
[+ in/to]: The book accuses him of silently acquiescing in the Nazis' persecution of the
Jews., conform, consent, accede

- 46 -
component* : element, ingredient

composed : calm, tranquil

comprehend : understand, grasp, discern verb [transitive not in progressive]

formal
to see, notice, or understand something only after looking at it or thinking about it
carefully; perceive (2): In the distance I could just discern the hills near Tendaho. |
discern who/what/how etc: It was difficult to discern which of them was telling the
truth.
discernible adjective : There is still no discernible improvement in the economic
situation.
discernibly adverb , perceive

comprehensive : inclusive, broad, extensive, sweeping

compress : condense, squeeze

compulsory adjective
something that is compulsory must be done because it is the law or because someone
in authority orders you to; obligatory: In Britain, education is compulsory between the
ages of 5 and 16. | compulsory lay-offs
?compulsorily adverb
뾠ompare voluntary1 (4) : compelled, binding

conceal : hide, bury

conceit noun

1 [uncountable] an attitude that shows you have too high an opinion of your own
abilities or importance; conceitedness: The conceit of the woman - it's unbelievable!

2 [countable] technical an unusual, cleverly expressed comparison of two very

different things, especially in poetry :
vanity noun [uncountable]

1 too much pride in yourself, so that you are always thinking about yourself and your
appearance

- 47 -
2 the vanity of sth literary the lack of importance of something compared to other
things that are much more important: The poem warns of the vanity of mental
ambition., complacency noun [uncountable]
a feeling of satisfaction with what you have achieved which makes you stop trying to
improve or change things: There are no grounds for complacency in today's
competitive environment.

(Ant) humility, modesty

conceive : understand, apprehend, comprehend

concentrate : focus, intensify

conciseness : brevity noun [uncountable]

1 the quality of expressing something in very few words

2 shortness of time: In the interests of brevity I will summarize my views.

condemn : blame, censure

condense : compress, concentrate

condition : state, situation, circumstance

conduct : behavior, demeanor, manner, bearing

confer : bestow, give, donate, grant

conference : meeting, convention

confess : acknowledge, avow, own, admit, concede

confidence : trust, belief, faith, reliance

confident : certain, convinced

confine : enclose, imprison

- 48 -
confirm : assure

conflict : collide, clash, contend, fight, combat

conform : comply, yield, agree, assent1 noun [uncountable]

formal approval or agreement from someone who has authority: a nod of assent | the
Royal assent (=act of officially signing a new law by the British King or Queen)

confuse: disturb, confound, perplex, bewilder verb [transitive]

to confuse someone

congress : meeting, assembly, conference

conquer : defeat, master, beat (Ant) surrender, submit

conscientious adjective showing a lot of care and attention: a conscientious and
methodical worker-conscientiously adverb
conscientiousness noun [uncountable]: praised for her conscientiousness
: just, upright, honest

conscious : aware

consequence : effect, result, outcome

consider : contemplate, meditate, reflect, ponder

considerate : thoughtful, charitable

consistent : compatible1 adjective

1 technical compatible machines, methods, ideas etc can exist together or be used
together without causing problems: The new software is IBM compatible. (=can be
used with IBM computers)
[+ with]: The project is not compatible with the company's long-term aims.

2 two people that are compatible are able to have a good relationship
, harmonious

console : comfort, solace, soothe

consort1 noun [countable]

- 49 -
1 in consort (with sb) formal doing something together with someone: The prince ruled
in consort with his father.

2 the wife or husband of a ruler

뾱ee also prince 쟠onsort

3 a group of people who play music from former times or the group of old-fashioned
instruments they use
* : associate, fraternize also -ise BrE verb [intransitive]
to show friendliness towards people who you are not supposed to be friendly with
[+ with]: The soldiers fraternized with the enemy on Christmas Day.
fraternization noun [uncountable] , agree

conspicuous* : prominent, manifest, plain, apparent

constant : invariable, uniform, stable, unchanging

constrain / / verb [transitive]

1 to stop someone from doing what they want to do : constrain by: Many women feel
constrained by their roles as wife and mother.

2 to prevent something from developing and improving: Our research has been
constrained by lack of funding.

: compel, coerce verb [transitive]

to force someone to do something they do not want to do by threatening them :
coerce sb into doing sth: The rebels coerced the villagers into hiding them from the
army.

constrict : compress, contract1 noun [countable]

1 a formal written agreement between two or more people, which says what each
person must do for the other: His contract of employment specifies that he must get at
least one month's training.
[+ with]: Tyler has just agreed a seven year contract with a Hollywood studio. | sign a
contract: Read the contract carefully before you sign it. | enter into a contract: They
have just entered into a lucrative contract with a clothing store. | be on a contract/be

- 50 -
under contract (=be working for someone with whom you have a contract) | be in
breach of contract (=have done something that is not allowed by the contract): If they
don't get the test version of the software to us by tomorrow they'll be in breach of
contract.

2 subject to contract if an agreement is subject to contract, it has not yet been agreed
formally by a contract: We've agreed to their offer on our house, subject to contract.

3 informal an agreement to kill a person for money: There is a contract out on him and
he's in hiding.consult verb [intransitive, transitive]

1 to ask for information or advice from someone because it is their job to know about
it: If symptoms persist, consult a doctor without delay. | consult sb about sth: An
increasing number of clients are consulting them about Social Security changes.

2 to ask for someone's permission or to discuss something with someone so that you
can make a decision together: I can't believe you sold the car without consulting me!
[+ with]: The President consulted with European leaders before taking action.

3 to look for information in a book, map, list etc: Have you consulted a dictionary? :
confer
consume : expend, exhaust
contagious adjective

1 a disease that is contagious can be passed from person to person by touch

2 a person who is contagious has a disease that can be passed to another person by
touch: The patient is still highly contagious.

3 if a feeling, attitude, or action is contagious, other people quickly begin to feel it,
believe it, do it etc: Her enthusiasm was contagious
?contagiousness noun [uncountable]
?contagiously adverb : communicable, infectious
contain : hold, accommodate, include
contaminate verb [transitive]

1 to make a place or substance dirty and dangerous by adding something to it, for
example chemicals or poison: fears that dumped waste might contaminate water
supplies

- 51 -
2 to influence something in a way that has a bad effect
?contamination /k@n"t{mK'neISFn/ noun [uncountable]
: pollute, stain, corrupt

contemplate : consider, reflect, ponder, meditate

contemporary : coexisting

contempt : scorn, disdain

contemptible adjective
so unacceptable that you have no respect for the person involved: They were
portrayed as contemptible cowards.
?contemptibly adverb
: mean, abject, base

contemptuous adjective

1 showing that you feel that someone or something is not important and deserves no
respect: Cordelia threw him a contemptuous look. | be contemptuous of: He was
openly contemptuous of his elder brother.

2 not feeling any fear in a dangerous situation: Contemptuous of the risks, she ran into
the burning building.
?contemptuously adverb : scornful, sneering

contend : struggle, strive, fight, battle, combat, compete

content : satisfied, contented
contest : struggle, conflict, battle, combat, fight
continual : incessant, ceaseless
contract : compact, bargain1 noun [countable]

1 something bought cheaply or for less than its usual price: I might buy a TV, if I can
find a bargain in the sales. | be a bargain: These shoes are a bargain at $22. | bargain
holiday/clothes/prices etc (=a holiday etc that is very cheap) | bargain hunting
(=looking for things to buy at a cheap price): a bargain hunting housewife at the
January sales

- 52 -
2 an agreement, made between two people or groups, to do something in return for
something else : make a bargain: We've made a bargain that he'll do the shopping and
I'll cook. | drive a hard bargain (=succeed in making an agreement that is very much to
your advantage): Fischer was determined to drive a hard bargain. | keep your side of
the bargain (=do what you promised as part of an agreement) | strike a bargain
(=reach an agreement): Management and unions have struck a bargain over wage
increases.

3 into the bargain especially BrE in addition to everything else: He was short, fat, and
spotty into the bargain.

4 make the best of a bad bargain to do the best you can under difficult conditions
bargainer noun [countable]: a wage bargainer
cheap1

contradictory : opposing, paradoxical, inconsistent, contrary1 noun formal

1 on the contrary used for showing that you disagree completely with what has just
been said: It wasn't a good thing; on the contrary it was a huge mistake.

2 to the contrary showing that the opposite is true: Unless there is evidence to the
contrary, we ought to believe them.

3 the contrary the opposite of what has been said or suggested: They say he is guilty,
but I believe the contrary.

contrast1 noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a difference between people, ideas, or things etc that are
compared
[+ between]: The contrast between the two sisters surprised him.

2 in contrast/by contrast used when you are comparing objects or situations and
saying that they are completely different from each other: Their old house had been
large and spacious; by contrast the new London flat seemed cramped and dark. | in
contrast to: Mary was short and plump, in contrast to her mother who was tall and
willowy. | in sharp/marked/stark etc contrast to: The foreign visitors were wealthy and

- 53 -
glamorous, in complete contrast to the poverty-stricken locals.

3 [countable] something that is very different from something else

[+ to]: The blue skies of the holiday brochure were such a contrast to this dreary rain-
sodden March day.

4 [uncountable] the differences in colour, or between light and dark, used in paintings
or photographs for artistic effect: The artist has used contrast marvelously in his
paintings.

5 [uncountable] the degree of difference between the light and dark parts of a
television picture: Can you adjust the contrast please?
: comparison
contrive : devise, invent, design
control : dominate, govern, rule, reign
controversy / noun [countable, uncountable]
a serious argument or disagreement, especially about something such as a plan or
decision, that continues for a long time: The proposals to reduce the strength of the
army have been the subject of much controversy. | a political controversy
[+ over/about/surrounding]: the controversy surrounding the nuclear energy program :
dispute, debate
convenient : handy
converse : opposite, reverse
convert : change, transform
convey : carry, transport, transmit
convince : persuade
core* : center, heart
corpse : body
correct : amend, remedy, cure
correspond : conform, accord, match
corrupt : rotten, spoiled
count : matter, weigh, signify
courteous : civil, polite, well-mannered
cowardly : craven, afraid, timid
crack : break, snap, split
craft : skill, ingenuity
crash : 1. shatter, smash
crazy : insane, lunatic, mad
credit : belief, trust, confidence, faith, reliance

- 54 -
creditable : reputable, honorable
credulous adjective
always believing what you are told, and therefore easily deceived: This man has coaxed
millions of pounds from a credulous public.
credulously adverb
credulousness noun [uncountable]

: gullible adjective
too ready to believe what other people tell you, so that you are easily deceived: Plastic
replicas were sold to gullible tourists as ancient relics.
?gullibly adverb
?gullibility /"g ?K'bIlKti/ noun [uncountable]

crime : offense, sin, felony

criminal : convict, sinner,
1 the person who is guilty of a crime, or responsible for damage, a problem etc: Police
finally managed to catch the culprit.

2 informal the reason for a particular problem or difficulty : the main culprit: High
production costs are the main culprit.
, offender
cripple1 /'krIpFl/ noun [countable]

1 an offensive word for someone who is physically unable to use their arms or their
legs properly

2 emotional cripple informal someone who is not able to deal with their own or other
people's feelings
Compare disabled : disable, maim verb [transitive]
to wound or injure someone very seriously and often permanently: landmines that kill
or maim people in the rural areas | maimed for life: Rod was maimed for life in a car
smash., ruin
crisis : emergency
critic : reviewer, judge
critical : crucial, momentous adjective
a momentous event, occasion, decision etc is very important or serious, especially
because it will have a great influence on the future: a momentous decision | 1789 was
a momentous year in European history., important, dangerous, perilous, hazardous

- 55 -
crop : harvest, produce, yield
crowd : throng, multitude, swarm, herd
crucial adjective

1 something that is crucial is extremely important because everything else depends on

it: crucial decisions involving millions of dollars

2 slang excellent
?crucially adverb
1. decisive, conclusive, determinative, deciding.
2. critical, desperate adjective

1 willing to do anything and not caring about danger, because you are in a very bad
situation: We had no food left at all and were getting desperate. | an appeal from the
teenager's desperate parents

2 [not before noun] needing or wanting something very much

[+ for]: By then I was desperate for a holiday. | desperate to do sth: Ben was desperate
to get a job. | in desperate need: We're in desperate need of help.

3 a desperate situation is very bad or serious: There was a desperate shortage of

doctors.

4 a desperate action is something that you only do because you are in a very bad
situation : desperate attempt/effort/measures: The victim had made a desperate
attempt to escape, acute
crude : unrefined, raw
cruel : barbarous, ferocious adjective

1 violent, dangerous, and frightening: The battle was long and ferocious. | ferocious
dogs

2 very strong, severe, and unpleasant: a ferocious headache | The heat was ferocious.
ferociously adverb
ferociousness noun [uncountable]

crush : shatter, smash, crumble verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] also crumble away to break apart into little pieces, or make

- 56 -
something do this: Billy crumbled the bread in his fingers.

2 [intransitive] if a building crumbles, it is old and starting to fall down: Britain's

crumbling schools

3 [intransitive] also crumble away if your determination, courage etc crumbles, it

becomes weak or fails: Brigg's resolve crumbled and he reached for the whisky bottle.

4 [intransitive] if a military operation, government etc crumbles, it loses its power and
its effectiveness: a crumbling empire

cumbersome adjective

1 a process or system that is cumbersome is slow and difficult: The technique was
cumbersome and created problems with sound reproduction.

2 heavy and difficult to move: cumbersome equipment that slowed us down

considerably

3 words or phrases that are cumbersome are long or complicated

: awkward, bulky adjective

1 something that is bulky is bigger than other things of its type and is difficult to carry
or store: a bulky parcel | a new elastic that is less bulky

2 someone who is bulky is big and heavy

?bulkiness noun [uncountable] , clumsy, inconvenient
cunning: tricky, sly adjective

1 very clever in the way that you use tricks and dishonesty to get what you want: The
way he did it was really sly.

2 sly smile/glance/wink etc a smile, look etc shows that you are hiding something you
know from other people: She gave me a sly look.

3 on the sly informal secretly, especially when you are doing something that you
should not do: They'd been seeing each other on the sly for months.

- 57 -
slyly adverb
slyness noun [uncountable]

cure : remedy
curious : inquisitive adjective

1 asking too many questions and trying to find out too many details about something
or someone: Don't be so inquisitive - it makes people uncomfortable.

2 interested in a lot of different things and wanting to find out more about them: a
cheerful, inquisitive little boy
?inquisitively adverb : He peeped inquisitively into the drawer.
?inquisitiveness noun [uncountable], interested
current : prevailing, prevalent, common, popular
curse : damn, imprecation noun [countable] formal
an offensive word or phrase that you say when you are very angry; a curse2 (2)
, anathema noun [singular, uncountable]
something that is completely the opposite of what you believe in
[+ to]: The idea of full-blown majority rule was anathema to many Afrikaners.
, scourge

custody: imprisonment, confinement

customary* : habitual, accustomed, conventional
cut : divide, sever, chop

cynical : sarcastic adjective

saying things that are the opposite of what you mean in order to make an unkind joke
or to show that you are annoyed: a sarcastic remark
sarcastically / adverb , satirical, sneering

***** (D) *****

damage: injury, harm, hurt, impaired adjective

not as good as before or not as good as it should be: A special device for viewers with

- 58 -
impaired hearing. | TV reception may be impaired in some areas.

damp : moist, humid, wet

danger : hazard, risk, peril, jeopardy
dare : venture, risk, challenge, defy verb defied, defying [transitive]

1 to refuse to obey a law or rule, or refuse to do what someone in authority tells you
to do: He defied his father's wishes and married Agnes.

2 defy description/analysis/imagination etc to be so extreme or unusual that it is

almost impossible to describe or understand: The beauty of the scene defies
description.

3 I defy you (to) spoken formal used when asking someone to do something that you
think is impossible, in order to prove that you are right: I defy you to think of one way
in which this government has helped the poor.

daring : courageous, bold, brave, audacious, dauntless,valiant adjective

very brave, especially in a difficult situation: a valiant attempt to break the world
record, gallant

dash : rush, dart1 verb

1 [intransitive always + adv/prep] to move suddenly and quickly in a particular

direction
[+ forward/across/off etc]: Jill darted forward and pulled him away from the fire.

2 dart a glance/look to look at someone or something very quickly and suddenly: Tom
darted a terrified glance over his shoulder.

, bolt1 noun [countable]

1 LOCK a metal bar that you slide across a door or window to fasten it

2 SCREW a screw with a flat head and no point, for fastening two pieces of metal
together

- 59 -
3 a bolt from out of the blue news that is sudden and unexpected: It was a bolt out of
the blue when Alan resigned - completely unexpected.

4 bolt of lightning lightning that appears as a white line in the sky

뾱ee also thunderbolt

5 make a bolt for (it) to suddenly try to escape from somewhere

6 WEAPON a short heavy arrow (1) that is fired from a crossbow (1)

7 CLOTH a large long roll of cloth

also shoot your bolt shoot1 (20), the nuts and bolts of nut1 (6)

dawn : daybreak
dead : deceased, extinct, inanimate
deadly : fatal, lethal, mortal1 adjective

1 not living for ever: Her father's death reminded her that she was mortal. | mortal
creatures
뾬pposite immortal (1)

2 mortal blow/injuries/danger etc causing death or likely to cause death: He was dealt
a mortal blow in the battle. | mortal combat (=fighting until one person kills the other):
two gladiators locked in mortal combat
Compare lethal (1)

3 mortal enemy/foe an enemy that you hate very much and always will hate

4 mortal fear/terror/dread extreme fear: She lives in mortal fear of her husband's
anger.

5 [only before noun] old-fashioned used to emphasize the word that follows it,
especially to show that you are annoyed: Now I've lost every mortal thing I owned.

6 poetic belonging to a human: a sight as yet unseen by mortal eyes

also mortally

- 60 -
debate : discussion, argument, controversy, dispute

decadence noun [uncountable]

the state of having low moral standards and being more concerned with pleasure than
with serious matters: the corruption and decadence of the nobility : deteriorate
verb [intransitive]

1 to become worse: deteriorating health | Relations between the two countries have
since deteriorated.

2 [+ into] to develop into a bad or unpleasant situation: The meeting soon deteriorated
into a fight.
deterioration noun [uncountable] , decline
decay : deteriorate, decline
deceit : fraud noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a method of illegally getting money from someone, often

by using clever and complicated methods: financial losses due to theft or fraud |
tax/share/bankruptcy etc fraud (=fraud in a particular financial area)

2 [countable] someone who deceives people to gain money, friendship etc: She
realized later that the insurance salesman had been a fraud.
, deception, cheating

deceive : delude verb [transitive]

to make someone believe something that is not true; deceive : delude sb/yourself:
You're deluding yourself if you think you'll change Rob's mind. | delude sb into doing
sth: That new job title is just a way of deluding her into thinking she's been promoted.,
cheat

decent : right, proper, nice, pure, modest

decided: resolute adjective
doing something in a very determined way because you have very strong beliefs, aims
etc
뾬pposite irresolute

resolutely adverb : She resolutely resisted his amorous //adjective

involving or expressing sexual love: She resisted his amorous advances.
amorously adverb amorousness noun [uncountable] //resoluteness noun

- 61 -
, determined, final
declare : announce, proclaim
decline : 1. refuse, reject
2. weaken, deteriorate, degenerate1 verb [intransitive]
to become worse
[+ into]: The debate soon degenerated into petty squabbling.
degeneration noun [uncountable] , decay

decrease : diminish, lessen, dwindle verb [intransitive]

also dwindle away to gradually become less and less or smaller and smaller: The
workforce has dwindled since its pre-war heyday. | dwindle (away) to
nothing/one/two etc: Their supply of food had dwindled to almost nothing.
dwindling adjective : a dwindling population, abate
defeat : conquer, overwhelm, subdue
defect : blemish, flaw, fault, shortcoming, weakness
defend : guard, shield, shelter, protect
definite : fixed, clear,
defy : challenge
dejected adjective
unhappy, disappointed, or sad
dejectedly adverb
dejection noun [uncountable] : depressed, discouraged

deliberate1 adjective

1 intended or planned, and not happening accidentally: a deliberate act of

disobedience

2 deliberate speech, thought, or movement is slow and careful: He began working in

his usual deliberate and meticulous manner.
deliberateness noun [uncountable] : careful, thoughtful, cautious

delicate: dainty1 adjective daintier, daintiest

1 small, pretty, and delicate: a dainty white handkerchief

2 dainty movements are small and careful

?daintily adverb
?daintiness noun [uncountable] , graceful, elegant

- 62 -
delicacy : dainty, savory noun

1 [uncountable] a plant used in cooking to add taste to meat, beans etc

2 [countable] the American spelling of savoury

deliver : rescue, save

deny : gainsay, contradict
depart : start, leave, quit verb past tense and past participle quit also quitted
BrE present participle quitting

1 [intransitive, transitive] informal, especially AmE to leave a job, school etc, especially
because you are annoyed or unhappy: I'm tired of being treated like this. I quit. | Her
husband had to quit because of ill health. | quit school/your job etc: She quit school at
17 and left home.

2 [transitive] informal especially AmE to stop doing something bad or annoying: Quit it
Robby, or I'll tell mom! | quit doing sth: I wish you'd all quit complaining.

3 be quit of formal to be finished with something that was causing you problems

4 [transitive] old use to leave a place

depict : represent, portray

deplore : grieve, regret, lament, mourn
deposit : save, store, entrust, intrust verb [transitive]
to make someone responsible for doing something important : entrust sb with sth: I
was entrusted with the task of looking after the money. | entrust sth to sb: The infant
Prince was entrusted to an English nurse, Miss Shaw.

depressed* : downcast, melancholy1 adjective

sad or making you feel sad: a melancholy expression | the seagulls' melancholy cry,
gloomy

deprive : bereaved adjective formal

1 having lost a close friend or relative because they have recently died: a bereaved
mother

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2 the bereaved the person or people whose close friend or relative has just died: Our
sympathies go to the bereaved., strip

descent: falling, descending (Ant) ascent

desert : abandon, forsake
design : plan, devise, project, contrive

desolate1 adjective

1 a place that is desolate is empty and looks sad because there are no people there
and not much activity: desolate moorland

2 someone who is desolate feels very sad and lonely

desolately adverb
desolation noun [uncountable]
: barren, ravage verb [transitive often passive]
to destroy, ruin, or damage something very badly; devastate (1) : be ravaged by sth:
The population was ravaged by cholera.

despair : discouragement, disheartenment

desperate : hopeless, desolate, extreme, excessive
destiny noun

1 [countable usually singular] the things that will happen to someone in the future,
especially those that cannot be changed or controlled; fate (1) : your/my/his etc
destiny: Juan accepted his destiny without complaint.

2 [uncountable] the power that some people believe decides what will happen to them
in the future: I'm a great believer in destiny.
: fate, doom

destitute : poor, devoid

destroy : smash, demolish
detain : confine, arrest, keep
detect* : spot, discern verb [transitive not in progressive] formal
to see, notice, or understand something only after looking at it or thinking about it
carefully; perceive (2): In the distance I could just discern the hills near Tendaho. |
discern who/what/how etc: It was difficult to discern which of them was telling the

- 64 -
truth.
discernible adjective : There is still no discernible improvement in the economic
situation.
discernibly adverb , discover

deviate1 verb [intransitive] formal

to change what you are doing so that you are not following an expected plan, idea, or
type of behaviour
[+ from]: The plane had to deviate from its normal flight path.
: diverge, wander, stray

device : plan, scheme, project, design

devise : contrive, invent, design
devout : pious, devoted, saintly
dictate* : fix, impose verb

1 impose a ban/tax/fine etc (on) to officially order that something should be forbidden,
restricted, taxed etc, or that someone should be punished: The government imposed a
ban on the sale of ivory. | We have decided to impose sanctions on countries that
break the agreement.

2 impose a burden/strain etc (on/upon) to have a bad effect on something or someone

by causing them problems: The President's health care proposals would not impose
any great burden on the state's finances.

3 [transitive] to force someone to have the same ideas or beliefs as you : impose sth on
sb: parents who impose their own moral values on their children

4 [intransitive] to unreasonably expect or ask someone to do something for you when

this is inconvenient for them
[+ on/upon]: We could ask them to let us stay the night, but I don't want to impose on
them.
, prescribe, ordain verb [transitive]

1 to officially make someone a priest or religious leader: Desmond Tutu was ordained
in 1960. | ordain sb (as) sth: Paulson was ordained deacon.
also ordination

2 formal to order that something should happen: a duty ordained by God

- 65 -
[+ that]: The King ordained that a feast should be prepared.
, decree1 noun [countable]

1 an official command or decision, especially one made by the ruler of a country: On 13

November the Emperor issued the decree.

2 a judgment in a court of law

die : decease, perish, vanish

diffuse1 verb [intransitive, transitive] formal

1 to make heat, a gas etc spread so that it mixes with the surrounding air or water: The
kitchen stove diffused its warmth all over the house.

2 to spread ideas, information etc among a lot of people: Their ideas diffused quickly
across Europe.
diffusion noun [uncountable]
: spread, distribute, scatter, disperse

digest : absorb, imbibe verb [intransitive, transitive] formal or humorous

1 to drink something, especially alcohol: Having imbibed rather too freely, he fell
forward against the table.

2 to accept and be influenced by qualities, ideas, values etc: imbibing radical political
ideas, assimilate verb

1 [transitive] to think about new ideas, information etc so that you feel ready to use
them: It will take time to assimilate all these facts.

2 [intransitive, transitive] if people assimilate or are assimilated into a country or

group, they become part of it and are accepted by other people in it
[+ into]: women being assimilated into the workforce

3 [transitive] technical if you assimilate food, you take it into your mouth and digest1
(1) it

dilemma : predicament noun [countable]

- 66 -
a difficult or unpleasant situation in which you do not know what to do, or you have to
make a difficult choice: There is no painless way out of America's current economic
predicament.
, strait1 noun [countable]

1 also straits [plural] a narrow passage of water between two areas of land, usually
connecting two seas: the Strait of Gibraltar

2 be in dire straits to be in a difficult situation, especially a financial one, that could

have very bad or dangerous results: If one of the family is in dire straits, we try to help
each other out.

dim : obscure, faint

diminish : lessen, reduce, decrease, shrink, abate
dirty : foul, unclean, filthy1 adjective filthier, filthiest

1 extremely dirty: Simon never cleans his house - it's absolutely filthy!

2 showing or describing sexual acts in a very rude or offensive way: Mitch was just
telling us a filthy joke when Kia walked in.
filthily adverb
filthiness noun [uncountable]

disadvantage : harm, damage, injury

disappear : vanish, fade
disappoint : frustrate, baffle1 verb [transitive]
if something baffles someone, they cannot understand or explain it at all: The question
baffled me completely.
bafflement noun [uncountable]
baffling adjective : a baffling mystery

disaster: calamity, mishap, catastrophe, adversity noun [uncountable]

a situation in which you have a lot of problems that seem to be caused by bad luck: to
keep the family together in times of adversity

discern : perceive, notice, discriminate, distinguish

discernible* : noticeable, detectable, observable, perceptible,perceivable
disciple : pupil, student, scholar
discipline : training, drill, exercise, practice

- 67 -
disclose: reveal, divulge, unveil
disconcert verb [transitive often passive]
to make someone feel slightly confused or worried: It was that cold, steady gaze of his
that disconcerted her most.
: disturb, bewilder, perplex, embarrass

discourage : dishearten, dispirit, depress

discreet: judicious, prudent, cautious, heedful, considerate
disdain : condemn, despise verb [transitive not in progressive]
to dislike someone or something very much: Mrs Morel had come to despise her
husband., scorn
disgrace : shame, dishonor
disgust : sicken, nauseate
disgusting : offensive, sickening, nauseous, nauseating
dishonorable : disgraceful, shameful
disinterested : unbiased, impartial, fair
disloyal : unfaithful
dismiss : discharge, fire, refuse, reject, decline,
disorder : mess, confusion, chaos
disperse : scatter, dissipate, diffuse
displace : replace, remove
dispute : argue, debate
disregard : ignore, neglect, overlook
dissent1 noun

1 [uncountable] refusal to accept an official opinion or an opinion that most people

accept: political dissent

2 [countable] AmE a judge's written statement giving their reasons for disagreeing with
the other judges in a law case

3 [uncountable] old use a disagreement with accepted religious beliefs, especially one
that makes someone leave an established church
also consent1, assent1 : differ, disagree
dissolve : melt
distinct : definite, clear, plain
distinction : difference
distinguish : discriminate, differentiate
distinguished : marked, noted, eminent, famous, celebrated,renowned

- 68 -
distress1 noun [uncountable]

1 EXTREME WORRY a feeling of extreme worry and unhappiness: Luke's destructive

behaviour caused his parents great distress. | in distress: The girl was crying and
clearly in distress.

2 PAIN formal great physical pain

3 LACK OF MONEY/FOOD a situation in which you suffer or have great problems

because you have no money, food etc : in distress: charities that aid families in distress
| acute financial distress

4 distress signal a message sent from a ship, aircraft etc asking for help

5 be in distress if a ship, aircraft etc is in distress, it is in danger of sinking or crashing :

pain, anxiety, agony, anguish

distribute : deal, allot, apportion, assign, dispense verb [transitive]

1 formal to give something to people, especially in fixed amounts: Villagers dispensed

tea to people involved in the accident.

2 to prepare and give medicines to people

3 to officially provide something for people in a society : dispense justice/punishments

(=decide whether or not someone is guilty of a crime and what punishment they
should receive)

dispense with sb/sth phrasal verb [transitive] formal

to not use or do something that you usually use or do, because it is no longer
necessary : can dispense with: I think we can dispense with a translator. | dispense
with the formalities (=not use very polite behaviour, such as introducing people to
each other)

disturbance : agitation noun

1 [uncountable] feeling of being so anxious, nervous, or upset that you cannot think

- 69 -
calmly: Perry's agitation was so great he could hardly speak.

2 [countable, uncountable] a public argument or action for social or political change

[+ for/against]: agitation for civil rights

3 [uncountable] the act of shaking or mixing a liquid

, disorder, confusion, uproar
diverse : various, manifold
doctrine : tenet noun [countable]
a principle or belief, especially one that is part of a larger system of beliefs: the tenets
of Buddhism, dogma, theory, principle
domain : area, field, territory, province, realm, arena
dominant : ruling, prevailing, prevalent
donation : gift, contribution, offering
doom1 verb [transitive usually passive]
to make someone or something certain to fail, die, be destroyed etc : doom sth to sth:
The species is doomed to extinction. | doom sb/sth to do sth: Marx's theory was that
capitalist economies are eventually doomed to collapse. | doomed to failure: The
marriage seems doomed to failure.
doomed adjective : fate, destiny, lot, ruin, death

draw : drag, pull, tug1 verb tugged, tugging [intransitive, transitive]

also tug at to pull with one or more short, quick pulls: She kept tugging insistently at
Alan's sleeve., attract
dread : fear, awe

dreary also drear poetical adjective

not interesting or cheerful: the same old dreary routine | a dreary winter's day :
gloomy, dismal

drive : impel, compel, force

dubious : doubtful
dull : boring, tedious, uninteresting, blunt1 adjective

1 not sharp or pointed: All I could find was a blunt pencil.

Opposite sharp1 (1), sharp1 (11)

2 speaking in an honest way even if this upsets people: Jan was straightforward and
blunt as always.

- 70 -
also bluntly

bluntness noun [uncountable]

dumb : mute, speechless

durable* : lasting, enduring, constant, permanent
dusky adjective
dark or not very bright in colour: The room was filled with dusky shadows. | dusky
pink/orange/blue etc: a dusky pink room
: dim, shadowy, cloudy, obscure

duty : obligation
dwarf : pygmy (Ant) giant
dwell : abide, reside, live, inhabit

***** (E) *****

earn : gain, acquire, win, obtain, secure, procure

earnest : sincere, ardent adjective

1 showing strong positive feelings about an activity and determination to succeed at it:
an ardent supporter of free trade

2 literary showing strong feelings of love: an ardent suitor

?ardently adverb , eager
easy : facile adjective

1 a facile remark, argument etc is too simple and shows a lack of careful thought or
understanding: facile logic

2 [only before noun] formal a facile achievement or success has been obtained too
easily: a facile victory
facilely adverb
facileness noun [uncountable] , light

- 71 -
ebb : subside verb [intransitive]

1 if a feeling or noise subsides, it gradually decreases: Simon waited until the laughter
subsided.

2 if a building subsides, it gradually sinks further into the ground

3 if land subsides, its surface sinks to a lower level: After the heavy rains, part of the
road subsided.

4 if bad weather conditions subside, they gradually return to a normal state: Then the
wind subsided, and all was quiet.
, abate, recede, retire

economical : saving, thrifty, frugal

edge : border, margin, boundary, verge, brink
effect : result, consequence, outcome, accomplish verb [transitive]
to succeed in doing something, especially after trying very hard; achieve: We have
accomplished all we set out to do., achieve

effective : efficacious, efficient, effectual

effort : endeavor, exertion, struggle, striving
egoism : selfishness

elaborate1 adjective
containing a lot of small details or parts that are connected with each other in a
complicated way: an elaborate mosaic consisting of thousands of tiny pieces |
elaborate plan/notes/excuses etc (=carefully produced and full of details)
?elaborately adverb : an elaborately carved wooden statue
?elaborateness noun [uncountable] : detailed, intricate, complicated

elegant : tasteful, refined, polished, graceful

element : component, constituent, ingredient
elementary : primary, rudimentary, basic, fundamental
elevate : raise, lift, exalt, heighten, increase, enhance
eliminate : remove
elude : avoid, escape, evade, shun, dodge1 verb

1 [transitive] to move quickly in order to avoid being hit by someone or something: I

- 72 -
managed to dodge the shot that came flying through the air.

2 [intransitive always + adv/prep] to move quickly in a particular direction to avoid

someone or something
[+ into/out/behind]: He dodged in and out of the traffic.

3 [transitive] to avoid a law or unpleasant duty in a dishonest way: Senator O'Brian

skilfully dodged the crucial question.

4 dodge the issue to avoid considering or discussing something that needs to be dealt
with

embarrass : confuse, perplex

embed* : fix, fasten, root
emerge : emanate, appear
emergency : crisis
eminent : distinguished, prominent, renowned, outstanding
emit : discharge, shed, radiate
emphatic : forcible, strong
employ** : use, engage, hire
empower : authorize, warrant1 noun

1 [countable] written permission from a court of law allowing the police to take a
particular action
[+ for]: The magistrate issued a warrant for his arrest. | search warrant (=permission to
go into someone's house to look for something)
also death warrant

2 [uncountable] formal good enough reason for doing something; justification

also unwarranted, enable, permit

empty : void, vacant, blank, unoccupied

enchant : fascinate, captivate, charm
encircle : surround, encompass, enclose
enclose* : surround, circle, beset, encompass, besiege,
encircle, envelop, compass
encounter : meet face
encourage : hearten, stimulate
endeavor : effort, struggle, labor, exertion, essay1 noun [countable]

- 73 -
1 a short piece of writing by a student as part of a course of study
[+ on/about]: an essay on the causes of the French Revolution

2 a short piece of writing giving someone's ideas about politics, society etc

3 formal an attempt to do something

endow : confer, bestow, give

endowment : gift, capacity, talent
endure : sustain, bear, stand, tolerate
enemy : foe, adversary, opponent, antagonist
enlarge : extend, augment verb [transitive]
formal to increase the value, amount, effectiveness etc of something: new taxes
intended to augment government income
, amplify, magnify, expand

enlighten : 1. illumine
enliven : invigorate, animate
enormous : huge, immense, vast, mammoth, gigantic
enrage : anger, aggravate verb [transitive]

1 to make a bad situation worse: Their debt problem was aggravated by a rise in
interest rates.

2 informal to make someone angry or annoyed: Stop aggravating the cat!

aggravating adjective
aggravatingly adverb
aggravation noun [countable, uncountable]

ensue : follow, succeed

entangle verb [transitive always + adv/prep]

to make something become twisted or caught in a rope, net etc
: complicate, involve

enterprising : ambitious, adventurous, energetic

entertain : divert, amuse, please
enthusiasm : eagerness, zeal, passion

- 74 -
enthusiastic : ardent, zealous, eager, passionate
entitle : empower, qualify
entity noun [countable]
formal something that exists as a single and complete unit: The mind and body are
seen as separate entities.
: thing, individual, object,
envelop : surround, enclose
envy : jealousy
equal : equivalent, alike

equip verb equipped, equipping [transitive]

1 to provide a person, group, building etc with the things that are needed for a
particular kind of activity or work : equip sb with: The boys equipped themselves with
torches and rope, and set off. | be equipped to do sth: The emergency services are
equipped to deal with disasters of this kind. | equip sb/sth: It cost $100,000 to equip
the gym. | well/poorly/fully etc equipped: It was a modern, bright, well equipped
hospital.

2 if education or training equips you to do something, it prepares you and makes you
able to do it : equip sb for: We want our son to have an education that will equip him
for later life.
: furnish, provide
era* : time, period, age, epoch
erect : upright standing, vertical
erroneous : mistaken, incorrect, false
error : mistake, blunder, slip up phrasal verb [intransitive]
to make a mistake: The office slipped up and the letter was never sent.

escape : flee, evade, avoid

escort : convoy, guard, guide
essential* : indispensable, vital, fundamental
establish : found, institute
esteem : prize, value, respect
estimate : judge, assess, value, evaluate, appraise verb [transitive]
to officially judge how successful, effective, or valuable someone or something is;
evaluate: A dealer came to appraise the furniture.

eternal : endless, everlasting, infinite, perpetual, ceaseless,permanent

- 75 -
evade : escape, elude, shun
evaporate : vaporize
even : level, flat, plane
event : occurrence, happening, incident
eventually* : ultimately, finally
in time, in the long run.
evident : plain, clear, obvious, manifest, apparent
evil : immoral, malicious
examine : inspect, probe, investigate
exceed : surpass, excel, outstrip
excel : surpass, outdo, exceed
excellent : fine, eminent
exceptional : unusual, extraordinary, abnormal
excessive : extreme
exchange : barter, interchange, swap1 verb swapped, swapping
[intransitive, transitive]

1 to exchange something with someone, especially so that each of you get what you
want; trade2 (1): I liked her coat and she liked mine, so we swapped. | swap sth for
sth: Adam swapped three of his stickers for three of Alex's. | swap sth with sb: I
swapped hats with Mandy. | swap sb sth for sth: I'll swap you two of mine for one of
yours.

2 swap places also swap round BrE to let someone sit or stand in your place, so that
you can have their place: I want to sit by Val; can we swap places?

excite : stir, arouse, stimulate, incite

exclamation : outcry
exclude : expel
exclusive : excluding
execute: perform, achieve
exert* : exercise, wield verb [transitive]

1 wield power/influence/authority etc to have a lot of power or influence, and be

ready to use it: The Church wields immense power in Ireland.

2 to hold a weapon or tool that you are going to use: She had her car windows
smashed by a gang wielding baseball bats.

- 76 -
exhaust: expend verb [transitive]
expend time/money/resources etc to use or spend a lot of time etc in order to do
something: Try not to expend more energy than necessary. | expend sth in/on (doing)
sth: A great deal of time and money has been expended on creating a pleasant office
atmosphere.
, consume
exhibit : present, display, show, demonstrate

exorbitant adjective
an exorbitant price, rate, demand etc is much higher than is reasonable or usual: It's a
good restaurant but the prices are exorbitant.
?exorbitance noun [uncountable]
?exorbitantly adverb
* : extreme, excessive, undue adjective [only before noun]
formal more than is reasonable, suitable, or necessary: We managed to get through
Customs without undue difficulty.
, extravagant, immoderate adjective formal
not within reasonable and sensible limits; excessive: immoderate wage demands |
immoderate drinking immoderately adverb
, inordinate, expensive

expand : extend, swell, enlarge

expect : anticipate, await
expel : oust, banish, exile
expend : use, consume, spend, exhaust
expense : cost, charge, price, expenditure
expensive : costly, dear
experiment : test, trial
expert : specialist, authority, master
explain : elucidate verb [intransitive, transitive]
formal to explain something that is difficult to understand very clearly, by providing
more information: His theory is further elucidated in a series of articles published
between 1976 and 1980.
elucidation / noun [countable, uncountable] elucidatory adverb
, explicate, clarify

explicit : clear, unambiguous, definite (Ant) ambiguous

exploit : 1. feat noun [countable]
something that someone does that is impressive because it needs a lot of skill,

- 77 -
strength etc
[+ of]: a remarkable feat of engineering | perform/accomplish/achieve a feat: How did
they accomplish such an extraordinary feat? | sth is no mean feat (=is difficult to do):
Getting a degree is no mean feat!, accomplishment
expose** : display, betray verb [transitive]

1 to be disloyal to someone who trusts you so that they are harmed or upset : betray
sb (to sb): What kind of man would betray his own sister to the police?

2 to be disloyal to your country, for example by giving secret information to its

enemies: people who are prepared to betray their country for money

3 betray your beliefs/principles/ideals etc to stop supporting your old beliefs and
principles, especially in order to get power or avoid trouble

4 [not in progressive or passive] to show feelings that you are trying to hide: The
tremor in his voice betrayed his nervousness.
betrayer noun [countable] , reveal, uncover
express : utter, state, manifest, reveal, represent
extend* : (1) go, run, range.
(2) increase, grow, expand, enlarge, augment
(3) stretch, lengthen, elongate verb [intransitive, transitive]
to become longer, or make something longer than normal
elongation noun [countable, uncountable] , protract

extensive : wide, broad, spacious, vast

extent : space, scope, range, stretch
exterior: outer, outside, external
exterminate : annihilate, destroy, eradicate, eliminate
extinct : quench verb [transitive]

1 quench your thirst to stop yourself from feeling thirsty: Iced tea really quenches your
thirst.

2 quench a fire to make a fire stop burning, vanished

extract : extort verb [transitive]

to illegally force someone to give you money by threatening them : extort money

- 78 -
from/out of sb: Landlords tried to cover their losses by extorting high rents from
tenants.
extortion noun [uncountable]: Confessions were obtained by extortion.
extortioner noun [countable]
extortionist noun [countable] , derive

extraordinary : exceptional, inordinate, remarkable, unusual

extravagant : wasteful, prodigal (Ant) thrifty
extreme : ultimate, excessive, unreasonable

***** (F) *****

fable : legend
fabricate : make, build, produce, construct, assemble,manufacture
face : countenance1 / noun formal

1 [countable] your face or your expression: the gloomy countenance of a disappointed

child

2 [uncountable] support or approval, features

faculty : ability, capacity, aptitude noun [countable, uncountable]
natural ability or skill, especially in learning
[+ for]: She has a real aptitude for drawing and painting.

fade : wither, decline, decay

failing : shortcoming, defect, flaw
faint : indistinct adjective
an indistinct sound, image, or memory cannot be seen, heard, or remembered clearly:
She muttered something indistinct.
?indistinctly adverb
?indistinctness noun [uncountable] , dim, feeble
fair : unbiased, just, impartial, disinterested
faith : confidence, trust, credit
faithful : true, reliable adjective
someone or something that is reliable can be trusted or depended on: She may forget -

- 79 -
she's not very reliable. | a reliable source of information
pposite unreliable

reliably adverb
reliability / / noun [uncountable] , trustworthy
false* : erroneous, wrong
fame : reputation, renown, eminence noun

1 [uncountable] the quality of being famous and important: a scientist of great

eminence

2 [countable] formal a hill or area of high ground

3 Eminence a title used when talking to or about a cardinal (=priest of high rank in the
Roman Catholic Church) : Their Eminences are discussing the matter., celebrity
familiar : intimate , close, friendly, amicable
famous : celebrated, well-known, eminent, distinguished,illustrious
fancy : imagination, fantasy
fascinate : charm, enchant, captivate, allure1 / noun [singular,
uncountable]
a mysterious, exciting, or desirable quality that is very attractive: Even in her fifties she
had lost none of her seductive allure. | the allure of foreign travel
fashion* : style, vogue, mode
1. make, produce, shape, frame, mold, create,
fabricate
2. fit, adjust, suit, adapt, accommodate verb

1 [transitive] to have or provide enough space for a particular number of people or

things: The hall can only accommodate 200 people. | building bigger and bigger
highways to accommodate more cars

2 [transitive] to give someone a place to stay, live, or work

3 [transitive] to accept someone's opinions and try to do what they want, especially
when their opinions or needs are different from yours: We've made every effort to
accommodate your point of view.

4 [intransitive + to, transitive] formal to get used to a new situation or make yourself
do this

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5 [transitive] formal to give someone more time to pay you money that they owe you
because they have financial problems, conform

fast : quick, swift, rapid, fleet

fasten : fix, attach,plump1 adjective

1 a word meaning pleasantly fat, often used when you want to avoid saying the word
fat: The nurse was a cheerful plump woman. | Dad's getting a bit plump - he needs to
go on a diet.

2 having a full, round shape: plump, soft pillows | plump juicy tomatoes
ompare chubby, portly

fatal : deadly, mortal, lethal

fate : doom1 verb [transitive usually passive]
to make someone or something certain to fail, die, be destroyed etc : doom sth to sth:
The species is doomed to extinction. | doom sb/sth to do sth: Marx's theory was that
capitalist economies are eventually doomed to collapse. | doomed to failure: The
marriage seems doomed to failure.
doomed adjective , lot, destiny
fault : blemish, flaw, shortcoming
favor : kindness, good-will
fear : apprehension noun

1 [countable, uncountable] anxiety about the future, especially the worry that you will
have to deal with something unpleasant or bad: a natural apprehension about being in
hospital

2 [uncountable] the act of apprehending someone; arrest2

3 [uncountable] old use understanding: our apprehension of the nature of God

, dread, terror, fright, horror, panic.
feasible adjective
a plan, idea, or method that is feasible is possible and is likely to work: Your plan is not
economically feasible.
feasibly adverb
feasibility noun [uncountable]: a feasibility study

- 81 -
* : possible, workable, practicable, viable
feast : celebration, anniversary, ceremony
feat noun [countable]
something that someone does that is impressive because it needs a lot of skill,
strength etc
[+ of]: a remarkable feat of engineering | perform/accomplish/achieve a feat: How did
they accomplish such an extraordinary feat? | sth is no mean feat (=is difficult to do):
Getting a degree is no mean feat!
: achievement, accomplishment, exploit
feeble : weak, delicate, fragile, frail // adjective

1 someone who is frail is thin and weak, especially because they are old: He was a man
of about sixty, frail and bent.

2 not strongly made or built and therefore easily damaged: It seemed impossible that
these frail boats could survive in such a storm.
compare fragile, unsubstantial
feed : nourish, sustain
fertile : productive, fecund adjective formal
able to produce many children, young animals, or crops; fertile
fecundity / / noun [uncountable], fruitful
fervent : ardent, earnest, heated, hot, burning, zealous,passionate

feud1 noun [countable]

an angry and often violent quarrel between two people or groups that lasts for a long
time
[+ over]: a bitter feud over territory : hostility
fidelity : loyalty, faithfulness, devotion
fierce : ferocious adjective

1 violent, dangerous, and frightening: The battle was long and ferocious. | ferocious
dogs

2 very strong, severe, and unpleasant: a ferocious headache | The heat was ferocious.
ferociously adverb
ferociousness noun [uncountable], wild, savage, cruel, brutal
fiery adjective

1 containing or looking like fire: a fiery sunset

- 82 -
2 bright red: a fiery blush

3 becoming angry very quickly: He has a very fiery temper.

4 showing or encouraging anger: a fiery speech

5 fiery foods taste very strong and hot : fervent, burning, afire
fight : conflict, battle, war, combat
final : ultimate, conclusive
financial : monetary, pecuniary
fine* : 1. delicate, elegant, exquisite adjective

1 extremely beautiful and very delicately made: exquisite craftsmanship

2 very sensitive and delicate in the way you behave or do things: Darling, you have
exquisite taste.

3 literary exquisite pain or pleasure is felt very strongly

exquisitely adverb
exquisiteness noun [uncountable]
2. subtle, refined
finish : end, terminate, conclude
firm : stable, steadfast, determined, reliable
fix : fasten, attach
flame : blaze, fire
flash : flame, flare, glare
flat : horizontal, level, even, plane
flexible* : plastic, adaptable, adjustable, pliable adjective

1 easy to bend without breaking or cracking: The clay should be moistened regularly to
keep it soft and pliable.

2 able and willing to change and accept new ideas and ways of doing things; adaptable:
The committee would benefit from having members who are more pliable.

3 too easily influenced by other people

pliability noun [uncountable]

- 83 -
flock : bevy noun [countable]
a large group of people of the same kind, especially girls or young women
[+ of]: Tom swaggered in surrounded by a bevy of beauties.
, brood, school, swarm, herd, company
flood : deluge, overflow
flourish* : thrive, prosper, succeed
flow : stream, run
fluent : flowing
foe : enemy, opponent, adversary, antagonist
fog : mist, haze
follow : succeed, ensue
food : provisions
foolish : silly, fatuous /adjective
very silly or stupid: fatuous comments
fatuously adverb
fatuousness noun [uncountable] , stupid, dull
forbid : inhibit, prohibit
force : strength, power, might, energy
forecast : predict, foretell, foresee
foresight : forethought
formidable : dreadful, threatening, fearful, frightful
foster : rear, breed, nourish, raise, promote
foul : filthy1 / adjective filthier, filthiest

1 extremely dirty: Simon never cleans his house - it's absolutely filthy!

2 showing or describing sexual acts in a very rude or offensive way: Mitch was just
telling us a filthy joke when Kia walked in.
?filthily adverb
?filthiness noun [uncountable] , dirty, stained, polluted
foundation : base, basis, ground
fragrant : perfumed
frame : make, produce, construct, assemble, shape, mold,
frank : candid, outspoken
fraud / / noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a method of illegally getting money from someone, often

by using clever and complicated methods: financial losses due to theft or fraud |
tax/share/bankruptcy etc fraud (=fraud in a particular financial area)

- 84 -
2 [countable] someone who deceives people to gain money, friendship etc: She
realized later that the insurance salesman had been a fraud.
: deceit, deception
free : liberate, release, emancipate verb [transitive]
formal to make someone free from social, political, or legal restrictions that limit what
they can do: Learning will emancipate the oppressed and engender social change.
emancipation noun [uncountable]: the emancipation of slaves

freight : cargo, shipment, load

fright : dismay, terror, panic
frighten: scare, terrify, alarm, dismay
frightful : alarming, awful, horrible, gruesome adjective
very unpleasant and shocking, and usually connected with death or injury; grisly: Spare
me all the gruesome details.
gruesomely adverb

frugal : economical, thrifty

fruitless : futile adjective
actions that are futile are useless because they have no chance of being successful: a
futile attempt to save the paintings from the flames | be futile to do sth: It was futile to
continue the negotiations.
futility / / noun [uncountable] sterile, unproductive
frustrate : disappoint, thwart
fume : smoke
fun : pleasure, amusement
fundamental* : basic, underlying, essential, primary
funny : amusing, diverting
furnish : provide, supply
fury : rage, anger, wrath
fuse : melt, dissolve
futile : ineffective, useless, vain

***** (G) *****

- 85 -
gaiety : mirth, glee, cheerfulness, joviality
gain : obtain, secure, procure, acquire, attain, earn, win
gallant : brave, valorous, valiant, intrepid / adjective especially literary
willing to do dangerous things or go to dangerous places: intrepid explorers
, daring
gang : band, clique
gasp : pant / verb

1 [intransitive] to breathe quickly with short noisy breaths because you have been
running, climbing etc or because it is very hot: He was panting after his exertions. | The
dog lay panting on the doorstep.

2 [transitive] to say something while panting: "I can't run any farther," she panted.

pant for sth phrasal verb [transitive]

to want something very much: He was panting for a chance to speak.
pant noun [countable]

gather : collect, aggregate, assemble, muster1 / verb

1 muster (up) courage/support/energy etc to try to find as much courage, support etc
as you can in order to do something difficult: Finally I mustered up the courage to ask
her out. | Senator Newbolt has been trying to muster support for his proposals.

2 [intransitive, transitive] to gather a group of people, especially soldiers, together in

one place, or to come together as a group: In April 1185 he began to muster an army.

gathering : assembly, convocation noun formal

1
a) [countable] an organization of church officials or members of some
universities that holds formal meetings

b) [countable] formal meetings held in this way: He first gave the speech at a
German university convocation in March.

2 [uncountable] the process of arranging for a large meeting to be held

3 [countable] AmE the ceremony held when students have passed their examinations

- 86 -
and are leaving university, congregation
gay : joyous, gleeful, jovial, jolly, merry, cheerful
gaze : stare
generosity : charity, bountifulness
generous : bountiful, unselfish, charitable
genial / / adjective
having a cheerful and friendly character or manner
genially adverb [uncountable]
geniality / noun [countable]
: sympathetic, cordial1 /noun [countable, uncountable]

1 BrE sweet fruit juice that you add water to before you drink it: a lime cordial

2 AmE old-fashioned a strong sweet alcoholic drink; liqueur: We were offered an after-
dinner cordial., friendly, kindly
gentle : clement / / adjective formal

1 willing not to punish someone too severely

2 clement weather is neither too hot nor too cold; mild1 (3)
뾬pposite inclement

clemency noun [uncountable]

clemently adverb , humane, lenient / / adjective
not strict in the way you punish someone or control their behaviour: Judges have been
accused of being far too lenient in rape cases. | a very lenient sentence
leniently adverb
leniency also lenience noun [uncountable] , merciful, meek, amiable
ghost : phantom, spirit
gift : donation, present, contribution, offering, alms / / noun [plural]
old-fashioned money, food, clothes etc that are given to poor people

gigantic : huge, enormous, tremendous, colossal, mammoth,

monstrous, immense, prodigious, titanic, vast
give : deliver, bestow, impart, accord, furnish, provide,
supply, confer, grant, assign
glad : delighted, pleased, elated / adjective
extremely happy and excited, especially because you have been successful: Elated by
our victory, we sang all the way home.

- 87 -
glance : glimpse
gleam1 / verb [intransitive]

1 to shine softly: The spire of the Golden Temple gleamed in the autumn sun.
[+ with]: the table's surface gleaming with wax polish

2 gleam with happiness/joy etc if your eyes or face gleam with a feeling, they show it:
His face gleamed with amusement.
gleaming adjective : gleaming glass skyscrapers,flash, beam, glimmer
glee : exultation, merriment, hilarity
glide : slide, slip
gloomy : obscure, shadowy, dusky, dismal, depressed,
dejected, dim, melancholy1 / / adjective
sad or making you feel sad: a melancholy expression | the seagulls' melancholy cry,
despondent, downcast
glory : praise, honor, distinction, renown, eminence,celebrity, fame
godly : pious, saintly, devout, holy
good-will : benevolence, favor, kindness
govern : rule, reign
grace : gracefulness, elegance, refinement
gracious /adjective

1 behaving in a polite, kind, and generous way, especially to people of a lower class:
Thank you for your gracious hospitality.

2 having the kind of expensive style, comfort, and beauty that only rich people can
afford: gracious colonial houses | the gracious ease of the hotel foyer | gracious living
(=an easy way of life enjoyed by rich people)

3 a word meaning kind and forgiving, used to describe God

graciously adverb
graciousness noun [uncountable] : benign, courteous, polite
grand1 adjective

1 a grand building, occasion etc is very impressive: We attended a grand ceremony at

the Palace. | on a grand scale: Preparations for the wedding are taking place on a
grand scale.

- 88 -
2 a grand plan or idea aims to achieve something very impressive: As a young minister
he was full of grand ideas for social reform.

3 people who are grand are rich and important but often too proud: A very grand-
looking gentleman entered the room.

4 informal or dialect very good, pleasant, or enjoyable: We had a grand day out at the
seaside. | Wasn't it grand to see Ted again?

5 grand total the final total you get when you add up several numbers or amounts

6 the Grand Old Man of a man who has been involved in an activity or a profession for
a long time and is highly respected: the Grand Old Man of British theatre
grandly adverb
grandness noun [uncountable]
: impose/ verb

1 impose a ban/tax/fine etc (on) to officially order that something should be forbidden,
restricted, taxed etc, or that someone should be punished: The government imposed a
ban on the sale of ivory. | We have decided to impose sanctions on countries that
break the agreement.

2 impose a burden/strain etc (on/upon) to have a bad effect on something or someone

by causing them problems: The President's health care proposals would not impose
any great burden on the state's finances.

3 [transitive] to force someone to have the same ideas or beliefs as you : impose sth on
sb: parents who impose their own moral values on their children

4 [intransitive] to unreasonably expect or ask someone to do something for you when

this is inconvenient for them
[+ on/upon]: We could ask them to let us stay the night, but I don't want to impose on
them., majestic, dignified
grant : bestow, confer, award
grasp : seize, hold, clasp1 noun

1 [countable] a small metal object for fastening a bag, belt, piece of jewellery etc

2 [singular] a tight hold; grip1 (1): the firm, reassuring clasp of her hand

- 89 -
, grip, clutch, grab, catch
grateful: appreciative, thankful, obliged
gratify : satisfy
grave : momentous, important, serious, consequential
great : immense, enormous, huge, gigantic, vast, grand
greed : avid / adjective
avid reader/listener/fan etc someone who does something, listens to something etc as
much as they can: an avid collector of old jazz records
, avarice, covetousness
greedy : avaricious, desirous, covetous
greet : accost / verb [transitive]
to go towards someone you do not know and speak to them in an unpleasant or
threatening way: On the station she was accosted by a man asking for money., salute
grief : sorrow, woe, sadness
grieve : lament, mourn, sorrow, bewail / / verb [transitive]
literary to express deep sadness or disappointment about something

grind1 /graInd/ verb past tense and past participle ground /graUnd/

1 INTO SMALL PIECES [transitive]

a) also grind up [transitive] to break something such as corn or coffee beans
into small pieces or powder, either in a machine or between two hard surfaces

b) AmE to cut food, especially raw meat, into very small pieces by putting it
through a machine: mince1 (1) BrE

2 SMOOTH/SHARP [transitive] to make something smooth or sharp by rubbing it on a

hard surface or by using a machine: a stone for grinding knives and scissors | The
lenses are ground to a high standard of precision.

3 PRESS STH DOWN [transitive always + adv/prep] to press something down into a
surface and rub it with a strong twisting movement : grind sth into/in: He dropped a
cigar butt and ground it into the carpet with his heel.

4 grind your teeth to rub your upper and lower teeth together making a noise

5 grind to a halt
a) if a vehicle grinds to a halt, it stops gradually: Traffic ground to a halt as it
approached the accident site.

- 90 -
 b) if a country, organization, or process grinds to a halt, it gradually stops
working: As more and more workers joined the strike, Britain's economy was grinding
to a halt.

6 grind the faces of the poor to make poor people work very hard and give them
almost nothing in return
also have an axe to grind axe1 (4)

grind sb down phrasal verb [transitive]

to treat someone in a cruel way for such a long time that they lose all courage and
hope; oppress: Years of dictatorship had ground the people down.

grind on phrasal verb [intransitive]

to continue for an unpleasantly long time: Winter grinds on until March.

grind sth out phrasal verb [transitive]

to produce information, writing, music etc in such large amounts that it becomes
boring: Frank just keeps grinding out detective stories.
: grate1 noun [countable]
the metal bars and frame that hold the wood, coal etc in a fireplace, rub
gross : 1. bulky, massive, great
grudge1 / / noun [countable]

1 a feeling of anger or dislike you have for someone because you cannot forget that
they harmed you
[+ against]: He's had a grudge against Bob ever since he was promoted. | bear (sb) a
grudge (=continue to have a grudge)

2 grudge fight/match a fight or competition in sport between two people who dislike
each other a lot
: malice /noun [uncountable]

1 the desire or intention to deliberately harm someone: There was no need for Jane to
tell them - she did it out of sheer malice. | bear sb no malice (=not want to harm
someone although they have behaved badly to you)

2 with malice aforethought law a criminal act that is done with malice aforethought is
done in a carefully planned and deliberate way

- 91 -
, spite, malevolence
guarantee : insure, warrant
guard : protect, shield, defend, shelter
guess : conjecture1 / noun formal

1 [uncountable] the act of thinking of reasons, explanations etc without having very
much information to base them on: She didn't know the facts, so what she said was
pure conjecture. | conjecture about their role in the affair

2 [countable] an idea or opinion formed by guessing: My results show that this

conjecture was, in fact, correct.
conjectural adjective , suppose, fancy
guide : lead, conduct, show, escort
guilty : criminal, culpable
guiltless : innocent, blameless, immaculate / adjective

1 very clean and tidy: Richard looked immaculate in a white silk dinner jacket.

2 exactly correct or perfect in every detail: Your timing is immaculate!

immaculately adverb

gush1 verb

1 [intransitive always + adv/prep] if a liquid gushes from something, such as a hole or

cut, it comes out in large quantities
[+ out/from/down etc]: The blood began to gush out, red and frightening. | oil gushing
from the broken pipe

2 [transitive] if something gushes a liquid, large quantities of that liquid come out of it:
The wound gushed blood.

3 [intransitive, transitive] to express your admiration, pleasure etc too strongly so that
people do not think you are sincere: 밒 simply loved your book, ?she gushed.

4 [intransitive] if words or emotions gush out, you suddenly express them very
strongly: All that pent up frustration gushed out in a torrent of abuse.
: spurt1 / / verb

1 [intransitive] if liquid or flames spurt from something they pour out of it quickly and

- 92 -
suddenly
[+ from/out of]: Water began spurting from a hole in the pipe.

2 [transitive] to send out liquid or flames

3 [intransitive always + adv/prep] to move somewhere very quickly

[+ towards/across]: He spurted towards the finishing line., spout1 / / noun [countable]

1 a small tube or pipe on a container that you pour liquid out through

2 a spout of water/blood etc a sudden strong stream of liquid which comes out of
somewhere very fast: The whale blew a spout of water into the air.
also waterspout

3 up the spout BrE informal

a) if someone's plans have gone up the spout, they cannot succeed: Her
chances of studying medicine have gone up the spout.

b) completely wrong: His calculations are completely up the spout.

c) old-fashioned going to have a baby; pregnant

***** (H) *****

habitual* : usual, regular, customary, accustomed

habituate : accustom, familiarize
halt : stop, cease
hamper: impede, hinder, prevent, obstruct, restrain,
hang : suspend, dangle
happen : occur, befall verb past tense befell
past participle befallen [transitive] formal
if something unpleasant or dangerous befalls you it happens to you: We prayed that
no harm should befall them.

- 93 -
harbor : accommodate, board, room
shelter, protection, cover, haven, sanctuary, refuge, sylum
hard : solid, inflexible, unyielding
hardship : trial WORRY/ANNOY be a trial (to) to be very worrying or
annoying to someone: My brothers and I were always a real trial to my parents.,
oppression, suffering
hardy : vigorous, sturdy, robust, stout
harm : injury, damage, hurt, mischief, detriment noun [uncountable] formal
the state of being harmed or damaged by something : to the detriment of (=resulting
in harm or damage to something): He worked longer and longer hours, to the
detriment of his marriage.

harmony : agreement, concord, unity

harsh : rough, severe, austere / adjective

1 plain and simple and without any decoration: the austere grandeur of the old church

2 someone who is austere is very strict and looks very serious

3 an austere way of life is very simple and has few things to make it comfortable or
enjoyable
austerely adverb

hasten : hurry, accelerate, urge, expedite, quicken

hate : detest, abhor, loathe
hateful : detestable, abominable, loathsome, offensive
hatred : aversion / noun [singular, uncountable]
a strong dislike of something or someone
[+ to]: Despite his aversion to publicity, Arnold was persuaded to talk to the press. |
have an aversion to: I have an aversion to housework.
, hate, detestation
haughty : proud, arrogant
hazard : danger, peril, jeopardy
heal : cure, remedy, amend
heap : mass, stack, pile, accumulation
heavy : weighty, demanding, burdensome
helpful : useful, advantageous, profitable
heritage : inheritance

- 94 -
heroic : brave, courageous, dauntless, gallant
hide : conceal, screen, veil, shroud, cover
hinder : interrupt, check, impede, hamper, obstruct
hint : suggestion, implication, allusion / noun [countable, uncountable]
something that is said or written that brings attention to a particular subject in a way
that is not direct
[+ to]: Eliot's poetry is full of allusions to other works of literature.
allusive / adjective
allusively adverb

hoarse : husky
hoist : raise, elevate, lift
hole : opening, cavity, hollow, pit
homely : plain, simple, unattractive, ugly
honesty : uprightness, justice
honor : fame, repute, reputation
hopeless : desperate adjective

1 willing to do anything and not caring about danger, because you are in a very bad
situation: We had no food left at all and were getting desperate. | an appeal from the
teenager's desperate parents

2 [not before noun] needing or wanting something very much

[+ for]: By then I was desperate for a holiday. | desperate to do sth: Ben was desperate
to get a job. | in desperate need: We're in desperate need of help.

3 a desperate situation is very bad or serious: There was a desperate shortage of

doctors.

4 a desperate action is something that you only do because you are in a very bad
situation : desperate attempt/effort/measures: The victim had made a desperate
attempt to escape.
, despairing, despondent adjective
unhappy and not hopeful: Gill had been out of work for a year and was getting very
despondent.
despondency noun [uncountable]
despondently adverb : He was staring despondently into the distance.

- 95 -
horrible: terrible, dreadful, hideous adjective
extremely unpleasant or ugly: a hideous dress
hideously adverb
hideousness noun [uncountable]
, grim, ghastly adjective

1 a ghastly situation, person, experience etc is one that you do not like or enjoy at all:
What ghastly weather! | I hope they don't bring their ghastly children with them. | It
was absolutely ghastly.

2 making you very frightened, upset or shocked: a ghastly accident

3 look/feel ghastly to look or feel ill, upset, or unhappy: Are you alright? You look
ghastly!
ghastliness noun [uncountable]

hostile : antagonistic
horror : fear, dread, panic
hostility : enmity, antagonism
huge : mammoth, vast, gigantic, colossal, immense
humane : merciful, benevolent, compassionate, charitable
humble : unassuming, meek / adjective
very quiet and gentle and unwilling to argue or express an opinion: a meek and
obedient child | meek and mild (=extremely quiet and gentle): She'd never stand up
for herself, she's too meek and mild.
meekly adverb : She smiled meekly.
meekness noun [uncountable] , modest, unpretending
humid : damp, moist
humiliate : degrade, disgrace, shame
humility : meekness, humbleness, modesty
humorous : funny, comical
hunt : seek, scour / / verb [transitive]

1 to search very carefully and thoroughly through an area, a document, etc: A team of
detectives is scouring the countryside.

2 also scour out to clean something very thoroughly by rubbing it with a rough
material: The pans really needed to be scoured.

- 96 -
3 also scour out to form a hole by continuous movement over a long period: Over the
years, the stream had scoured out a round pool in the rock.
scour noun [singular]

hurt : injure, damage, mar, impair

hypocrite : pretender

***** (I) *****

ideal* : 1. perfect, model, exemplary

2. abstract, theoretical, hypothetical
idiotic : foolish, stupid, fatuous / / adjective
very silly or stupid: fatuous comments
fatuously adverb
fatuousness noun [uncountable]

idle : indolent adjective formal lazy

indolently adverb
indolence noun [uncountable]: a life of luxury and indolence
, lazy, slothful adjective formal
lazy or not active
slothfully adverb
slothfulness noun [uncountable]

ignoble : mean, base, degraded

ignorant adjective

1 not knowing facts or information that you ought to know: an ignorant and
uneducated man
[+ of]: They were ignorant of any events outside their own town.
[+ about]: I'm very ignorant about politics.ignore

2 caused by a lack of knowledge and understanding: What an ignorant thing to say! |

ignorant opinions

- 97 -
3 BrE spoken rude or impolite : illiterate, uneducated
ignore : overlook, disregard, neglect
illegal : unlawful, illegitimate, illicit
illustration : explanation
imaginary : fanciful, visionary
imitate : mimic, mock, reproduce, copy, duplicate, replicate
immerse : submerge, dip, submerse
imminent / / adjective
an event that is imminent will happen very soon: A declaration of war now seemed
imminent. | The company is now in imminent danger of collapse.
immanent
imminence noun [uncountable]
imminently adverb : impending
immoderate adjective formal
not within reasonable and sensible limits; excessive: immoderate wage demands |
immoderate drinking
immoderately adverb : excessive, extreme, exorbitant
immoral : vicious, corrupt, amoral adjective
having no moral standards at all: a completely amoral person
amorality noun [uncountable]

impair : injure, deteriorate

impart : give, bestow, grant, confer
impartial : unbiased, just, fair, disinterested
impel : compel, drive, urge
implore: supplicate, beseech, entreat, crave verb [transitive]

1 to have an extremely strong desire for something, especially a drug: She's an

insecure child who craves attention.

2 formal to ask seriously for something: May I crave your pardon?, beg, solicit
impolite : uncivil, rude, discourteous
importance : consequence, moment, significance
impregnable : unassailable, invincible
improper : unfit, inappropriate
improve : ameliorate verb [transitive]
formal to make something better: measures to ameliorate working conditions
amelioration / noun [uncountable] , better
improvident / adjective formal

- 98 -
too careless to save any money or to plan for the future: the generous but improvident
welfare provision of the 1960s
improvidence noun [uncountable]
improvidently adverb :
unwary, thoughtless, careless,imprudent / adjective formal
not sensible or wise: It would be rather imprudent to invest in an arms company
at the moment.
imprudently adverb
imprudence noun [countable, uncountable]

improvised : impromptu adjective

done or said without any preparation or planning: an impromptu party
impromptu adverb : He insists he was speaking impromptu.

impudent : brazen / adjective

1 behaving in an immoral way without being embarrassed or ashamed : a brazen hussy

(=a woman who behaves this way, especially sexually)

2 brazen lie/attitude a lie or bad attitude that is shocking because the person
responsible is not ashamed of it

3 literary having a shiny yellow colour

brazen sth out phrasal verb [transitive]

to deal with a situation that is difficult or embarrassing for you by appearing to be
confident rather than ashamed, insolent adjective
rude and not showing any respect: an insolent tone of voice | You insolent child!
insolently adverb
insolence noun [uncountable] , rude
impulsive : emotional
impunity noun
do sth with impunity if you do something wrong or immoral with impunity, there is no
risk that you will be punished for it: Men used to be able to violently abuse their wives
with almost total impunity.
: exemption
impute verb

- 99 -
impute sth to sb/sth phrasal verb [transitive] formal
to say, often unfairly, that someone or something is responsible for something that has
happened: The police were not guilty of the violence imputed to them.
imputable adjective
imputation noun [countable, uncountable] : attribute, ascribe, refer
inaccurate : incorrect, erroneous adjective formal
erroneous ideas, statements etc are wrong because they are based on information
that is not correct
erroneously adverb

inactive: inert, lazy, passive, inanimate

inadvertently adverb
without realizing what you are doing: I inadvertently stepped on his toe.
inadvertent adjective : the inadvertent disclosure of sensitive information
inadvertence noun [countable, uncountable]
: heedless, careless, negligent
inanimate : lifeless
inapt / adjective formal
an inapt phrase, statement etc is not right for a particular situation: a very inapt
comment
inept
inaptly adverb
inaptness noun [uncountable]
: unsuited, unsuitable, inappropriate, unfit
inborn : innate, native, natural, congenital adjective

1 a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were
born: congenital abnormalities | congenital defect

2 existing as a part of your character and unlikely to change: his congenital inability to
make decisions | a congenital liar
congenitally adverb

incarcerate verb [transitive usually passive] formal

to keep someone in a place, especially a prison
incarceration noun [uncountable] : imprison, confine
incense1 noun [uncountable]
a substance which has a pleasant smell when you burn it, and which is used in religious
ceremonies : scent, fragrance

- 100 -
incentive : motive, stimulus, spur, impulse, goad,
prod1 / verb prodded, prodding [intransitive, transitive]

1 to push or press something with your finger or a pointed object; poke1 (1): She
prodded me sharply in the ribs.
[+ at]: Theo prodded at the dead snake.

2 to strongly encourage someone to do something: She's not lazy, but she needs
prodding. | prod sb into (doing) sth: We just need something to prod them into action.

incessant adjective
an incessant activity, noise etc continues without stopping, in an annoying way: The
child's incessant talking started to irritate her.
incessantly adverb
: uninterrupted, unceasing, ceaseless, constant, continuous
incidental : accidental, casual, contingent1 / adjective formal
dependent on something that is uncertain or that will happen in the future
[+ on/upon]: Further investment would be contingent upon the company's profit
performance.
contingently adverb

incisive : penetrating, biting, acute, acid

incite / / verb [transitive]
to deliberately encourage people to cause trouble, fight, argue etc : incite sb to do sth:
He was charged with inciting the students to riot. | incite sb to sth: inflammatory
articles that incited people to violence and hatred
incitement noun [uncountable]
: stimulate, spur, instigate, provoke
inclination noun

1 DESIRE [countable, uncountable] a feeling that makes you want to do something:

You always follow your own inclinations instead of considering other people's feelings.
| inclination to do sth: I have not the slightest inclination to take unnecessary risks.

2 TENDENCY [countable, uncountable] tendency to think or behave in a particular

way : inclination to do sth: an inclination to see everything in political terms

3 inclination of the head the movement of bending your neck so that your head is
lowered: With a slight inclination of the head she showed her approval.

- 101 -
4 SLOPE [countable, uncountable] formal a slope or the angle at which something
slopes : tendency, trend,
include : contain, comprise verb [not in progressive] formal

1 [linking verb] to consist of particular parts, groups etc: The house comprises 2
bedrooms, a kitchen, and a living room. | be comprised of: The city's population is
largely comprised of Asians and Europeans.

2 [transitive] if different people or things comprise something they combine together

to form it: Women comprise a high proportion of part-time workers.
see also constitute

USAGE NOTE : COMPRISE

WORD CHOICE: make up, consist of, compose, comprise, include, constitute Things
consist of or are made up of a series of parts, or more formally are composed
of/comprise all their parts: New York City comprises Manhattan, Queens, Brooklyn,
The Bronx and Staten Island .| a street composed mainly of detached houses (NOT
composed by/from )| a family made up of six people | Dinner consisted of a starter, a
main course and a dessert (NOT consisted in/on or was consisted of ). You will
sometimes hear native speakers using comprise with of, but some people think this is
incorrect: The company comprises of/is comprised of five divisions. If you only mention
some of the parts, you use include: New York City includes Brooklyn and Queens. .All
the parts of something together make up or more formally) constitute or (less
frequently comprise the whole: Manhattan, Queens, Brooklyn, The Bronx and Staten
Island constitute/comprise New York City .| How many people make up a basket ball
team? GRAMMAR These words are not used in progressive tenses in these
meanings.

income : returns, revenue, gain, earnings

incommode verb [transitive] formal
to make a situation difficult for someone, impede verb [transitive]
to prevent something from happening in the normal way, or make it happen more
slowly: Storms at sea impeded our progress. hinder

incompatible : 1. inconsistent, contradictory, inharmonious

2. unable, incapable, incompetent
inconsistent : incompatible, inharmonious, incongruous adjective
something that is incongruous seems strange and unsuitable because it is so

- 102 -
unexpected in a particular situation and so different from everything around it: The
modern building looked incongruous in such a quaint old village.
incongruously adverb
incongruousness noun [uncountable] ,incoherent

inconstant : fickle adjective

1 someone who is fickle is always changing their mind about people or things that they
like, so that you cannot depend on them: an unpredictable and fickle lover

2 something such as weather that is fickle often changes suddenly

?fickleness noun [uncountable]: the fickleness of fame
, variable, volatile adjective

1 a volatile situation is likely to change suddenly and without much warning: a volatile
economic environment

2 someone who is volatile can suddenly become angry or violent

3 a volatile liquid or substance changes easily into a gas

volatility noun [uncountable] , unstable
incontrovertible adjective
a fact that is incontrovertible is definitely true and no one can prove it to be false;
indisputable: The photograph provides incontrovertible evidence that Martin was at
the scene of the crime.
incontrovertibly adverb
incontrovertability noun [uncountable] : indisputable
incorporate* : v. combine, integrate, include
increase : augment verb [transitive]
formal to increase the value, amount, effectiveness etc of something: new taxes
intended to augment government income, enlarge
incredulous : sceptical BrE, skeptical AmE adjective
tending to doubt or not believe what other people tell you
[+ about]: Many scientists remain skeptical about the value of this research program.
sceptically adverb , doubtful, dubious
indecent : vulgar adjective

1 remarks, jokes etc that are vulgar deal with sex in a very rude and offensive way

- 103 -
2 impolite and showing bad manners: vulgar habits

3 especially BrE not showing good judgment about what is beautiful or suitable: a
vulgar display of wealth
vulgarly adverb , coarse, rude, immodest
indefinite : vague, obscure, confusing, uncertain
indifference : unconcern, apathy noun [uncountable]
the feeling of not being interested or not caring, either about a particular thing or
about life: apathy among the public, inattention
indignation : resentment / noun [uncountable]
a feeling of anger because something has happened that you think is unfair
, wrath, anger
indignity : humiliation, insult, scorn
indispensable : necessary, requisite, essential
induce*: persuade, instigate, urge
industrious : diligent, assiduous adjective formal
very careful to make sure that something is done properly or completely: an assiduous
collector of folk songs
assiduously adverb
assiduity noun [uncountable]

inept / adjective
having no skill: an inept driver | Blake was intellectually able but politically inept. | He
made some inept sexist comment.
ineptly adverb
ineptitude, ineptness noun [uncountable] inapt
: inapt, unsuitable, inappropriate
infamous : notorious / adjective
famous or well-known for something bad: a notorious bandit
[+ for]: The region is notorious for its terrible snowstorms.
notoriously adverb : a notoriously inefficient company
famous, disgraceful
infectious adjective

1 an infectious illness can be passed from one person to another, especially through
the air you breathe : highly infectious: There seems to be a highly infectious type of flu
going around.

- 104 -
2 someone who is infectious has an illness and could pass it to other people

3 infectious feelings or laughter spread quickly from one person to another: Her giggles
were infectious and soon we were all laughing.
infectiously adverb
infectiousness noun [uncountable] : contagious, communicable
inflate : swell, expand
inflexible : rigid, unbending, stern1 adjective

1 strict in a very serious and often unpleasant way: a stern teacher | groups calling for
sterner penalties for drug offences

2 stern look/expression/rebuke something that someone says or does that expresses

disapproval
sternly adverb
sternness noun [uncountable] , resolute adjective
doing something in a very determined way because you have very strong beliefs, aims
etc
irresolute
resolutely adverb : She resolutely resisted his amorous advances.
resoluteness noun , steadfast
inform : notify, acquaint
information : intelligence
ingenious : skillful, adroit, resourceful, inventive
ingenuous adjective
inexperienced, simple, trusting, and honest
ingenuously adverb
ingenuousness noun [uncountable]
disingenuous : frank, candid, open, naive
inherent* : natural, intrinsic adjective
being part of the nature or character of someone or something: The job is of little
intrinsic interest. | intrinsic goodness
[+ to]: problems that are intrinsic to the situation
intrinsically / 즟li/ adverb , built-in, innate, congenital adjective

1 a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were
born: congenital abnormalities | congenital defect

2 existing as a part of your character and unlikely to change: his congenital inability to

- 105 -
make decisions | a congenital liar
congenitally adverb , inborn
inhibit : restrain, prohibit, forbid
initial* : first, introductory, beginning, inception noun [singular] formal
the start of an organization or institution: a history of the Labour Party from its
inception to the present day

initiate : begin, originate, commence, inaugurate

injury : harm, damage, detriment noun [uncountable] formal
the state of being harmed or damaged by something : to the detriment of (=resulting
in harm or damage to something): He worked longer and longer hours, to the
detriment of his marriage., impairment
innocent : pure, blameless, faultless, impeccable adjective
completely perfect and without any mistakes: Eliza had impeccable manners. | an
impeccable performance
impeccably adverb : impeccably dressed, immaculate
innumerable : countless, numberless, numerous
inquire : ask, query1 noun [countable]
a question you ask to get information, or to check that something is true or correct:
We will answer any queries by letter.

inquiry , enquiry noun

1 [countable] a question you ask in order to get information

[+ about]: We're getting a lot of inquiries from travel companies about our new
London-Rio service. | make inquiries: I don't know who sent the gift, but I'll make
discreet inquiries. | be helping the police with their inquiries BrE (=be answering
questions about a crime)

2 [uncountable] the act of asking questions in order to get information: On further

inquiry, it emerged that Malcolm had not been involved in the campaign. | line of
inquiry (=method of inquiry): No definite information yet - but we're following up a
most promising line of inquiry.

3 enquiries the name of a service or office from which you can get information

4 [countable] an official process, in the form of a series of meetings, intended to find

out why something happened
[+ into]: Local residents are calling for a public inquiry into the accident. |

- 106 -
hold/conduct an inquiry: complaints that the inquiry is being conducted behind closed
doors

5 scientific inquiry a process of trying to discover facts by scientific methods

: investigation, scrutiny noun [uncountable]
careful and thorough examination of someone or something : careful/close scrutiny:
Close scrutiny of the document showed it to be a forgery. | under scrutiny: Diana
resented her private life being under such public scrutiny., research
inquisitive : inquiring, curious
insane : lunatic, crazy
insecure : unsafe, uncertain
insolent adjective
rude and not showing any respect: an insolent tone of voice | You insolent child!
insolently adverb
insolence noun [uncountable]
: rude, overbearing, contemptuous, arrogant
instantly : immediately, instantaneously
instrument : tool, implement
insult : scorn, slander1 noun

1 [countable] a false spoken statement about someone that is intended to damage the
good opinion that people have

2 [uncountable] the legal offence of making a statement of this kind: The doctor was
awarded record damages against her partners for slander.
libel1
slanderer noun [countable] , abuse
intact : uninjured, sound, unimpaired
integrity noun [uncountable]

1 the quality of being honest and of always having high moral principles: a man of
absolute integrity, with the highest moral standards

2 formal the state of being united as one complete thing: Removing the chapter
destroys the integrity of the book.
: uprightness, honesty, righteousness
intensify : deepen, strengthen
intent1 noun [uncountable]

- 107 -
1 to all intents (and purposes) especially spoken almost completely: To all intents and
purposes, their marriage is over.

2 formal what you intend to do; intention: She behaved foolishly but with good intent.

3 law the intention to do something illegal: arrested for loitering with intent | intent to
do sth: Jefferson was charged with intent to damage property. : intention,
design
intentional : deliberate, purposeful, designed, planned
interfere* : intervene, intrude
interpret : explain, explicate, elucidate verb [intransitive, transitive]
formal to explain something that is difficult to understand very clearly, by providing
more information: His theory is further elucidated in a series of articles published
between 1976 and 1980.
elucidation noun [countable, uncountable]
elucidatory adverb

interrupt : suspend, intermit, stop, hinder

intimate : close, familiar
intolerable : unbearable
intolerant : bigoted adjective
having such strong opinions about race, religion, or politics that you are unwilling to
listen to anyone else's opinions: The new sergeant was a bigot, and viewed all black
men with suspicion. | The decision not to allow disabled athletes to take part was seen
as petty and bigoted., narrow, prejudiced, biased
intricate* : complex, elaborate1 adjective
containing a lot of small details or parts that are connected with each other in a
complicated way: an elaborate mosaic consisting of thousands of tiny pieces |
elaborate plan/notes/excuses etc (=carefully produced and full of details)
elaborately adverb : an elaborately carved wooden statue
elaborateness noun [uncountable] , complicated
intrude verb

1 [intransitive] to interrupt someone or become involved in their private affairs in an

annoying and unwanted way, especially with the result that you upset or offend them:
Would I be intruding if I came with you?
[+ into/on/upon]: It would be very insensitive to intrude on their private grief.
: trespass1 verb [intransitive + on]

- 108 -
1 to go onto someone's private land without their permission

2 old use to do something wrong; sin1

?trespasser noun [countable]

trespass on sth phrasal verb [transitive]

to unfairly use more than you should of someone else's time, help etc, for your own
advantage: It would be trespassing on their hospitality to accept any more from them.,
encroach, violate
intuition : insight
invaluable : priceless, precious
invariable : constant, uniform, unchangeable
involve : include, embrace, contain, comprise, entail verb [transitive]

1 to make it necessary to do something: Changing the computer system would entail

substantial periods of re-training. | entail doing sth: My job entailed being on call 24
hours a day.

2 old use to arrange for your property to become the property of a particular person,
especially your son, after your death

irritate : vex, fret1 verb fretted, fretting

1 [intransitive, transitive] especially spoken to feel worried about small or unimportant

things, or to make someone feel like this: Don't you fret - everything will be all right.
[+ about/over]: Nicki was always fretting over something or other.

2 [transitive] to make something gradually smaller and weaker by rubbing it over a

long period of time
, anger, enrage, infuriate / verb [transitive]
to make someone extremely angry: It infuriates me to think of all the money we've
wasted.

isolation : separation, segregation noun [uncountable]

the practice of keeping people of different races or religions apart and making them
live, work, or study separately: The US Supreme Court ruled in 1954 that segregation in
schools was unconstitutional.
integration

- 109 -
issue : point, problem, question

***** (J & K) *****

jam : pack, force, squeeze

jealous : envious
jeer verb [intransitive, transitive]
to laugh unkindly at someone to show that you strongly disapprove of them
[+ at]: of course they jeered at you - you lost the game, right?
jeer noun [countable]: hurtful jeers
: scoff verb

1 [intransitive] to laugh at a person or idea, and talk about them in a way that shows
you think they are stupid
[+ at]: They scoffed at the idea that anything could be changed.

2 [transitive] BrE informal to eat something very quickly: Who's scoffed all the cake?,
mock, ridicule
jeopardy : risk, danger, peril
jest1 noun

1 in jest something you say in jest is intended to be funny, not serious

2 [countable] old-fashioned something that you say or do to amuse people; joke

: joke
join : link, fasten, attach, combine, connect, unite
jolt1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to move suddenly and roughly, or to make someone or

something move in this way: The car jolted and Rachel was thrown backwards.

2 [transitive] to give someone a sudden shock

* : shock, startle verb [transitive]
to make someone suddenly surprised or slightly shocked: You startled me! I didn't hear
you come in. | startled to see/hear/learn etc: I was startled to see Amanda there.

- 110 -
joyful : glad, delighted, buoyant, elated adjective
extremely happy and excited, especially because you have been successful: Elated by
our victory, we sang all the way home., jubilant, jocund
joyless : cheerless, gloomy, dismal
judicial adjective

1 connected with a court of law, judges, or their decisions: the judicial system
executive2 (1), legislative (2)

2 behaviour that is judicial is sensible and shows good judgment

judicially adverb : judicious, juridical
judicious : wise, sensible, reasonable
jump : spring, bound, hop, leap
junction : combination, union, joining, juncture
justify : back, confirm, testify, bear out, warrant1 noun

1 [countable] written permission from a court of law allowing the police to take a
particular action
[+ for]: The magistrate issued a warrant for his arrest. | search warrant (=permission to
go into someone's house to look for something)
also death warrant

2 [uncountable] formal good enough reason for doing something; justification

also unwarranted, verify,attest
keen : sharp, acute, poignant
kill : slaughter, slay, assassinate, massacre
kind : benign, humane, compassionate
kindle : ignite, inflame, fire
kinship : relationship
knack noun informal

1 [singular] a special skill or ability that you usually gain by practice: There's a knack to
starting our lawn mower.

2 have a knack of doing sth to have a tendency to do something: He has a knack of

saying the wrong thing.
: skill

- 111 -
 ***** (L) *****

labor : toil1 verb [intransitive always + adv/prep]

1 also toil away to work very hard for a long period of time
[+ at/over]: I've been toiling away at this essay all weekend.

2 to move slowly and with great effort

[+ up/through/against etc]: They toiled slowly up the hill.
, work, exertion

laborious adjective

1 laborious task/process/method etc a job or piece of work that is difficult and needs a
lot of effort: the laborious task of collating all the evidence

2 seeming to be done slowly and with difficulty: laborious progress through the work
laboriously adverb
laboriousness noun [uncountable] : 1 arduous adjective
involving a lot of strength and effort: an arduous journey through the mountains
arduously adverb
arduousness noun [uncountable] , burdensome, difficult
2. diligent, industrious

lack : deficiency, need, want, scarcity

lag1 lagged, lagging verb

1 [intransitive] to move or develop more slowly than others: Britain was still lagging in
the space race.
[+ behind]: Jessica always lags behind, looking in shop windows.

2 [transitive] BrE to cover water pipes etc with a special material to prevent heat from
being lost: We've had the hot-water tank lagged.
: linger verb [intransitive]

- 112 -
1 to stay somewhere a little longer, especially because you do not want to leave
[+ over/on etc]: They lingered over coffee and missed the last bus.

2 [always + adv/prep] to continue looking at or dealing with something for longer than
is usual
[+ on/over etc]: Mike couldn't help letting his eyes linger on her face.

3 also linger on to be slow to disappear: The taste lingers in your mouth.

4 also linger on to be dying slowly so that you stay alive for a long time although you
are extremely weak: Horribly wounded he lingered on to die two years later.

lament1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to express feelings of great sadness about something: The

nation lamented the death of its great war leader.
[+ over]: lamenting over her luck in love

2 [transitive] to express annoyance or disappointment about something you think is

unsatisfactory or unfair: another article lamenting the decline of popular television
: bemoan, deplore, grieve, mourn
lane : path, way, passage, alley noun [countable]

1 a narrow street between or behind buildings

2 right up/down sb's alley AmE very suitable for someone: The job sounds right up
your alley.
also blin,
languid adjective

1 moving slowly and making very little effort, but in an attractive way: Sebastian left
with a languid wave of the hand.

2 lazily slow and peaceful: a languid afternoon by the river

languidly adverb : faint, weak, feeble, exhausted
large : 1. huge, enormous, immense, gigantic, colossal,massive
2. vast, pompous adjective
trying to make people think you are important, especially by using very formal and

- 113 -
important sounding words: The principal gave a very pompous speech about `the
portals of learning'.
pompously adverb
pompousness , pomposity noun [uncountable]

last : final, ultimate, conclusive, terminal

latent adjective
something that is latent is present but hidden, and may develop or become more
noticeable in the future: The virus remains latent in the body for many years. | latent
aggression
latency noun [uncountable] : hidden, concealed, potential
laud : praise, exalt, applaud
laugh : giggle, chuckle verb [intransitive]
to laugh quietly: What are you chuckling about?
chuckle noun [countable], grin1 verb [intransitive] grinned, grinning

1 to smile widely: Grinning sheepishly, James admitted he was seeing Sue.

[+ at]: Stop grinning at me, you stupid jackass!
[+ with]: grinning with delight | grin from ear to ear (=grin very widely)

2 grin and bear it to accept and bear an unpleasant or difficult situation without
complaining, usually because you realize there is nothing you can do to make it better,
smile
lavish : expend, waste, squander
lawful : legal, legitimate, valid
1 a valid ticket, document, or agreement can be used legally or is officially acceptable,
especially for a fixed period of time or according to certain conditions: a valid passport
| Your return ticket is valid for three months.

2 valid reason/argument/criticism etc a reason, argument etc that is based on what is

true or sensible, and so should be accepted or treated in a serious way: His point about
staff shortages was a valid one.
-validity / noun [uncountable]: I would question the validity of that statement.

lazy : idle, indolent, slothful

lazy or not active
slothfully adverb
slothfulness noun [uncountable], sluggish
league : alliance, confederation, union

- 114 -
lean : incline, bend
leap : jump, bound, spring, vault
1 also vaults [plural] a room with thick walls and a strong door where money, jewels
etc are kept to prevent them from being stolen or damaged

2 also vaults [plural] a room where people from the same family are buried, often
under the floor of a church

3 a jump over something

also pole vault

4 a roof or ceiling (1) that consists of several arches that are joined together, especially
in a church
hop
leave : quit, depart
legacy noun [countable]

1 a situation that exists as a result of things that happened at an earlier time

[+ of]: The civil wars in the region are largely a legacy of apartheid.

2 money or property that you receive from someone after they die: a legacy from her
aunt
: tradition, culture, heritage, inheritance
legend : fable, myth
legitimate : legal, lawful
lengthen : extend, stretch, prolong, protract
lenient : mild, clement, merciful
lessen : diminish, decrease, abate, dwindle
level : even, flat, plain, horizontal
liable adjective

1 be liable to do sth to be likely to do or say something or to behave in a particular

way, especially because of a fault or natural tendency: The car is liable to overheat on
long trips.

2 [not before noun] legally responsible for the cost of something

[+ for]: Manufacturers are liable for any defects in the equipment.

3 likely to be affected by a particular kind of problem, illness etc

- 115 -
[+ to]: You're more liable to injury when you don't get regular exercise.

4 law likely to be legally punished or forced to do something by law

[+ to]: Anyone found trespassing is liable to a maximum fine of $100.
[+ for]: All males between 18 and 60 are liable for military service.
: responsible, answerable, accountable
liberal : tolerant adjective
allowing people to do, say, or believe what they want without punishing or criticizing
them: Luckily, my parents were tolerant of my choice of music, broad-minded,
magnanimous, generous
liberate : release, free, disengage verb

1 [transitive] to separate something from something else that is fastened to it or

holding it : disengage yourself: Sally found it difficult to disengage herself from his
embrace.

2 [intransitive, transitive] if you disengage part of a machine or if it disengages, you

make it move away from another part that it was connected to: Disengage the gears
when you park the car.

3 [intransitive] if two armies disengage, they stop fighting

?disengagement noun [uncountable] , deliver
lift : raise, elevate, exalt, uplift
light : illumination, radiance
lighten : 1. illuminate, brighten, shine
light-hearted : carefree, gay, joyful, merry
likely : probable, possible
limber1 verb

limber up phrasal verb [intransitive]

to do gentle exercises in order to make your muscles stretch and move easily,
especially when preparing for a race, competition etc
: flexible
limit : bound, boundary
link : bond, tie, connection
liquid : fluid
livelihood : living
lively : energetic, active, vigorous, brisk adjective

- 116 -
1 quick and full of energy: a brisk walk

2 quick, practical and showing that you want to get things done quickly: She spoke in a
brisk tone.

3 trade or business that is brisk is very busy, with a lot of products being sold

4 weather that is brisk is cold and clear

briskly adverb
briskness noun [uncountable]

load : burden
loathe : abominate, detest, hate, abhor
lodge : shelter, harbor, house, quarter
lofty : high, elevated, tall, sublime1 adjective

1 excellent in a way that makes you feel extremely happy: We had a sublime view over
the Mediterranean.

2 not caring or thinking at all about the result of your actions: sublime insensitivity to
other people's feelings
sublimely adverb
sublimeness noun [uncountable]
sublimity noun [uncountable]

loiter : linger, loaf

lone : solitary, lonely, secluded, separate
longing : desire, yearning, aspiration noun

1 [countable usually plural, uncountable] a strong desire to have or achieve something:

Hannah has always had political aspirations.
[+ of]: the aspirations of the working classes

2 [uncountable] the sound of air blowing out that happens when some consonants are
pronounced, such as the /p/ in pin

loose : lax adjective

1 not strict or careful enough about standards of behaviour, work, safety etc; slack1

- 117 -
(1): lax security

2 muscles or arms or legs that are lax are not firm or strong and therefore tend to hang
loosely
laxly adverb
laxity noun [uncountable]
laxness noun [uncountable] , slack
lordly : grand, magnificent, majestic, lofty
loud : noisy, clammy adjective
feeling wet, cold, and sticky in a way that is unpleasant: clammy with sweat
clammily adverb
clamminess noun [uncountable], resounding, deafening
lower : reduce, decrease, diminish, lessen
loyal : faithful, devoted
lubricious : slippery, smooth
lucid adjective

1 expressed in a way that is clear and easy to understand: a lucid and accurate account
of the day's events

2 a word meaning able to understand and think clearly, used especially about someone
who is not always able to do this: In her more lucid moments the old lady would talk
about her past.
lucidly adverb
lucidity noun [uncountable] : clear, transparent, limpid, intelligible,
plain,obvious, distinct, evident
ludicrous adjective
completely unreasonable, stupid, or unsuitable; ridiculous: She turned up wearing a
ludicrous flowery hat.
ludicrously adverb : The test was ludicrously easy.
ludicrousness noun [uncountable] : ridiculous, comical, funny
luminous : bright, shining, lucid, radiant, brilliant
lure1 verb [transitive]
to persuade someone to do something, especially something wrong, by promising
them something they want; tempt : lure sb into/to/away etc: I think he's trying to lure
you away from Jerry. | prospectors lured to Alaska by the promise of gold
: allure, decoy, attract, tempt, seduce
luster lustre BrE luster AmE noun [singular, uncountable]

- 118 -
1 an attractive shiny appearance : add/give lustre to: A little conditioner will give lustre
to your hair.

2 the quality that makes something interesting or exciting : add/give luster to: Arnold's
singing will add lustre to the affair
: brilliance, brightness, radiance
lusty : hearty, vigorous, robust, stout
luxurious : sumptuous, ornate / adjective
a lot of decoration, or too much decoration, especially with many complicated details:
a heavy ornate gold cigarette case
ornately adverb
ornateness noun [uncountable]

***** (M) *****

mad : insane, lunatic, crazy

madden verb [transitive usually passive]
to make someone extremely angry or annoyed
: infuriate / verb [transitive]
to make someone extremely angry: It infuriates me to think of all the money we've
wasted., irritate, provoke, annoy, enrage, anger
magnificent : splendid, august, stately, majestic, imposing, grand
magnify : enlarge, augment, amplify, exaggerate / / verb [intransitive,
transitive]
to make something seem better, more important etc than it really is: Sue says she's
seen Jurassic Park twenty times, but I'm sure she's exaggerating. | exaggerate sth:
exaggerating the pain to get our sympathy | greatly exaggerate: The extent of the
damage was greatly exaggerated by the press.
exaggeratedly / adverb

magnitude* : 1. degree, extent, measure, proportion

- 119 -
2. volume, size, mass, bulk, amplitude
maid : girl, maiden, lass noun [countable] ScotE & NEngE

1 a girl or young woman

2 a girlfriend
-compare lad

main : chief, cardinal, prime, principal, leading, capital

maintain** : 1. affirm / verb

1 [transitive] formal to state publicly that something is true: The general affirmed
rumors of an attack.

2 [transitive] formal to strengthen a feeling, belief, or idea: By submitting to male

values, they symbolically affirm male superiority.

3 [transitive] technical to promise to tell the truth in a court of law, but without
mentioning God in the promise
affirmation noun [countable, uncountable]
, assert, hold, allege, contend, claim
2. keep, retain
/
maintenance : subsistence, livelihood, living
majestic : stately, grand, august, imposing, splendid,magnificent
make : manufacture, mold, shape
maladroit adjective formal
not good at dealing with people or problems
?maladroitly adverb
?maladroitness noun [uncountable] : unskillful, awkward, clumsy, inept
malady /noun [countable]

1 formal something that is wrong with a system or organization: Public education

suffers from the same malady as many other government programs.

2 old use an illness : disease, illness, ailment / / noun [countable]

an illness that is not very serious
malcontent : dissatisfied, discontented
male : masculine / / adjective

- 120 -
1 belonging to men, done by men, or considered to be typical of men: a masculine
approach to the problem | traditionally masculine subjects such as physics | a dark,
masculine face

2 if a woman's appearance or voice is masculine, it is like a man's

3 belonging to the class of words for males: `Drake' is the masculine word for `duck'.

4 a masculine noun, pronoun etc belongs to a class of words that have different
inflections from feminine or neuter words: The word for 'book' is masculine in French.,
manly
malice / / noun [uncountable]

1 the desire or intention to deliberately harm someone: There was no need for Jane to
tell them - she did it out of sheer malice. | bear sb no malice (=not want to harm
someone although they have behaved badly to you)

2 with malice aforethought law a criminal act that is done with malice aforethought is
done in a carefully planned and deliberate way
: ill will, spite1 noun

1 in spite of without being prevented by something; despite: We went out in spite of

the rain. | in spite of the fact that: Kelly loved her husband in spite of the fact that he
drank too much.

2 [uncountable] a feeling of wanting to hurt or upset people, for example because you
are jealous or think you have been unfairly treated : out of spite (=because of spite):
She broke it just out of spite. | pure/sheer spite (=spite and nothing else)

3 in spite of yourself if you do something in spite of yourself, you do it although you did
not expect or intend to do it
, enmity, malevolence
malicious : malevolent, evil-minded
maltreat : mistreat, abuse
mammoth : huge, gigantic, immense, colossal
manage: conduct, control, direct, administer
manager : administrator, executive, director
maneuver AmE noun

- 121 -
1 [countable] a skilful or careful movement that you make, for example in order to
avoid something or go through a narrow space: basic skiing manoeuvres

2 [countable, uncountable] a skilful or carefully planned action intended to deceive

someone or achieve something: They tried by diplomatic maneuvers to obtain an
agreement.

3 manoeuvres [singular] a military exercise like a battle done to train soldiers : on

manoeuvres (=practising military exercises): The regiment is abroad on manoeuvres.

4 room for manoeuvre/freedom of manoeuvre the possibility of changing your plans or

decisions: They haven't left us much freedom of manoeuvre.
: scheme, plot, design
manful : manly
mangle : maim, ruin, spoil, mar
mania : excitement, enthusiasm
manifest : evident, obvious, apparent, plain, clear, distinct
manifold : various, numerous
manly : manful, brave, bold, valiant
manner: mode, fashion, way, method, demean / / verb [transitive] formal
to do something that you think you are too good for: Don't demean yourself by taking
that job.
?demeaning adjective : Cleaning the toilets was the most demeaning task at the
camp., air,bearing, behavior
many : numerous, abundant, myriad, innumerable
margin : border, edge, rim
mariner: sailor, seaman
mark : note, importance, distinction, eminence,
marriage : wedding, matrimony / noun [uncountable]
formal the state of being married
matrimonial adjective

marvelous : wonderful, extraordinary, amazing, astonishing,

astounding, miraculous, surprising
mask : veil, disguise
mass : aggregation, collection, accumulation, pile
massacre : slaughter, annihilate verb [transitive]

- 122 -
1 to destroy something or someone completely: stock piles of weapons that could
annihilate mankind

2 to defeat someone easily and completely in a game, competition, or election: Tyson

annihilated his opponent in the first round.
annihilation / noun [uncountable] , murder
massive* : bulky, immense, huge, tremendous
master : commander, chief, head
matchless : unrivaled, unequaled, unparalleled
matter : substance, material, stuff
mature : ripe, complete, grown, fully-developed
maxim / / noun [countable]
a well-known phrase or saying, especially one that gives a rule for sensible behaviour
: proverb, saying
meager : scanty, deficient, insignificant, thin
mean : 1 signify // verb [not in progressive]

[transitive] to represent, mean, or be a sign of something: Some tribes use special

facial markings to signify status. | signify that: Recent changes in climate may signify
that global warming is starting to have an effect.

[transitive] formal to make a wish, feeling, or opinion known by doing something :

signify that: With a gesture Mr Bosch signified that the three representatives could
depart. | signify sth (to sb): He turned away from her slightly to signify his indifference.

[intransitive] to be important enough to have an effect on something: These figures

don't really signify in the overall results.
, imply, express, humble, vulgar / adjective

1 remarks, jokes etc that are vulgar deal with sex in a very rude and offensive way

2 impolite and showing bad manners: vulgar habits

3 especially BrE not showing good judgment about what is beautiful or suitable: a
vulgar display of wealth
vulgarly adverb
ignoble / adjective formal
ignoble thoughts, feelings, or actions are ones that you should feel ashamed or
embarrassed about

- 123 -
ignobly adverb

measureless : limitless, boundless, immense, infinite

meddlesome : interfering
medicine : drug
meditate : contemplate, reflect, ponder
medium : means
meet : encounter, confront, face
melancholy : depressed, gloomy, despondent / adjective
unhappy and not hopeful: Gill had been out of work for a year and was getting very
despondent.
despondency noun [uncountable]
despondently adverb : He was staring despondently into the distance., dismal
melt : fuse, dissolve, thaw
menace1 // noun

1 [countable] something or someone that is dangerous

[+ to]: hazardous chemicals that are a menace to public safety | That man's a menace
to society!

2 [uncountable] a threatening quality or manner: There was menace in her eyes as she
spoke.

3 [countable] a person, especially a child that is annoying or causes trouble; nuisance :

threaten, intimidate
mend : repair, fix
merciful : compassionate, clement, humane, sympathetic
merciless : pitiless, relentless, inexorable / / adjective formal
an inexorable process cannot be stopped: the inexorable decline of Britain's
manufacturing industry
inexorably adverb : The story moves inexorably towards its tragic conclusion.
inexorability / / noun [uncountable]

mercy : compassion
merit : worth, excellence, value
merry : jolly, gay, mirthful, hilarious
mess : confusion, muddle
mighty : powerful, potent
migrate: immigrate, emigrate, move

- 124 -
mild : amiable, gentle, temperate, clement
milestone* : important event
mingle : mix, blend
minor : secondary, subordinate
detailed : precise
miraculous : marvelous, wonderful, incredible
mirth : gaiety, glee, merriment
mischief : harm, injury, damage, hurt
miser : niggardly /adjective

1 unwilling to spend money or be generous; stingy: The landlord was niggardly about
repairs.

2 a niggardly gift, amount, salary etc is not worth very much and is given unwillingly:
niggardly wages
niggard noun [countable]
niggardliness noun [uncountable]

miserable : wretched adjective

1 very unhappy or ill: I lay in bed feeling thoroughly wretched.

2 [only before noun] making you feel annoyed or angry: What does the wretched
woman want this time?

3 literary extremely bad or of very poor quality: wretched living conditions

wretchedly adverb
wretchedness noun [uncountable] , unhappy
miserly : stingy, mean
misery : wretchedness, distress, suffering, torture
misgiving noun [countable, uncountable]
a feeling of doubt, distrust, or fear about what might happen or about whether
something is right: She eyed Bert's pistol with misgiving. | have deep/serious
misgivings: Opponents of nuclear energy have deep misgivings about its safety.
: apprehension / noun

1 [countable, uncountable] anxiety about the future, especially the worry that you will
have to deal with something unpleasant or bad: a natural apprehension about being in
hospital

- 125 -
2 [uncountable] the act of apprehending someone; arrest2

3 [uncountable] old use understanding: our apprehension of the nature of God

, doubt, distrust, suspicion
mislead: misguide, misdirect
mistake: error, blunder, slip
mix : blend,
moan : groan, mourn
mock : ridicule, sneer
moderate : reasonable, temperate, mild, average, usual
modest : humble, decent
modify : change, alter, vary
moist : damp, humid, wet
momentous : important, consequent, serious
monetary : pecuniary
monotonous / adjective
boring because there is no variety: He was speaking in a low monotonous voice. | a
monotonous factory job
monotonously adverb : The rain poured monotonously out of the grey sky
: tedious, dull, unvaried
monster : demon, devil
monstrous : tremendous, gigantic, prodigious, enormous,
immense, colossal
mood : disposition / noun formal

1 [countable] a particular type of character which makes someone more likely to

behave or react in a certain way; temperament : have a cheerful/sunny disposition
(=have a happy character and behave in a happy way) | people of a nervous
disposition: The film is not suitable for people of a nervous disposition.

2 [uncountable] a tendency to behave in a particular way : have/show a disposition to

do sth: Neither side shows the slightest disposition to compromise.

3 [countable] the position or arrangement of something in a particular place

[+ of]: a map showing the disposition of the American forces

4 [countable, uncountable] law the act of formally giving property to someone

, temper

- 126 -
moody : gloomy, sullen /adjective

1 silently showing anger or bad temper: a look of sullen resentment

2 literary sky or weather that is sullen is dark and unpleasant; gloomy (3)
sullenly adverb
sullenness noun [uncountable]

moral : ethical, righteous, virtuous

moreover : besides, further, furthermore
mortal : fatal, lethal, deadly
mostly : generally, chiefly
motif* : figure, pattern, design, device
motion : gesture, movement, move
motionless : fixed, still, stationary
motive : motivation, inducement, incentive, stimulus, spur
mount : ascend, climb, scale
mourn : grieve, lament, bewail verb [transitive]
literary to express deep sadness or disappointment about something, deplore
movement : drive, crusade1 // noun [countable]

1 one of a series of wars fought in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries by Christian
armies trying to take Palestine from the Muslims

2 a determined attempt to change something because you think you are morally right
[+ against/for]: He seems to be running a one-man crusade against cigarette smoking.

multitude : host, crowd, throng, mass, swarm

murder : assassination
murmur1 /verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to say something in a soft low voice which is difficult to hear
clearly: He began stroking her hair and gently murmuring her name.

2 [intransitive] to complain to friends and people you work with, but not officially
[+ about/against]: Within the city there was much murmuring against the new ruler.

3 [intransitive] to make a soft, low sound: The wind murmured through the trees.
murmuring noun [countable, uncountable]: vague murmurings of discontent

- 127 -
 : grumble, mumble, mutter
muse : meditate, ponder, contemplate, deliberate, brood
mute : silent, dumb, still
mutiny : revolt, rebellion, uprising, rebel
mutual : reciprocal

***** (N) *****

naive : ingenuous, candid, downright

naked : nude, bare, stripped
narrow-minded : intolerant / adjective
not willing to accept ways of thinking and behaving that are different from your own
[+ of]: intolerant of other people's political beliefs
?intolerantly adverb
?intolerance noun [uncountable]: nationalistic rivalry and racial intolerance
, illiberal
nasty adjective

1 BEHAVIOUR nasty behaviour or remarks are extremely unkind and unpleasant;

malicious: a nasty temper | That's a nasty thing to say! | There's a nasty streak in her
character. | be nasty to (=treat someone in an unkind way): Don't be so nasty to your
mum. | get/turn nasty especially BrE (=suddenly start behaving in a threatening way):
Don't tease the dog. He might turn nasty.

2 SIGHT/SMELL ETC having a bad appearance, smell, taste etc: The medicine tastes
nasty, but it works. | cheap and nasty: cheap and nasty furniture

3 nasty illness/cut/wound etc an illness etc that is severe or very painful: a nasty cut on
the head

4 EXPERIENCE/SITUATION a nasty experience, feeling or situation is unpleasant: nasty

weather | It gave me a nasty shock. | I have a nasty suspicion that he's going to make
us pay for everything. | leave a nasty taste in the mouth (=make you feel upset or
angry afterwards): When you feel you've been cheated, it always leaves a nasty taste
in the mouth.

- 128 -
5 OFFENSIVE morally bad or offensive; obscene (1): nasty language | You've got a nasty
mind.

6 a nasty piece of work BrE someone who is dishonest, violent, or likely to cause
trouble
nastily adverb
nastiness noun [uncountable] : filthy, dirty, foul, impure, polluted
native : inborn, inherent, natural, innate, congenital adjective

1 a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were
born: congenital abnormalities | congenital defect

2 existing as a part of your character and unlikely to change: his congenital inability to
make decisions | a congenital liar
?congenitally adverb

nearly : almost, approximately, well-nigh

neat : orderly, congenital adjective

1 a congenital medical condition or disease has affected someone since they were
born: congenital abnormalities | congenital defect

2 existing as a part of your character and unlikely to change: his congenital inability to
make decisions | a congenital liar
congenitally adverb, tidy, smart
necessary : essential, indispensable, requisite, vital
neglect : disregard, ignore, overlook
negligence* : carelessness
negligible : unimportant
negotiate : treat, bargain
nervous : excitable, uneasy / adjective

1 nervous, anxious, and unable to relax because you think something bad might
happen: Katie felt uneasy about what she had done.
nervous

2 an uneasy period of time is one when people have agreed to stop fighting or arguing,
but which is not really calm: An uneasy peace descended on the area.

- 129 -
3 not comfortable, peaceful, or relaxed: She eventually fell into an uneasy sleep. | an
uneasy conscience
uneasily adverb uneasiness
noun [uncountable]

noble : lofty, honorable, dignified, imposing, stately

notable : noteworthy, noticeable, remarkable, extraordinary,
conspicuous / / adjective

1 someone or something that is conspicuous is very easy to notice, especially because

they are different from everything or everyone else around them: I felt very
conspicuous in my suit - everyone else was in jeans.

2 unusually good, bad, skilful etc; remarkable: The campaign had been a conspicuous
success.

3 conspicuous by your absence used to say that people noticed that you were not in
the place you should have been
inconspicuous

conspicuously adverb
conspicuousness noun [uncountable] , eminent, distinguished
note : eminence, distinction, repute, celebrity, reputation
notice : information, intelligence
notify : inform, acquaint
notion : opinion, view
nourish : nurture, breed
novel : 1. new, fresh
2. rare, unusual, strange
numberless : adj. innumerable, numerous, myriad1 // adjective [only
before noun]
literary too many to count: Myriad bright stars shone in the sky above.
, countless,untold, infinite
nurse : v. tend, attend
nurture : v. nurse
nutrition : n. nourishment

- 130 -
 ***** (O) *****

obedient : submissive, docile / / adjective

quiet and easily controlled: a docile child
docilely adverb
docility / noun [uncountable]

object* : protest, remonstrate /verb [intransitive]

formal to tell someone that you strongly disapprove of something they have said or
done
[+ with/against]: They only stopped teasing after Evans remonstrated with them.
remonstrative / adjective

objective : unprejudiced, unbiased, impartial, fair

obligation : requirement, duty, responsibility
oblige : require, compel, force, coerce verb [transitive]
to force someone to do something they do not want to do by threatening them :
coerce sb into doing sth: The rebels coerced the villagers into hiding them from the
army.

obscure1 adjective

1 not at all well known and usually not very important: an obscure poet | The exact
origin of the paisley design is obscure.

2 difficult to understand: obscure legal phrases

obscurely adverb
: unclear, uncertain, ambiguous, indistinct, blur1 / noun [singular]

1 [countable] a shape that you cannot see clearly: Everything's a blur without my
glasses. | the blur of headlights in the distance

2 an unclear memory of something: The events of that day gradually became a blur in
her mind.

observance : fulfilling / adjective

- 131 -
a job, relationship etc that is fulfilling makes you feel satisfied because it allows you to
use all your skills and qualities: A career in nursing still provides one of the most
fulfilling of jobs.
, performance
observation : noticing, perceiving, watching
observe: 1. perceive, notice, watch
2. comply / / verb [intransitive] formal
to do what you have to do or are asked to do
[+ with]: Failure to comply with the regulations will result in prosecution.
also compliance , conform, follow, fulfill
obstacle : obstruction, hindrance, impediment, interference,block
obstinate /'adjective

1 unreasonably refusing to change your ideas of behaviour, even though people try to
persuade you: Harry was obstinate and wouldn't admit he was wrong. | a sulky,
obstinate child | an obstinate refusal to face facts

2 [only before noun] difficult to deal with or get rid of: strong enough to remove the
most obstinate stains | an obstinate cough
obstinately adverb
: unyielding, stubborn, inflexible, headstrong,dogged
obstruct : block, stop, bar, hinder, barricade, impede / / verb
[transitive]
to prevent something from happening in the normal way, or make it happen more
slowly: Storms at sea impeded our progress.

obtain* : get, acquire, procure, secure, gain, achieve, attain,

earn, win
obvious: plain, manifest, evident, clear, apparent, distinct
occult : mysterious, secret, unknown, mystical
occupation : calling, trade, business, profession, vocation,
pursuit
occupy : capture, seize
occur : happen, befall
occurrence : event, incident, affair
odd : unusual, strange, weird, queer, quaint, eccentric1 / adjective

1 behaving or appearing in a way that is unusual and different from most people:
students dressed in eccentric clothing | an eccentric old woman

- 132 -
2 technical eccentric circles do not have the same centre point
concentric
eccentrically / adverb ,bizarre
odor : smell, fragrance, scent, perfume
offend : irritate, annoy, vex, provoke, gall1 /l/ noun

1 have the gall to do sth to do something rude and unreasonable that most people
would be too embarrassed to do: Being a Tory politician, he still had the gall to be
interviewed on TV and claim all the credit.

2 [uncountable] old-fashioned anger and hate that will not go away

3 [uncountable] old use bile

4 [countable] a swelling on a tree or plant caused by damage from insects or infection

5 [countable] a painful place on an animal's skin, caused by something rubbing against

it, fret, displease
offense : transgress / verb [intransitive, transitive] formal
to do something that is against the rules of social behaviour or against a moral
principle: Those who have transgressed against custom must be punished.
transgressor noun [countable]
transgression noun [countable, uncountable] , sin, misdemeanor, crime, felony
offensive : displeasing, irritating, unpleasant, disgusting,
disagreeable, annoying
offer : present, proffer, tender1 /adjective

1 MEAT/VEGETABLES easy to cut and eat, especially because they have been well
cooked: tender beef
tough1 (5)

2 PART OF YOUR BODY a tender part of your body is painful if someone touches it: My
arm is still tender where I bruised it.

3 GENTLE gentle and careful in a way that shows love: Sam's voice was full of tender
concern. | a tender look

4 tender loving care usually spoken sympathetic treatment and a lot of attention

- 133 -
5 tender blossoms/plants etc plants etc that are easily damaged

6 tender age humorous or literary the time when you are young or inexperienced: I
don't know that your jokes are suitable for someone of my tender age! | at the tender
age of: Nicholas was sent to boarding school at the tender age of seven.
tenderly adverb
tenderness noun [uncountable]

old : aged, elderly, ancient, antiquated, antique

old-fashioned : outmoded, antique, obsolete / / adjective
no longer useful because something newer and better has been invented: obsolete
weapons | render sth obsolete (=make it obsolete): Current production methods will
soon be rendered obsolete., archaic
ominous : foreboding
omnipresent : ubiquitous / adjective formal or humorous
seeming to be everywhere: We were tormented in the outback by the ubiquitous
Australian fly.
ubiquitously adverb
ubiquity noun [uncountable]

only : sole, single, unique

operate: work, manage
operation : transaction noun formal

1 [countable] a business deal: The bank charges a fixed rate for each transaction. |
financial transactions

2 [uncountable] the process of doing business: the transaction of his public duties

3 transactions [plural] discussions that take place at the meetings of a society, or a

written record of these, business, affair
operative : effective, efficient, effectual
opponent : adversary, antagonist, contestant, enemy, foe
opportune : timely, seasonable
opportunity : chance, occasion

oppose verb [transitive]

- 134 -
1 to disagree with something such as a plan or idea and try to prevent it from
happening or succeeding: Congress is continuing to oppose the President's healthcare
budget. | be opposed to sth: Most of us are opposed to the death penalty.

2 to fight or compete against another person or group in a battle, competition, or

election: He is opposed by two other candidates.
: resist, object
opposite : contrary, reverse
oppress: maltreat, persecute
oppression : tyranny // noun

1 [uncountable] unfair and strict control over someone: He longed to escape from the
tyranny of his aunt.

2 [countable, uncountable] government by one person or a small group that has

gained power unfairly and uses it cruelly

3 the tyranny of fashion/the clock etc the way that fashion etc limits people's freedom
to do things the way they want to do

4 [countable often plural] a cruel or unfair action that limits someone's freedom: the
tyrannies of Louis XVI's court
, despot / / noun [countable]
someone such as a ruler who used power in a cruel and unfair way
despotic / adjective
despotically / adverb , persecution
oral : verbal, spoken, vocal
orbit : path, course
ordeal // noun [countable]
a terrible or painful experience
[+ of]: the ordeal of having your child kidnapped | it is an ordeal to do sth: Some
people find it an ordeal to appear before the TV camera.
: trial, test
order : direction, mandate1 / / noun

1 [countable] the right and power to carry out certain policies, which is given to a
government or elected official by the people who voted for them : mandate to do sth:
The President was elected with a clear mandate to tackle violent crime. | seek a
mandate: They are seeking a mandate for tax reforms.

- 135 -
2 [countable] an official command given to a person or organization to do something:
an envoy carrying out the Archbishop's mandate

3 [countable, uncountable] the power given to one country to govern another country,
command
orderly : regular, systematic / adjective
based on carefully organized methods; thorough: The way they've collected their data
is not very systematic. | a systematic search of the building
systematically / adverb , methodical
ordinary : common, usual, customary, accustomed, habitual
organic : systematic
organize : construct, form, constitute
original : inventive, creative
originate : emanate, initiate
ornament : decorate, adorn, embellish / verb [transitive]

1 to make a story or statement more interesting by adding details that are not true:
She gave an embellished account of what had happened.

2 to make something more beautiful by adding decorations

[+ with]: The ceiling was embellished with cherubs.
embellishment noun [countable, uncountable]

outbreak* : 1. epidemic, plague, rash.

2. explosion, burst, outburst, gust1 / / noun [countable]

1 a sudden strong movement of wind: A sudden gust of wind blew the door shut.

2 a sudden strong feeling of anger, excitement etc: A gust of rage swept through him.
, eruption
outcome : result, consequence
outdo : surpass, excel
outlaw : criminal
outline :
: contour, silhouette
sketch, draft, block out, rough in, rough out
outlive // verb [transitive]

- 136 -
1 to live longer than someone else: She outlived her husband by twenty years.

2 to continue to exist after something else has ended or disappeared: The military
regime has outlived its statutory term by three years. | outlive its usefulness (=become
no longer useful): As a commuter service the Seacombe Ferry had outlived its
usefulness.
: survive
outrage1 /noun

1 [uncountable] a feeling of great anger and shock: The injustice of the situation filled
him with a sense of outrage.

2 [countable] a very cruel, violent, and shocking action or event

[+ against]: These terrorist attacks are an outrage against society.
: insult, abuse, maltreat, injure, offend
outspoken : frank, open candid
outstanding : prominent, eminent, conspicuous, striking
overcome : conquer, defeat, subdue, crush, surmount
overlook : disregard, neglect, ignore
overpower : overcome, overwhelm, vanquish / / verb [transitive] literary
to defeat someone or something completely
, subjugate,subdue, crush, defeat, conquer, beat
oversee: supervise, superintend, survey1 noun [countable]

1 a set of questions that you ask a large number of people in order to find out about
their opinions or behaviour : to carry out/conduct a survey (=do a survey): a recent
survey conducted by Manchester university into children's attitudes to violence on
television

2 an examination of a house or other building done especially for someone who wants
to buy it

3 an examination of an area of land in order to make a map of it

4 a general description or report about a particular subject or situation: a survey of

modern English literature
, watch, overlook
oversight : mistake, blunder, slip, error
overthrow : upset, overturn, subvert / verb [transitive] formal

- 137 -
1 to try to destroy the power and influence of a government or established system etc:
attempts to subvert the democratic process

2 to destroy someone's beliefs or loyalty

overwhelm : overpower, crush

own : acknowledge, admit, allow, recognize

***** (P) *****

pace :
: n. step, gait / noun [singular]
the way someone walks: He moved off again with a slow shuffling gait.
,walk, step
pacific : peaceful, calm, tranquil, quiet
pacify : adj. calm, tranquilize, assuage / verb [transitive]
literary to make an unpleasant feeling less painful or severe; relieve (1): Nothing could
assuage his guilt.
, ameliorate verb [transitive]
formal to make something better: measures to ameliorate working conditions
amelioration noun [uncountable]

pack : package, bundle, parcel

pact: an electoral pact to keep out the Fascists
also suicide noun [countable]
a formal agreement between two groups, nations, or people, especially to help each
other or fight together against an enemy : make/sign a pact: The two countries signed
a non-aggression pact. | a pact to do sth
: compact, contract, bond
pain : suffering, distress, torture, torment, pang / noun [countable]
a sudden feeling of pain, sadness etc
[+ of]: pangs of jealousy | hunger pangs, ache
painstaking /adjective
very careful and thorough: fourteen months of painstaking investigation

- 138 -
painstakingly adjective : assiduous / adjective formal
very careful to make sure that something is done properly or completely: an assiduous
collector of folk songs
assiduously adverb
assiduity noun [uncountable] , diligent
pale : pallid adjective

1 unusually or unhealthily pale: Paul was still pallid and sick.

2 boring, without any excitement

pallidly adverb
pallidness noun [uncountable] , wan / / adjective especially literary
looking pale, weak, or tired: She gave a wan smile.
wanly adverb

panic : terror, fright, alarm

pant : gasp
parallel : correspond verb [intransitive]

1 if two things or ideas correspond, the parts or information in one relate to the parts
or information in the other: The two halves of the document did not correspond.
[+ with/to]: The numbers correspond to distinct points on the map.

2 to be very similar or the same as something else

[+ to]: The French `baccalaur ?t' roughly corresponds to British `A-levels'.

3 to write letters to someone and receive letters from them: For the next three years
they corresponded regularly.
[+ with]: She stopped corresponding with him after the death of her mother.

paralyse BrE paralyze AmE verb [transitive]

1 to make someone lose the ability to move part or all of their body, or to feel anything
in it: Mrs Burrows had been paralysed by a stroke.

2 be paralysed to be unable to move, or to deal with a situation, because you are

frightened or surprised: She was paralysed by shock and disbelief.

3 to make something unable to operate normally: The electricity failure paralysed the

- 139 -
city. : benumb
paramount : supreme, chief, principal
pardon : forgive, absolve verb [transitive] formal

1 to say publicly that someone is not guilty or responsible for something : absolve sb
from/of sth: They were absolved of all responsibility for the accident.

2 [often passive] to forgive someone for something they have done wrong
, condone / verb [transitive]
to accept or forgive behaviour that most people think is morally wrong: I cannot
condone the use of violence under any circumstances.
, acquit / verb acquitted, acquitting

1 [transitive usually passive] to give a decision in a court of law that someone is not
guilty of a crime: All the defendants were acquitted. | acquit sb of sth: She was
acquitted of murder.

2 acquit yourself well/honourably to do something well, especially something difficult

that you do for the first time in front of other people

partake : participate, share

partial : biased, prejudiced, unfair
partisan : adherent, supporter, follower, disciple
partition : divide, separate, apportion
passage: way, route, path, lane, thoroughfare /noun

1 [countable] the main road through a place such as a city or village: The motel was off
the main thoroughfare.

2 no thoroughfare a written sign used to tell people that they cannot go on a particular
road or path

passion : zeal, ardor, fervor

passionate : ardent, vehement, zealous, enthusiastic, earnest
passive : inactive, inert
pastime /noun [countable]
something that you do because you find it enjoyable or interesting: Reading was her
favourite pastime.
: diversion / / noun

- 140 -
1 [countable] something that stops you from paying attention to what you are doing or
what is happening : create a diversion (=deliberately take someone's attention away
from something else): Some of the prisoners created a diversion while Riggs climbed
the wall.

2 [countable, uncountable] a change in the direction or purpose of something

[+ of]: the massive diversion of resources into the military budget

3 [countable] formal an activity that you do for pleasure: The cinema is always a
pleasant diversion.

4 [countable] especially BrE a different road for traffic to travel on when the usual road
cannot be used, entertainment, recreation
patch : mend, repair, fix
pathetic / adjective

1 something or someone that is pathetic is so useless, unsuccessful, or badly done that

they annoy you: You're pathetic! Here, let me do it. | It's a pretty pathetic computer,
basically. | Vic made a pathetic attempt to apologise.

2 making you feel pity or sympathy: a pathetic sight

pathetically adverb : pitiable, touching, moving
patience : endurance, fortitude // noun [uncountable]
courage shown when you are in great pain or experiencing a lot of trouble: She bore
her illness with great fortitude.
, perseverance noun [uncountable] approving
determination to keep trying to achieve something in spite of difficulties: Beth has
shown great perseverance in trying to overcome her handicap.

patron : protector, supporter, advocate

pause : rest, suspension / noun

1 [uncountable] the act of officially stopping something from continuing for a period of
time
[+ of]: EC sanctions included suspension of the 1980 trade agreement and import limits
on textiles.

2 [countable] the removal of someone from a team, job, school etc for a period of

- 141 -
time, especially to punish them: Sean McCarthy is set to return to football after a three
match suspension.

3 [uncountable] equipment fixed to the wheels of a vehicle to make it more

comfortable on roads that are not smooth

4 [countable] technical a liquid mixture consisting of very small pieces of solid material
that are contained in the liquid but have not combined with it
colloid

5 [uncountable] the act of hanging something from something else: suspension cables,
interruption, break, halt
peaceable : pacific, peaceful, amicable, amiable, mild
peaceful : tranquil, placid, serene, calm
peak : top, rest, summit, acme, pinnacle
peculiar : strange, odd, queer, eccentric1 / / adjective

1 behaving or appearing in a way that is unusual and different from most people:
students dressed in eccentric clothing | an eccentric old woman

2 technical eccentric circles do not have the same centre point

compare concentric

eccentrically adverb , bizarre, extraordinary, unique

pecuniary : monetary, financial
pedestrian : walker
peek / / verb [intransitive]
to look quickly at something, especially something that you are not supposed to see:
The children were peeking from behind the wall.
peep1

peek noun [countable]: I noticed Diane taking a quick peek at herself in the mirror.
: peep1 / / verb [intransitive]

1 to look at something quickly and secretly, especially through a hole

[+ into/through etc]: I caught him peeping through the keyhole.

2 [always + adv/prep] if something peeps from somewhere, it is just possible to see it

[+ through/from etc]: The sun peeped briefly through the clouds.

- 142 -
 peek, peer2, peer1 / / noun [countable]

1 someone of the same age, social class etc as you: Children compete to win the
approval of their peers. | The jury system gives you the right to be judged by your
peers.

2 a member of the British nobility, who has the right to sit in the House of Lords
, pry / verb present participle pryingpast tense pried

1 [intransitive] to try to find out details about someone else's private life in an impolite
way: I don't wish to pry, but is it true that you're having problems at home?

2 [transitive always + adv/prep] especially AmE to force something open, or force it

away from something else; prize3 (2) : pry sth open/away etc: We finally managed to
pry open the door with a screwdriver.

3 away from prying eyes in private, where people cannot see: I'd like to show you
something, away from prying eyes.

peer : equal, mate, match

penetrate : pierce, permeate
penetrating : piercing, sharp, acute, keen, shrewd / / adjective

1 good at judging what people or situations are really like, especially in a way that
makes you successful in business, politics etc: Martin's a shrewd judge of character. | a
shrewd businesswoman

2 well judged and likely to be right: At a shrewd guess, I'd say Henry is going to leave
his job. | have a shrewd idea (=have an opinion about something that is probably
correct)
shrewdly adverb : where you jealous of her? ?asked Sara shrewdly.
shrewdness noun [uncountable]

pensive : thoughtful, meditative, reflective

perceive : see, discern, notice, apprehend, understand
perform : execute, discharge, fulfill, accomplish, achieve
peril : risk, jeopardy, danger, hazard
period : age, era, epoch
periphery / / noun

- 143 -
1 [countable usually singular] the outer area or edge that surrounds a place
[+ of]: a residential area on the periphery of the city
outskirts

2 be on the periphery to be only slightly involved in a group or activity: extremists on

the periphery of the animal rights movement
: edge, border, fringe, margin, rim, verge
perish : die, decay, wither, disappear, vanish
permanent : lasting, constant, perpetual, everlasting
permission : leave, permit, allowance
permit : allow, let
perpetual : everlasting, permanent, enduring, eternal, ceaseless,
infinite
perplex : confuse, puzzle
persecute : oppress, harass / / verb [transitive]

1 to treat someone unfairly by threatening them or being continuously unpleasant to

them: Black teenagers are being constantly harassed by the police.

2 to annoy someone by continually interrupting them: Stop harassing me will you! I'm
trying to work!

3 to continually attack an enemy

, molest / / verb [transitive]

1 to attack or harm someone, especially a child, by touching them in a sexual way or

trying to have sex with them: men who molest young boys
abuse2 (2)

2 old-fashioned to attack and physically harm someone: a dog that was molesting
sheep
molester noun [countable]
molestation noun [uncountable] , afflict
persevere : persist, endure
persuade : induce, entice /I/ verb [transitive]
to persuade someone to do something by offering them something if they will do it :
entice sb away/across/down etc: He tried to entice the dog away from its post by the
door. | entice sb: Banks are offering low interest rates in an attempt to entice new

- 144 -
customers.
enticement noun [countable, uncountable]

pertinent /adjective formal

directly concerned with something that is being considered: relevant: The investigator
asked several highly pertinent questions.
[+ to]: Your remarks are not pertinent to today's discussion.
pertinently adverb
pertinence noun [uncountable]
also impertinent
: appropriate, suitable, fit, proper
pervade : permeate, penetrate
petition: entreat, supplicate / / verb [intransitive, transitive] literary
to ask or pray for help from someone in power or from God
supplication / noun [uncountable]: Paolo knelt and bowed his head in supplication.,
beg, solicit
picturesque : colorful, scenic, beautiful
piece : segment, scrap, shred1 // noun

1 [countable] a small thin piece that is torn or cut roughly from something
[+ of]: a shred of cloth | shreds of dried coconut | tear/rip/cut sth to shreds: Jackie was
so mad with Tom she tore all his letters to shreds.

2 in shreds
a) torn in many places: My scarf was in shreds after the dog had played with it.

b) completely ruined: Simon went home with his career in shreds.

3 [singular] a very small amount : not a shred of proof/evidence/doubt (=not at all):

There's not a shred of evidence to convict him.
, fragment
pierce : penetrate
pile : heap up, accumulate, assemble, amass, collect
pilgrim /'/ noun [countable]
someone who travels a long way to a holy place for a religious reason: pilgrims at
Lourdes : wanderer
pillar : column, prop1 // verb propped, propping [transitive always +
adv/prep]
to support something by leaning it against something, or by putting something else

- 145 -
under, next to, or behind it : prop sth against/on: He propped his bike against a tree. |
prop sth open: Give me something to prop the door open.

prop sth up phrasal verb [transitive]

1 to prevent something from falling by putting something against it or under it: The
builders are trying to prop up the crumbling walls of the church.

2 if a government props up another government it helps it with financial or military

support so that it can continue to exist

3 prop yourself up to stand or sit straight by leaning against something

pious : devout, reverent, religious

piquant / / adjective

1 having a pleasantly sharp taste or flavour: a piquant tomato sauce

2 interesting and exciting; intriguing: The disappearance of the letter made the
situation all the more piquant.
piquantly adverb
piquancy noun [uncountable] : sharp, pungent
pitiful : pitiable, pathetic, piteous
pitiless : merciless, cruel, ruthless, implacable, relentless,inexorable
pity : sympathy, compassion
placid / / adjective

1 a placid person or animal does not easily get angry or excited: He had a placid
nature, well-suited to teaching.

2 calm and peaceful: The lake was placid and still under the moonlight.
placidly adverb : Dobbs stood at the entrance, placidly smoking his pipe.
placidity / / noun [uncountable]
: calm, peaceful, tranquil, serene, quiet, undisturbed
plague : epidemic, outbreak
plain : clear, distinct, lucid, unambiguous, unequivocal,
intelligible, evident, manifest, obvious, apparent
platform : stage, scaffold / / noun [countable]

- 146 -
1 a structure built next to a building or high wall, for workmen to stand on while they
build, repair, or paint the building

2 a structure with a raised stage used for killing criminals by hanging them or cutting
off their heads

3 AmE a structure that can be moved up and down to help people work on high
buildings; cradle1 (5) BrE
, scaffolding, pulpit /noun [countable]
a raised, boxlike structure at the front of a church, from which the priest speaks

plead : entreat, beg, supplicate, reason, defend

plight : predicament, dilemma
plot : scheme, intrigue1 / verb

1 [transitive] if something intrigues you, you are very interested by it, especially
because it seems strange or mysterious: I was intrigued by his request.

2 [intransitive] literary to make secret plans to harm someone or make them lose their
position of power: While King Richard was abroad, the barons had been intriguing
against him., conspiracy
plunge : immerse, submerge, dip
pointed: sharp, piercing, severe, keen
poison : venom
polish : brighten, smooth, shine, refine, gloss
polished : smooth, glossy, shiny
polite : courteous, civil, genteel
pollute : dirty, contaminate, corrupt
ponder : meditate, reflect, deliberate, muse1 / verb

1 [intransitive] to think carefully about something for a long time

[+ on/over]: He lit a cigarette and sat musing over the problems of the world.

2 [transitive] to say something in a thoughtful way, especially a question that you are
trying to find the answer to: "I wonder why she was killed," mused Poirot.
musingly adverb , weigh, contemplate
popular: common, prevailing, current, general, prevalent
port : harbor, haven
portion : part, section, segment, fragment

- 147 -
portray : picture, depict, represent, describe
pose : state, assert, propound / / verb [transitive]
formal to suggest an idea, explanation etc for other people to consider

position : station, place, locality, site

positive: explicit, express, certain, definite, precise
post : column, pillar, pole
postpone : defer, delay, procrastinate, adjourn
posture1 // noun

1 [countable, uncountable] the position you hold your body in when you sit or stand:
Poor posture can lead to muscular problems in later life.

2 [singular] the way you behave or think in a particular situation: the administration's
posture towards China
: pose, attitude
potent : powerful, mighty, influential
potential : possible, latent /'/ adjective
something that is latent is present but hidden, and may develop or become more
noticeable in the future: The virus remains latent in the body for many years. | latent
aggression
latency noun [uncountable]

potentially* : possibly
practicable : workable, achievable, attainable
practice: custom, habit
praise : laud, commend, admire, exalt
pray1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to speak to God in order to ask for help or give thanks: They
went to the mosque to pray.
[+ for]: Let us pray for peace.
[+ to]: Martha prayed to God every night. | pray sth: 밆ear Lord, show me my duty, ?
she prayed.

2 [intransitive, transitive] to wish or hope very strongly that something will happen :
pray that: Paul was praying that no one had noticed his absence.
[+ for]: We're praying for a fine day tomorrow.
: entreat, supplicate, beg, beseech, implore, petition

- 148 -
precaution / noun [countable usually plural]
something you do in order to prevent something dangerous or unpleasant from
happening: Fire precautions were neglected. | elaborate precautions to avoid
detection
[+ against]: You should save your work often as a precaution against computer failure.
| take the precaution of doing sth: I took the precaution of insuring my camera.
: prudence / / noun [uncountable]
a sensible and careful attitude that makes you avoid unnecessary risks

precious : valuable, dear, invaluable, priceless

precise : definite, correct, strict, accurate
predict : foretell, prophesy1 /verb prophesies, prophesying, prophesied
[intransitive, transitive]
to use religious or magical knowledge to say what will happen in the future; foretell
[+ that]: The soothsayer prophesied that the war would be won. | prophesy
who/what/how etc: He even prophesied how the crops would fail.
, foresee, forecast
predominant : prevailing, prevalent, dominant
predominate* : prevail, outweigh, surpass, dominate
preeminent : conspicuous, noticeable, outstanding, eminent,
celebrated, distinguished
prejudice1 /'/ noun

1 [countable, uncountable] an unreasonable dislike and distrust of people who are

different from you in some way, especially because of their race, sex, religion etc:
Women still have to face a great deal of prejudice in the workplace.
[+ against]: Prejudice against black people is common in many parts of America. |
racial/sexual prejudice (=prejudice against people who belong to a different race or
sex): victims of racial prejudice

2 [uncountable] to the prejudice of formal having a harmful effect or influence on

something else: Harry continued to smoke, to the prejudice of his health.

3 without prejudice law without harming or affecting something else

: bias, partiality
preliminary : introductory, preparatory / adjective

1 [only before noun] done in order to get ready for something: preparatory talks to
clear the way for a peace settlement

- 149 -
2 preparatory to formal before something else and in order to prepare for it: The
partners held several meetings preparatory to signing the agreement.

premium : bonus, gift, reward

preoccupied / adjective
thinking about something a lot, with the result that you do not pay attention to other
things: I tried to speak to Bella, but she seemed a little preoccupied.
[+ with]: Rod's completely preoccupied with all the wedding preparations at the
moment.
: absorbed, engross / / verb [transitive]

1 if something engrosses you, you are extremely interested in it: Their revolutionary
talk engrossed him, and he listened intently.

2 engross yourself in/with to become very interested in something and spend a lot of
time doing it

prescribe : ordain /verb [transitive]

1 to officially make someone a priest or religious leader: Desmond Tutu was ordained
in 1960. | ordain sb (as) sth: Paulson was ordained deacon.
also ordination

2 formal to order that something should happen: a duty ordained by God

[+ that]: The King ordained that a feast should be prepared.
, direct, dictate, decree
presently : immediately, directly, shortly, forthwith, soon
preserve : keep, conserve, shelter, shield, protect
prestige : reputation, influence, distinction
presume : assume, suppose
pretend: feign, affect, assume
pretence also pretense AmE / / noun [singular, uncountable]

1 an attempt to pretend that something is true

[+ that]: Susie abandoned the pretence that she didn't want to go to the party. | keep
up the pretence of being/doing sth: How long are you going to keep up the pretence of
being ill? | under (the) pretence of sth: John waited for her under pretence of tying his
shoelaces. | make a pretence of doing sth: Tollitt made no pretence of hiding his

- 150 -
surprise.

2 under/on false pretences if you do something under false pretences, you do it by

pretending that something is true: Mellors obtained credit under false pretences.

3 no pretence to superiority/faith/education etc no claim that you are superior1 (4)

etc: a simple man, with little pretence to education
: pretext, excuse
prevail* : prevalent, predominate, dominant, current, general,
common
prevent: hinder, obstruct, hamper, impede, thwart1 / / verb [transitive]
formal to prevent someone from doing what they are trying to do: My plans were
thwarted by the intervention of the police. | thwarted ambition
, interrupt
previous : prior, earlier, former, preceding
pride : conceit // noun

1 [uncountable] an attitude that shows you have too high an opinion of your own
abilities or importance; conceitedness: The conceit of the woman - it's unbelievable!

2 [countable] technical an unusual, cleverly expressed comparison of two very

different things, especially in poetry
, self-esteem, vanity / / noun [uncountable]

1 too much pride in yourself, so that you are always thinking about yourself and your
appearance

2 the vanity of sth literary the lack of importance of something compared to other
things that are much more important: The poem warns of the vanity of mental
ambition., arrogance, self-importance
primary: elementary, fundamental, basic
prime : primary
primitive : primeval, uncivilized, uncultured
principal* : prime, paramount, capital, chief, foremost, main,
leading, cardinal
private : individual, personal, confidential, secret
privilege : prerogative
probe : examine, explore, investigate
procedure : proceeding, course, process

- 151 -
proceed : advance, progress, continue
proclaim : announce, declare, promulgate /verb [transitive]

1 to spread an idea or belief to as many people as possible

2 to make a new law come into effect by announcing it officially

promulgator noun [countable]
promulgation /" noun [uncountable]

procure: acquire, gain, get, secure, win, obtain

prodigious : wonderful, marvelous, amazing, astonishing
productive : fertile, fruitful
profession : vocation, calling, business, employment
proficient : skilled, adept, skillful
profound : deep
profusion / / noun [singular, uncountable]
a supply or amount that is almost too large
[+ of]: The house was overflowing with a profusion of strange ornaments. | in
profusion: Corn marigolds grow in profusion in the fields.
: abundance, plenty, bounty
progress : advancement, advance, progression
progressive : forward, advanced
progressively* : increasingly
prohibit : forbid, inhibit
project : plan, scheme, design
prolong : lengthen, extend, protract
promote : further, encourage
prone / adjective

1 likely to do something or suffer from something, especially something bad or harmful

[+ to]: Some plants are prone to a particular disease.
[prone to do sth]: Kids are all prone to eat junk food. | strike-prone/accident-prone
etc: I never saw a girl more accident-prone.

2 formal lying down with the front of your body facing down: Colley lay prone in his
bunk.
prostrate1 (1)

proneness noun [uncountable]

- 152 -
 : inclined, dispose / / verb [transitive] formal
to arrange things or put them in their places

dispose of sth phrasal verb [transitive]

1 to get rid of something, especially something that is difficult to get rid of: How did
Dahmers dispose of his victims' bodies?

2 to deal with something such as a problem or question successfully

3 to defeat an opponent

dispose sb to sth phrasal verb [transitive usually in passive]

to make someone more likely to feel or think a particular way about something
, liable, tending
proof : evidence, testimony
proper : appropriate, fit, suitable, suited, adapted
property : 1. possession, effects, estate
2. quality, character, feature, characteristic
prophesy : foretell, predict
proponent* : supporter
proportion : size, extent, dimensions
propose : offer, proffer, suggest
proposition : proposal
prospect : anticipation, expectation, outlook, perspective
prosper : succeed, thrive, flourish
prosperous : successful, flourishing, thriving
protect : defend, guard, shield, shelter, harbor
protest : remonstrate, complain, object
proud : arrogant, haughty, overbearing, self-important
prove : confirm, verify, corroborate / verb [transitive] formal
to provide information that supports or helps to prove someone else's statement, idea
etc: We now have new evidence to corroborate the defendant's story.
corroboration / noun [uncountable]
corroborative adjective
, validate / verb [transitive]
formal to prove that something is true or correct, or to make a document or
agreement officially and legally acceptable
validation noun [countable, uncountable] , substantiate

- 153 -
proverb: maxim, saying
provide : furnish, supply, afford
provision : food, supplies
provoke : enrage, exasperate / verb [transitive usually passive]
to make someone very annoyed by continuing to do something that upsets them
, vex, irritate
prudent : cautious, discreet, careful, wary
pseudo- / / prefix
not real; false : pseudo-intellectuals (=who pretend to be clever): He says astrology's
just a pseudoscience.
: sham, counterfeit, false, fake
publish : announce, proclaim, declare
purchase : buy, procure
pure : uncontaminated, clean, spotless, immaculate,
unpolluted
purge : purity, cleanse, clear, clean, clarify
purpose : object, intent, intention, aim, end
push : shove1 verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to push someone or something, in a rough or careless way,

using your hands or shoulders : shove sb aside/into etc: Secret Service men shoved
people aside to make way for the President. | shove sb/sth: Stop shoving me or I'll tell
the teacher! | pushing and shoving (=pushing with your body, especially in a crowd):
There was no trouble at the rally apart from a little pushing and shoving.

2 [transitive always + adv/prep] to put something somewhere carelessly or without

thinking much : shove sth into/under etc: Let's shove everything into the closet just for
now.

3 shove up/over spoken, especially BrE to move along on a seat to make space for
someone else: Shove up mate, there's no room to sit down here.
also when push comes to shove push2 (7)

shove off phrasal verb [intransitive]

1 spoken used to tell someone rudely or angrily to go away: Shove off! I'm busy.

2 to push a boat away from the land, usually with a pole, thrust

- 154 -
 ***** (Q) ******

quaint : strange, odd, unusual, extraordinary, uncommon

quake : shake, shudder, tremble, shiver, quaver, quiver
qualify : fit, suit, entitle, equip
quality : characteristic, attribute, property, character, trait noun [countable]
formal a particular quality in someone's character: Anne's generosity is one of her
most pleasing traits.

quarrel : dispute, argument, controversy

quick : prompt, rapid, swift, fleet, hasty
quiet : pacific, calm, tranquil, serene
quit : stop, cease, leave
quiver : shiver. shake, tremble, vibrate, quake, shudder

***** (R) *****

radiant : shining, bright, brilliant, beaming

radical*: 1. fundamental, basic
2. extreme, revolutionary
rage : anger, fury, wrath
raise : lift, elevate, hoist
random: haphazard / / adjective
happening or done in a way that is not planned or recognized: The training was carried
out in a haphazard fashion.
haphazardly adverb , aimless
range : extent, scope, compass
rank : position, standing, station, level
rapid : speedy, fast, swift, fleet
rapture : ecstasy / / noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a feeling of extreme happiness: His expression was one of

pure ecstasy. | in ecstasy/ecstasies (=feeling extremely happy) | go into ecstasies
(=become very happy and excited)

- 155 -
2 [uncountable] a state in which you cannot see or hear what is happening around you,
because you are having a powerful religious experience
, joy, delight, bliss, exultation
rare* : scarce, uncommon, exceptional, extraordinary
rascal /noun [countable]

1 humorous a child who behaves badly but whom you still like: You little rascal! Where
have you hidden my shoes?

2 old-fashioned a dishonest man

rascally adjective old use: a rascally trick
: scamp, villain, scoundrel
rash : reckless, heedless, indiscreet, imprudent
ratify : confirm, sanction, validate
ration : apportion, distribute, mete
rational: reasonable, sensible
raw : crude, rude, uncooked
reactionary : repulsive
readily : easily, willingly
real : actual, factual, authentic / adjective

1 done or made in the traditional or original way: authentic Chinese food

2 a painting, document, book etc that is authentic has been proved to be by a

particular person

3 based on facts: an authentic account

authentically / adverb , genuine
realize : grasp, understand, comprehend, conceive
realm : sphere, domain, province, field
rear* : nurture, raise, nurse
reasonable : rational, logical, sensible, judicious
reassure /" / verb [transitive]
to make someone feel calmer and less worried or frightened about a problem or
situation: I was reassured by their offer of support. | reassure sb (that): They
apologized and reassured us that the matter would be dealt with immediately.
insure : encourage, comfort
rebel : insurgent / noun [countable often plural]
one of a group of people fighting against the government of their own country

- 156 -
insurgency noun [uncountable]
insurgent adjective : the insurgent forces
also counterinsurgency, traitor
rebellion : mutiny, revolt
rebellious : defiant // adjective
refusing clearly to do what someone tells you to do: He gave a short, defiant laugh.
defiantly adverb , rebel, mutinous
rebuke : reprove, reprimand verb [transitive]
to tell someone officially that something they have done is very wrong: The military
court reprimanded him for failing to do his duty.
reprimand noun [countable] , censure, reproach, scold
recall : recollect, remember
reciprocal : mutual
recite : rehearse
reckless: careless, rash, heedless, imprudent
reckon : 1. count, compute, calculate, enumerate
2. consider, regard, deem
recommend : commend
recompense : compensation, reward
reconcile : conciliate /k@n'sIlieIt/ verb [transitive] formal
to do something to make people more likely to stop arguing, especially by giving
them something they want: Negotiators were called in to conciliate between the
warring factions.
?conciliator noun [countable]
, appease
recover : regain, reclaim, retrieve, restore
reduce : diminish, decrease, abridge, curtail, abate, lessen
refer : attribute, ascribe, impute
referee : umpire, judge
reference : allusion, mention
refined : purified, clarified, distil also distill AmE / / verb distilled, distilling
[transitive]

1 to make a liquid such as water or alcohol more pure by heating it so that it becomes
a gas and then letting it cool

2 to make a strong alcoholic drink such as whisky by this method

3 to get ideas, information etc from a large amount of knowledge or experience

- 157 -
distillation / noun [countable, uncountable]

reflect : meditate, ponder, deliberate, contemplate, consider,

muse
reflection : image
reform : better, rectify /'/ verb rectified, rectifying [transitive]

1 formal to correct something that is wrong: I did my best to rectify the situation, but
the damage was already done. | Please rectify the mistake at once.

2 technical to make alcohol pure

3 technical to change an alternating 쟠urrent (=flow of electricity backwards and

forwards along a wire) to a direct 쟠urrent (=flow in only one direction)
rectifiable adjective
rectification / noun [countable, uncountable]
also rectifier, correct, amend, ameliorate / verb [transitive]
formal to make something better: measures to ameliorate working conditions
amelioration / noun [uncountable] , mend,improve, repair
refresh : freshen, enliven, reanimate
refuge : sanctuary, haven
refuse : decline, reject, rebuff
refute / / verb [transitive] formal

1 to prove that a statement or idea is not correct: an attempt to refute Moore's

theories

2 to say that a statement is wrong or unfair: She refuted the allegations of malpractice.
refutable adjective
refutation / noun [countable, uncountable]
: disprove (Ant) agree, concur
regain : recover, retrieve
regard : consider, account, deem / verb [transitive not in progressive] formal
to think of something in a particular way; consider : deem that: They deemed that he
was no longer capable of managing the business. | deem sth necessary/appropriate
etc: They were told to take whatever action they deemed necessary., hold, suppose
regardless : inattentive, neglectful, indifferent, unconcerned
region : section, province
register : enroll, list, record, catalogue

- 158 -
regret : deplore, lament
regular : uniform, even, systematic, formal, orderly
regulate : control, direct, adjust, arrange
regulation : rule, order, law
rehearse : recite, practice, drill, train
reign1 / noun [countable]

1 the period of time during which someone is king or queen: the reign of Queen
Victoria

2 a period during which something is the most powerful or most important feature of a
place: the reign of Stalinism in Russia | reign of terror (=when a government kills many
of its political opponents)
: rule, govern, prevail, predominate (Ant) obey
reinforce : strengthen, intensify
rejoice : delight
relation: connection, relationship, association, alliance
relax : loosen, slacken / / also slacken off verb [intransitive, transitive]

1 to gradually become slower, weaker, less active etc, or to make something do this:
The heavy rain showed no signs of slackening off. | slacken your pace/speed (=go or
walk more slowly): Once outside the gates, I slackened my pace.

2 to make something looser or to become looser: Just slacken the screws a little.
tighten
(Ant) tighten, intensify
release* : 1. free, liberate, loose, discharge
2. emit, vent, give off, give out, let off.
3. loosen, loose, untie, unbind, uncivilized also -ised BrE / adjective

1 uncivilized behaviour is rude or socially unacceptable: uncivilized incidents of racial

violence

2 an uncivilized hour informal extremely early in the morning, unfasten

relentless / adjective

1 someone who is relentless never stops being strict, cruel, or determined

[+ in]: a regime that was relentless in its persecution of dissidents

- 159 -
2 something unpleasant that is relentless continues without ever stopping or getting
less severe: the relentless fury of the waves | a relentless struggle for power
relentlessly adverb
: unrelenting, stern, severe, merciless, ruthless,pitiless
reliable : trustworthy, dependable, infallible / adjective

1 always right and never making mistakes: I'm only human, I'm not infallible. | an
infallible memory

2 something that is infallible always works or has the intended effect: He had an
infallible cure for a hangover.
infallibly adverb
infallibility / / noun [uncountable]

relief : 1. deliverance 2. alleviation, ease

relieve : ease, alleviate, assuage, mitigate, allay, lighten,
soothe, lessen, abate, diminish
religious : pious, devout, reverent
relish1 / verb [transitive]
to enjoy an experience or the thought of something that is going to happen: Peter
didn't really relish the thought of spending Christmas at his in-laws. | He spoke calmly,
relishing the chance to infuriate his boss.
: taste flavor, savor
reluctant / adjective
slow and unwilling: She gave a reluctant smile. | reluctant to do sth: She seemed
reluctant to join in the discussion.
reluctance noun [singular, uncountable]: He answered these questions with a certain
reluctance.
reluctantly adverb : Reluctantly, he agreed.
: unwilling, disinclined, loath, averse
remain : last, abide, endure
remainder : remnant, residue, rest
remark : comment, utterance /'/ noun formal

1 [countable] something you say: Politicians are judged by their public utterances.

2 give utterance to to express something in words

- 160 -
3 [uncountable] the action of saying something, statement
remarkable* : notable, conspicuous, unusual, extraordinary,
noteworthy, distinguished
remedy : cure, treatment
remember : recall, recollect
remembrance : recollection, reminiscence / noun [countable, uncountable
often plural]
a spoken or written story about events that you remember
[+of/about]: reminiscences of the war
memoir, memory
remote : distant, removed
remove : transfer, transport, carry
render // verb

1 render sth useless/render sb harmless etc to make someone or something useless

etc: New laws have rendered this kind of assistance virtually impossible.

2 render an apology/an explanation/a service etc formal to say sorry to someone, give
someone an explanation. etc : for services rendered (=in payment for something you
have done)

3 [transitive] to express or present something in a particular way : render sth as sth:

Through her art, she attempts to render feelings as colors. | render sth in sth: Children
soon learn to render their thoughts in speech.

4 render sth into English/Russian/Chinese etc old use to translate something into
English, Russian etc

5 [transitive] technical to spread plaster1 (1) or cement on the surface of a wall

render sth down phrasal verb [transitive]

to melt fat until it is pure

render sth up phrasal verb [transitive] old use

to give something to someone, especially to a ruler or enemy
: contribute, afford, present, give, assign
renew : regenerate, renovate
renown : repute, fame, distinction, eminence, reputation
rent : lease, let

- 161 -
repair : mend, remodel, amend, fix
repel : repulse, parry /verb [transitive]

1 to avoid answering a difficult question: White House spokesmen tired of parrying

journalists' questions

2 to defend yourself against someone who is attacking you by pushing their weapon or
hand to one side; deflect
parry noun [countable]

repent / verb [intransitive, transitive]

1 a word meaning to be sorry for something you have done, used especially in a
religious context
[+ of]: Repent of your sins and you will be forgiven.

2 formal to be sorry for something and to wish you had not done it : repent doing sth: I
began to repent parting with you. | repent sth: He repented his decision.
: regret, atone // verb [intransitive]
formal to do something to show that you are sorry for having done something wrong
[+ for]: Richard was anxious to atone for his thoughtlessness.

replace : supersede verb [transitive often passive]

if a new idea, product, or method supersedes another one, it becomes used instead
because it is more modern or effective: Television superseded radio in the Fifties.,
supplant, substitute
represent : depict, express, portray
repress : check, suppress, subdue, quell / / verb [transitive] formal

1 to bring an end to a violent situation especially when people are protesting : quell a
riot/revolt/disturbance etc: They needed more troops to quell the ever-rising tide of
rioting.

2 to reduce unpleasant feelings, especially of doubt or worry: I thought about the

advantages of the deal, trying to quell a growing sense of unease.
, crush, restrain, curb1 / verb [transitive]
to control or limit something in order to prevent it from having a harmful effect:
measures to curb the spread of the virus

- 162 -
reproach : abuse, reprimand /verb [transitive]
to tell someone officially that something they have done is very wrong: The military
court reprimanded him for failing to do his duty.
reprimand noun [countable] , condemn, rebuke, scold, blame
reproduce : copy, duplicate, imitate, generate, beget // verb past tense
and past participle begot / ?gt/
or past tense begat
past participle begotten / / [transitive] formal

1 old use to become the father of a child

2 to cause something or make it happen: Hunger begets crime.

reprove: rebuke, blame, censure, reproach, reprimand,

scold, admonish
reputation : repute, honor, fame, distinction, renown
request1 / noun

1 [countable] a polite or formal demand for something

[+ for]: They have made an urgent request for international aid. | request that: He
ignored the neighbours' requests that he should make less noise. | at sb's request
(=because they asked you to): I telephoned her in Paris, at Staunton's request. | on
request (=when you ask for it): Further details will be sent on request. | by request
(=because someone has especially asked for it): There were no flowers at the funeral,
by request. | any requests? spoken (=used to ask people if they want anything): I'm
going to the bar - any requests?

2 [countable] a piece of music that is played on the radio because someone has asked
for it
: sue, petition, entreat, beg, supplicate, solicit,
beseech
require : demand, enjoin
requisite : necessary, essential, indispensable
rescue : save, deliver, redeem / / verb [transitive] formal

1 IMPROVE STH to make something less bad: Olivier's performance redeemed what
was otherwise a second-rate play. | redeeming feature (=the one good thing about
someone or something that is unpleasant): a brutal man, whose one redeeming
feature was his honesty

- 163 -
2 FREE SB to free someone from the power or evil, especially in the Christian religion:
Christ came to Earth to redeem us from our sins.
also Redeemer

3 redeem yourself to do something that will improve what other people think of you,
after you have behaved badly or failed: She was trying desperately to redeem herself
after last week's embarrassing mistake.

4 redeem a promise/pledge/obligation etc formal to do what you promised to do: The

government found itself unable to redeem its election pledges.

5 GET MONEY FOR STH to exchange a piece of paper representing an amount of

money for the money that it is worth: Redeem this coupon for 20p off your next jar of
coffee. | Bonus shares can be redeemed until 31st July.

6 GET STH BACK to buy something back which you had left with someone in order to
borrow money from them: I was finally able to redeem my watch from the
pawnbrokers.
redeemable adjective

research : investigate, study, examine, scrutinize

resemblance : analogy / noun [countable, uncountable]
a comparison between two situations, processes etc that seem similar, or the process
of making this comparison : drawing/draw an analogy (=make a comparison): analogies
between human and animal behaviour | by analogy (with) (=using an analogy): Dr
Wood explained the movement of light by analogy with the movement of water.
, similarity, affinity / noun

1 [singular] a strong feeling that you like and understand someone because you share
the same ideas or interests
[+ for/between/with]: I felt an immediate affinity for them.

2 [countable, uncountable] a close connection between two things because of qualities

or features that they share
[+ with/between]: There is a remarkable affinity between Christian and Chinese
concepts of the spirit., similitude, likeness, alikeness
reserve : save, retain, keep, hold
reside : dwell, abide, live, sojourn, lodge, inhabit

- 164 -
residence : dwelling, house, habitation
resign : relinquish, abandon, forsake, quit
resilient / / adjective

1 someone who is resilient quickly becomes healthy or happy again after an illness,
difficulty, change etc: I wouldn't worry - kids are very resilient.

2 a resilient substance returns to its former shape when pressure is removed

resiliently adverb : 1. rebounding, elastic
resist : withstand, oppose, confront, counteract, rebuff / noun [countable]
formal an unkind or unfriendly answer to a friendly suggestion or offer of help; snub2:
Every attempt Yves made to befriend her met with a rebuff.
rebuff verb [transitive]: Brady rebuffed all her suggestions.

resolute / / adjective
doing something in a very determined way because you have very strong beliefs, aims
etc
뾬pposite irresolute

resolutely adverb : She resolutely resisted his amorous advances.

resoluteness noun
: resolved, steadfast, determined
resolve : determine, decide, disintegrate // verb [intransitive, transitive]

1 to break up or make something break up into very small pieces: The whole plane just
disintegrated in mid-air.

2 to become weaker or less united and be gradually destroyed: a society disintegrating

under economic pressures
disintegration / / noun , separate, analyze, solve
respect : esteem, deference // noun [uncountable] formal
behaviour that shows that you respect someone and are therefore willing to accept
their opinions or judgment: He had the arrogance of someone who had always been
accustomed to deference. | in/out of deference to (=done because you respect
someone's beliefs, opinions etc): They were married in church out of deference to
their parents' wishes.
deferential / adjective
deferentially adverb
, venerate / / verb [transitive]

- 165 -
formal to treat someone or something with great respect, especially because they are
old or connected with the past: The Chinese venerate their ancestors.
veneration /" / noun [uncountable]
, reverence1 / / noun

1 [uncountable] formal great respect and admiration for someone or something

[+ for]: You should show proper reverence for the national flag.

2 your/his reverence old use used when speaking to or about a priest: The visitors have
arrived, your reverence.

respectable : estimable, honorable

respectful : courteous, polite, well-mannered, civil
responsible : accountable, answerable, liable
restful : calm, tranquil, peaceful, undisturbed, serene, pacific
restore : renew, renovate, repair, return, recover, revive
restrain: check, repress, curb, suppress, restrict
restrict** : confine, limit, restrain, curb /02
result : outcome, consequence, effect, end
retaliate / / verb [intransitive]
to do something bad to someone because they have done something bad to you :
retaliate by doing sth: When the police started to arrest people, some of the
demonstrators retaliated by throwing stones.
: avenge, requite / / verb [transitive]
formal to give or do something in return for something done or given to you in the
past, revenge
retire : withdraw, retreat, recede, retract
reveal : disclose, divulge, unveil (Ant) conceal
reverence : worship, veneration, respect, homage, awe
reverse : invert
revert* : return, come back. revisit.
review : survey, reexamination
revise* : change, modify, amend, alter, correct
revive : revitalize
revolt : rebel, mutiny
revolution : overthrow, revolt
revolve : rotate, circulate, roll, orbit, circle
reward : recompense, prize
rich : opulent, affluent, abundant, ample

- 166 -
ridicule : mockery, sneer, mock, jeer
ridiculous : absurd / adjective
completely stupid or unreasonable; ridiculous: Don't be absurd! | It seems quite
absurd to expect anyone to drive for 3 hours just for a 20 minute meeting.
absurdity noun [countable, uncountable, funny, comical
right : just, equitable, upright
righteous : moral, upright, virtuous, equitable
rigid : 1. stiff, firm, bard / / noun [countable]
literary a poet, inflexible
2. strict, severe, stern, rigorous
rigorous : rigid, severe, harsh, stern, austere, strict
rim : edge, border, margin, brim, boundary, verge
riot : uproar / / noun [singular, uncountable]
a lot of noise or angry protest about something : be in an uproar: The house was in an
uproar, with babies crying and people shouting.
, disturbance
ripe : mature, mellow1 / / adjective

1 a mellow colour or light looks soft, warm, and not too bright: the mellow, golden
light of early evening | mellow shades of brown and orange

2 a mellow sound is pleasant and smooth: the mellow sound of a trombone | a

friendly, mellow voice

3 mellow wine or fruit has a smooth, ripe taste: a mellow red wine

4 gentle, calm, and sympathetic because of age or experience: Tina's become more
mellow since having children of her own.

5 feeling calm and relaxed, especially after drinking alcohol: They were feeling
pleasantly mellow.
mellowness noun [uncountable], developed
risk : hazard, danger, venture, peril, jeopardy
rival : competitor, contestant, antagonist, opponent
roam : ramble, wander, rove, stray
roar : cry, bellow1 / / verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to shout loudly, especially in a low voice: Tony bellowed

instructions from an upstairs window.

- 167 -
2 [intransitive] to make the deep hollow sound that a bull1 (1) makes
, shout, yell
rob : deprive, plunder1 / / verb [intransitive, transitive]
to steal large amounts of money or property from somewhere, especially in a violent
way that causes damage: The rich provinces of Asia Minor were plundered by the
invaders. | greedy tycoons who plunder their companies' pension funds | plundered
treasures
plunderer noun [countable] , pillage // verb [intransitive, transitive]
if an army pillages a place, it uses violence to steal from and damage a place that it has
taken control of in a war; plunder1
loot2

pillage noun [uncountable]

pillager noun [countable]

robust : sturdy, vigorous, stalwart

rot : decay, corrupt, degenerate1 / verb [intransitive]
to become worse
[+ into]: The debate soon degenerated into petty squabbling.
degeneration / / noun [uncountable]

rotate : turn, spin, revolve, wheel, roll

rotten : decayed, foul, corrupt
rough : uneven, irregular, rugged // adjective

1 land that is rugged is rough and uneven: rugged terrain | a rugged coastline

2 a rugged car or piece of equipment etc is strongly built and not likely to break easily;
sturdy

3 a man who is rugged is good-looking and has strong features which are often not
perfect: Ann admired his rugged good looks.

4 rugged behaviour is confident and determined but not always polite

ruggedly adverb ruggedness noun [uncountable] , violent, wild
rouse : stir, excite, stimulate, awaken, provoke
rude : discourteous, ill-mannered, impolite, uncivil, coarse
rudimentary : elementary, fundamental, basic

- 168 -
ruin : decay, downfall, spoil, demolish, destroy, damage
rural adjective

1 happening in or connected with the countryside, not the city: a peaceful rural setting
| rural bus routes

2 like the countryside or reminding you of the countryside: It's very rural round here
isn't it ?
urban : rustic (Ant) urban
rush : dash
ruthless: pitiless, cruel, harsh, severe, unrelenting, relentless,
inexorable / / adjective formal
an inexorable process cannot be stopped: the inexorable decline of Britain's
manufacturing industry
inexorably adverb : The story moves inexorably towards its tragic conclusion.
inexorability / / noun [uncountable]

***** (S) *****

sacred : holy, divine

sad : sorrowful, mournful
safe : secure, protected
sanction : permission, ratification, authorization
sanguinary / / adjective formal
involving violence and killing: a bitter and sanguinary war
: bloody, bloodthirsty, cruel, ruthless
satire / / noun

1 [uncountable] a way of talking or writing about something, for example politics and
politicians, in which you deliberately make them seem funny so that people will see
their faults: the characteristic use of satire in Jonson's work

2 [countable] a play, book, story etc written in this way: a political satire
satirical / adjective

- 169 -
satiric adjective
satirically / adverb
: irony, sarcasm /noun [uncountable]
a way of speaking or writing that involves saying the opposite of what you really mean
in order to make an unkind joke or to show that you are annoyed : heavy scarcasm
(=very clear sarcasm): She was an hour late. 밎ood of you to arrive on time, ?George
said, with heavy sarcasm.

satisfy : gratify, meet, satiate /'/ verb [transitive usually passive] literary
to satisfy a desire or need for something such as food or sex, especially so that you feel
you have had too much
satiated adjective : Zeke lay on the couch, satiated after his meal.
satiety / / noun [uncountable] , suffice
savage : wild, uncultivated, barbarous, uncivilized, cruel, brutal
save : rescue, salvage
savor : taste, flavor
scale* : climb, mount, ascend
scan : scrutinize, investigate
scandal : disgrace, dishonor, shame
scanty / / adjective
not big enough for a particular purpose: a scanty bikini
scantily adverb : scantily clad models
: meager, insufficient, inadequate, deficient
scarce : rare, insufficient, deficient
scare : terrify, alarm, startle, frighten, shock, intimidate / / verb [transitive]
to frighten someone by behaving in a threatening way, especially in order to make
them do what you want: Buildings were bombed in an attempt to intimidate the
opposition.
intimidation noun [uncountable]: allegations of police intimidation

scatter : sprinkle, strew / verb past participle strewn / / or strewed [transitive

usually passive]

1 to scatter things around a large area

[+ around/about/over]: I found papers strewn all over the room. | be strewn with: The
yard was strewn with garbage.

2 literary to lie scattered over something: Flowers strewed the path.

- 170 -
3 strewn with containing a lot of something: conversation liberally strewn with swear
words, disperse, dissipate
scent : odor, perfume
scheme : plan, design, project, plot, intrigue, conspiracy
scoff : mock, scorn, jeer / / verb [intransitive, transitive]
to laugh unkindly at someone to show that you strongly disapprove of them
[+ at]: of course they jeered at you - you lost the game, right?
jeer noun [countable]: hurtful jeers, sneer, ridicule
scold : reprove / / verb [transitive]
formal to criticize someone for something that they have done : reprove sb for doing
sth: I was reproved for wasting good paper.
, reproach, reprimand, rebuke
scope : range, extent, space
score : gain, win
scorn : contempt, disdain, mockery, scoff, sneer
scream : shriek1 / verb [intransitive]

1 to make a very high, loud sound: Judith suddenly shrieked and looked to see what
had bitten her. | shriek with joy/pain/fright etc: Everyone was shrieking with laughter
in the bar.

2 [transitive] to say something in a high, loud voice because you are excited, afraid, or
angry: Anne stood in the doorway shrieking abuse at him., cry
screen : shelter, protect, veil, defend, cover, shield
scrupulous // adjective

1 careful to be honest and fair: Mr Samuel has always been most scrupulous in his
dealings with us.
unscrupulous

2 done very carefully so that every detail is correct: scrupulous attention to detail
scrupulously adverb : scrupulously clean
scrupulousness noun [uncountable]
: careful, painstaking, meticulous / / adjective

1 very careful about small details, and always making sure that everything is done
correctly: He kept meticulous accounts. | She pasted the cuttings into the scrapbook
with meticulous care.

- 171 -
2 if you are meticulous about doing something, you are very careful to always do it
[+ in/about]: He's meticulous about replying to correspondence.
meticulously adverb
meticulousness noun [uncountable]
.
scrutinize : examine, investigate, dissect, study
scrutiny: examination, investigation, dissection, inspection
search : seek, explore
secret : clandestine / / adjective
clandestine activities or organizations are secret: a clandestine affair
, conceal, private, privy
secure : safe, protected, obtain, procure, get, acquire, gain
segregate : isolate, separate, dissociate
seize : grasp, grab, clutch, capture, grip
self-evident : evident, obvious, clear
self-satisfied : complacent / / adjective
pleased with what you have achieved so that you stop trying to improve or change
things: There's a danger of becoming complacent if you win a few games.
[+ about]: We simply cannot afford to be complacent about the future of our car
industry.
complacently adverb , smug
send : transmit, dispatch1 also despatch BrE / verb [transitive]

1 formal to send someone or something somewhere for a particular purpose : dispatch

sb/sth to: A reporter was dispatched to Naples to cover the riot.

2 old-fashioned to deliberately kill a person or animal

3 old-fashioned to finish all of something, convey

sensation : excitement, stimulation, animation, agitation
sensational : exciting, stimulating
sense : meaning, signification, significance, denotation
senseless : stupid, foolish, silly, idiotic
sensibility : susceptibility, sensitivity, sensitiveness
sensible : judicious, intelligent, sagacious / / adjective formal
able to understand and judge things very well; wise1 (2)
sagaciously adverb
, sage1 / noun

- 172 -
1 [uncountable] a plant with grey-green leaves that are used in cooking

2 [countable] literary someone, especially an old man, who is very wise

, wise, sound, rational, reasonable
sensitive : impressionable, susceptible
sensual : voluptuous / / adjective

1 a woman who is voluptuous has large breasts and a soft curved body

2 expressing strong sexual feeling or sexual pleasure: a voluptuous gesture

3 literary something that is voluptuous gives you pleasure because it looks, smells, or
tastes good: the voluptuous fragrance of a summer garden
voluptuously adverb
voluptuousness noun [uncountable] , sensuous
sententious // adjective formal
saying clever things about morality or the way people should behave: sententious
remarks
sententiously adverb
: concise, terse / / adjective
a terse reply, message etc uses very few words and often shows that you are annoyed:
Derek's terse reply ended the conversation.
tersely adverb : he said tersely.
terseness noun [uncountable]
, succinct / / adjective approving
clearly expressed in a few words: a very succinct explanation
succinctly adverb
succinctness noun [uncountable]

sentiment : emotion, sentimentality, sensibility

separate : divide, part, disjoin, sever, dissociate, segregate,
split
sequence : succession, series
serene : calm, peaceful, tranquil, undisturbed, placid,
sedate1 // adjective

1 moving in a slow and rather formal way: a sedate procession

2 peaceful, ordinary, and not very exciting: a sedate seaside town on the South Coast

- 173 -
sedately adverb
sedateness noun [uncountable]

serious : important, momentous, grave

serve : assist, help, aid, succur//literary help that is given to someone who is
having problems, contribute
sever / / verb formal

1 [intransitive, transitive] to cut through something, separating it into two parts, or to

become severed in this way: Martin's hand was severed in the accident. | a severed
rope

2 to end a relationship with someone, or a connection with something: severing family

ties
severance noun [uncountable]
: separate, divide, cut, cleave / / verb [transitive] formal past tense
cleaved, clove / / cleft / /
past participle cleaved, cloven / cleft

1 [intransitive always + adv/prep, transitive always + adv/prep] to cut something into

separate parts using a heavy tool or to be able to be cut in this way: The wooden door
had been cleft in two.

2 [transitive] to divide something into two completely separate parts: Class divisions
have cleft the society.

3 cleave the air/darkness etc to move quickly through the air etc: His fist cleft the air.

cleave to sb/sth phrasal verb [transitive]

1 formal to continue to think that a method, belief etc is true or valuable, even when
this seems unlikely: John still cleaves to his romantic ideals.

2 to stick to someone or something or seem to surround them

, rend / / past tense and past participle rent / verb [transitive] literary
to tear or break something violently into pieces

severe : 1. rough, harsh, brutal.

2. formidable, rigorous,

- 174 -
3. tough, rigid, stern, strict
shabby /adjective

1 untidy and in a bad condition from being used for a long time: a shabby suit | shabby
hotel rooms

2 wearing clothes that are old and worn: a shabby tramp

3 unfair and unkind: That's a shabby way to treat someone. | a shabby trick
shabbily adverb
shabbiness noun [uncountable]
: ragged, beggarly, poor
shade : screen, hide, protect, conceal, cover, shelter
shake : sway1 / / verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to move slowly from one side to another: trees swaying
gently in the breeze | sway sth: Melanie swayed her hips in time with the music.

2 [transitive often passive] to influence someone who has not yet decided about
something so that they change their opinion: Don't allow yourself to be swayed by his
promises.
, waver, agitate, shudder
shameful : disgraceful, humiliating, dishonorable, ignominious
shameless : brazen, impudent / / adjective
rude and disrespectful, especially to an older or more important person: an impudent
child/remark
impudently adverb
impudence noun [uncountable] , insolent, unashamed
share : portion, part, allotment, quota, dividend, stock
sharp* : 1. adj. keen, acute, pointed, pungent, severe,
poignant
2. abrupt, acute, sudden ex. a sharp drop

shed : emit, radiate, diffuse

shatter* : break, crush, crack
sheer1 / / adjective

1 sheer luck/happiness/stupidity etc luck, happiness etc with no other feeling or

- 175 -
quality mixed with it: It was sheer bliss not having to get up. | sheer hypocrisy

2 the sheer weight/size etc of used to emphasize how heavy, big etc something is: The
sheer size of the country makes communications difficult

3 a sheer drop, cliff, slope etc is very steep and almost vertical1 (1): There was a sheer
drop from to the sea 200 feet below.

4 sheer nylon, silk etc is very thin and fine, so that it is almost transparent: sheer
stockings
: unmixed, pure, steep, precipitous / / adjective

1 dangerously high or steep: A precipitous path led down the cliff.

2 precipitate
precipitously adverb
precipitousness noun [uncountable] , abrupt
shelter : protect, guard, cover, safeguard, shield, harbor, defend
shield* : protect, defend, secure, guard, safeguard
shine : beam, glare, gleam, glisten, glimmer, shimmer,
shining : radiant, gleaming, bright, brilliant, glistening
shiver : tremble, quake, shudder, shake
shock : blow, impact
shorten : curtail, abbreviate, abridge, condense, lessen, reduce
short-sighted : near-sighted, indiscreet, imprudent / / adjective formal
not sensible or wise: It would be rather imprudent to invest in an arms company at the
moment.
imprudently adverb
imprudence noun [countable, uncountable]

showy : ostentatious //adjective

1 something that is ostentatious is large, looks expensive and is designed to make

people think that its owner must be very rich: The hotel loomed huge and ostentatious
above the street.

2 someone who is ostentatious likes to show everyone how rich they are: I was vaguely
annoyed by his generosity which seemed almost ostentatious.
ostentatiously adverb , gaudy, loud

- 176 -
shrewd / adjective

1 good at judging what people or situations are really like, especially in a way that
makes you successful in business, politics etc: Martin's a shrewd judge of character. | a
shrewd businesswoman

2 well judged and likely to be right: At a shrewd guess, I'd say Henry is going to leave
his job. | have a shrewd idea (=have an opinion about something that is probably
correct)
-shrewdly adverb : where you jealous of her? asked Sara shrewdly.
-shrewdness noun [uncountable]
: astute, sharp, acute, keen, penetrating
shrink : contract, shrivel, diminish, decrease, dwindle
shun : elude, avoid, evade, escape
shy : bashful / / adjective
easily embarrassed in social situations; shy: a bashful smile | Many men are still
bashful about discussing their feelings.
bashfully adverb
bashfulness noun [uncountable]
, reserved, timid, coy // adjective

1 pretending to be shy in order to attract interest, or to avoid dealing with something

difficult: She gave him a coy smile.

2 unwilling to give information about something

[+ about]: Tania was always coy about her age.
coyly adverb
coyness noun [uncountable]

siege : blockade, besieging

sign : token1 /noun [countable]

1 a round piece of metal that you use instead of money in some machines

2 formal something that represents a feeling, fact, event etc : a token of your
gratitude/respect/appreciation etc: Please accept this gift as a small token of our
appreciation.
also by the same token same1 (8)

- 177 -
3 book/record/gift token BrE a special piece of paper that you can exchange for a
book, record etc in a shop; gift 쟠ertificate AmE : a ?0 book token, indication, trace,
hint, suggestion
significant : important, consequential, momentous, critical, crucial, vital
signify : express, indicate, mean
silent : speechless, dumb, mute, tacit
simultaneous : concurrent, concomitant1 / adjective formal
existing or happening together, especially as a result of something: war with all its
concomitant sufferings.
concomitantly adverb , synchronous
sin : transgress / verb [intransitive, transitive] formal
to do something that is against the rules of social behaviour or against a moral
principle: Those who have transgressed against custom must be punished.
transgressor noun [countable]
transgression / noun [countable, uncountable]
, trespass, violation, crime, offense
sincere : candid, earnest, plain, genuine, true, real
sip1 / / verb [intransitive, transitive]
to drink something slowly, taking very small mouthfuls: She was sitting at the bar
sipping a Martini.
[+ at]: Kruger sipped at his whisky thoughtfully.
: drink, absorb, sup
situation : location, position, site, place, spot
size : dimensions, proportions, magnitude
skeptical : skeptic, doubtful, dubious, incredulous
skilled* : able, capable, competent /adjective

1 having enough skill or knowledge to do something to a satisfactory standard: She's a

highly competent linguist. | competent to do sth: I don't feel competent to give an
opinion at the moment.

2 a piece of work, performance etc that is competent is satisfactory but not especially
good: The workmen did a competent job.

3 [not before noun] having the legal power to deal with something in a court of law :
be competent to do sth: This court is not competent to hear your case.
competently adverb , skillful, proficient, adept, qualified
skillful : adroit, deft, adept1 /'{dept, @'dept ?'dept/ adjective
good at doing something that needs care and skill

- 178 -
[+at/in]: Melissa soon became adept at predicting his moods.
?adeptly adverb , proficient, dexterous // also dextrous /'s/ adjective
able to use your hands in a skilful way: dextrous use of the needle
dexterously, dextrously adverb

skip : spring, jump, leap, bound, hop

skirmish1 /noun [countable]

1 a fight between small groups of soldiers, ships etc, especially one that happens away
from the main part of a battle

2 a short argument, especially between political opponents: Bates was sent off after a
skirmish with the referee.
: encounter, battle, fight, conflict, combat, collision
slack : loose, relaxed
slander : defame, scandalize, vilify /'/ verb [transitive]
formal to say bad things about someone, especially things that are not true, in order to
influence other people against them
vilification /" / noun [countable]: his vilification by the popular press

slaughter : butcher, massacre, murder, slay, kill

slavery : bondage, servitude / / noun [uncountable]
the condition of being a slave or being forced to obey someone else: The legislation of
1781 abolished penal servitude in Bohemia.
, subjection, enslavement
slay : murder, kill, slaughter, massacre, butcher, assassinate
slender : slim, weak, fragile, feeble, delicate
slide : glide
slight : insignificant, trivial / / adjective

1 unimportant or of little value: I'm sorry to bother you with what must seem a trivial
problem. | a trivial sum

2 ordinary: trivial everyday duties

trivially adverb, trifling
slim : slender, thin
slip : mistake, error, blunder
slumber : sleep
sly / adjective

- 179 -
1 very clever in the way that you use tricks and dishonesty to get what you want: The
way he did it was really sly.

2 sly smile/glance/wink etc a smile, look etc shows that you are hiding something you
know from other people: She gave me a sly look.

3 on the sly informal secretly, especially when you are doing something that you
should not do: They'd been seeing each other on the sly for months.
slyly adverb
slyness noun [uncountable] : cunning, artful
smart : intelligent, bright, sharp, clever, adroit, shrewd
smash : shatter, crush, crash
smooth : level, even, plain, flat (Ant) rough, uneven
snare1 / / noun [countable]

1 a trap for catching an animal, especially one that uses a wire or rope to catch the
animal by its foot

2 literary something that is intended to trick someone and get them into a difficult
situation : trap, lure, bait
sneer : scorn, jeer, jibe1 gibe / / noun [countable]
an unkind remark intended to make someone seem silly: She was tired of his constant
jibes.
, scoff, disdain, deride /dI'raId/ verb [transitive] formal
to make remarks or jokes that show you think someone or something is silly or useless:
You shouldn't deride their efforts. | deride sb as sth: Wayne was derided as a mere
playboy., ridicule
soak : steep, drench, wet, saturate
soar : tower, rise, ascend, mount
sober : unintoxicated, sane, sound (Ant) drunk
sociable : affable, genial (Ant) sullen / / adjective

1 silently showing anger or bad temper: a look of sullen resentment

2 literary sky or weather that is sullen is dark and unpleasant; gloomy (3)
sullenly adverb
sullenness noun [uncountable]

- 180 -
soft : yielding, pliable, plastic
soften : assuage, moderate, mitigate, soothe, alleviate, ease
solace : comfort, consolation
sole : only, single, solitary
solemn : grave, sober, serious, impressive, august,
imposing, grand, majestic, stately
solid : firm, substantial, sound, stable, strong
solitary : isolated, lonely
solitude : isolation, loneliness
soothe / verb [transitive]

1 to make someone feel calmer and less anxious, upset, or angry: Rocking often
soothes a crying baby.

2 to make a pain less severe: I bought some lozenges to soothe my sore throat.
soothing adjective : gentle, soothing music
soothingly adverb
: relieve, allay, mitigate, assuage, alleviate, appease,
soften, lull
sophisticated : artificial, mundane, worldly
sore : painful, grieved, distressed, sorrowful
sorrow : distress, anguish, grief, sadness, woe
sort : classify, class, assort
sound : uninjured, unharmed, unimpaired, healthy
sour : acid, tart1 / / noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a pie (1) without a top on it, containing something sweet

2 [countable] informal a woman whose appearance or behaviour makes you think that
she is too willing to have sex

3 [countable] slang a prostitute

sovereign1 /noun [countable]

1 formal a king or queen

2 a former British gold coin worth : supreme, chief, paramount

spacious : ample, capacious, extensive, vast

- 181 -
span : distance, length
spare : save, reserve
sparkle : spark, glitter, twinkle
special : particular, especial, peculiar, specific
specimen : sample, model, pattern
spectacular* : dramtic, sensational, impressive
speculation /" / noun [countable, uncountable]

1 the act of guessing without knowing all the facts about something, or the guesses
that you make
[+ about]: increased speculation about the possibility of tax cuts | speculation that:
There is some speculation that the president was aware of the situation. | pure
speculation (=speculation that is not based on any facts): The jury should disregard the
witness's last statement as pure speculation. | wild/idle speculation (=speculation that
is unlikely to be true)

2 the act of trying to make a profit by speculating (speculate2): property speculation

: supposition, conjecture1 // noun formal

1 [uncountable] the act of thinking of reasons, explanations etc without having very
much information to base them on: She didn't know the facts, so what she said was
pure conjecture. | conjecture about their role in the affair

2 [countable] an idea or opinion formed by guessing: My results show that this

conjecture was, in fact, correct.
conjectural adjective , surmise
speculative* : 1. academic, abstract, theoretical.
2. thoughtful, reflective, meditative, contemplative,
pensive, deliberative
spend : expend, squander, waste, lavish, exhaust, consume
spin : turn, rotate
spite : ill-will, maliciousness, malice
splendid : gorgeous, magnificent, sumptuous, dazzling
splendor : brilliance, grandeur, pomp
split : cleave, rend, separate
spoil : damage, impair, ruin, mar, harm, corrupt
spontaneous : voluntary, uncompelled, willing
spot* : find, locate, pinpoint, detect, recognize
spread : unfold, extend, stretch, expand

- 182 -
spring : leap, jump, bound, hop, vault
sprinkle: scatter, strew, disperse
spur : incitement, stimulus, incentive, provocation,
instigation
squander : waste, lavish
stab1 / / verb stabbed, stabbing

1 [transitive] to push a knife into someone or something : stab sb to death: Smith was
found stabbed to death in a burning car. | stab sb in the heart/arm etc: Luca stabbed
her in the thigh with a breadknife.

2 [intransitive, transitive] to make quick pushing movements with your finger or

something pointed; jab1

3 stab sb in the back to do something that harms someone who likes and trusts you;
betray
also stabbing1, stabbing2 : thrust, plunge
stable : invariable, steadfast, unchangeable, constant, steady
stagger : sway, totter, waver, falter / / verb [intransitive]

1 to become weaker and unable to continue in an effective way: The economy is

showing signs of faltering. | My mother's iron grip upon the household never faltered.

2 to speak in a voice that sounds weak and uncertain, and keeps stopping: Laurie's
voice faltered as she tried to thank him.

3 to become less certain and determined that you want to do something: We must not
falter in our resolve.

4 to move unsteadily because you suddenly feel weak or afraid: She faltered for a
moment.

stagnant / / adjective

1 stagnant water or air does not move or flow and often smells bad: a stagnant pond

2 not changing, developing, or making progress; inactive: Industrial output has

remained stagnant.
stagnancy noun [uncountable]

- 183 -
stagnantly adverb : inert, inactive
stain : taint, spot, dirty, blemish, blot
stake : stick, post
stale1 / / adjective

1 bread or cake that is stale is no longer fresh or good to eat : go stale: This loaf has
gone stale.

2 air that is stale is not fresh or pleasant

3 news or jokes that are stale are no longer interesting or exciting: the same stale old
jokes we've all heard before

4 someone who is stale has no new ideas, interest, or energy, because they have been
doing the same thing for too long : feel/get/go stale: I'm getting stale in this job - I
need a change.
staleness noun [uncountable]
: vapid /adjective formal
lacking intelligence, interest, or imagination: vapid piped music
vapidly adverb
vapidness noun [uncountable]
vapidity / / noun [uncountable] , old, decayed
stammer1 /verb [intransitive, transitive]
to speak or say something with a lot of pauses and repeated sounds, either because
you have a speech problem, or because you are nervous, excited etc: Whenever he
was angry he would begin to stammer slightly.
stutter1 (1)

stammerer noun [countable]

stammeringly adverb : stutter, hesitate, falter
stamp : trample, crush, pound
stand : endure, undergo, bear, sustain, weather, tolerate,
endure
standard : criterion, gauge
stare : gaze
startle / / verb [transitive]
to make someone suddenly surprised or slightly shocked: You startled me! I didn't hear
you come in. | startled to see/hear/learn etc: I was startled to see Amanda there.
: surprise, alarm, amaze, astound, astonish, scare,frighten

- 184 -
state : condition situation, status, environment, position

stately : imposing, grand, majestic, magnificent

statement : declaration, announcement, proclamation
station : standing, rank
status : position, standing, rank
stay : remain, reside sojourn, rest
steadfast : firm, stanch, steady, resolute
stem : base, root.
1. stop, check, dam, obstruct, hinder
2. come, derive, proceed, originate
sterile : barren, unproductive, fruitless
stern : firm, strict, adamant /adjective formal
determined not to change your opinion, decision, etc: We tried to negotiate, but they
were adamant. | adamant that: Melinda was adamant that she would not travel with
us.
adamantly adverb , unrelenting, uncompromising, severe, harsh, hard, infallible
stick : adhere, cohere, cling, cleave, hold
stiff : rigid, solid
stifle /'/ verb [transitive]

1 [intransitive, transitive] to stop someone from breathing or be unable to breathe

comfortably, especially because the air is too hot or not fresh: He was almost stifled by
the fumes.

2 [transitive] to stop something from happening or developing: rules and regulations

that stifle initiative

3 [transitive] to stop a feeling from being expressed: He stifled an urge to hit her. |
stifle a yawn/smile/laughter etc: Nancy stifled a yawn as the teacher's voice droned on.
: smother / / verb

1 [transitive always + adv/prep] smother sth with/in to cover the whole surface of
something with something else : smother sth with/in: a delicious sponge cake
smothered in chocolate | He smothered her with kisses.

2 smother your anger/irritation to hide your feelings: struggling to smother her

jealousy

- 185 -
3 smother sb with love/kindness etc to express your feelings for someone too strongly,
so that your relationship with them cannot develop normally

4 [transitive] to kill someone by putting something over their face to stop them
breathing: One night she took a pillow and smothered him.

5 [transitive] to make a fire stop burning by preventing air from reaching it

6 [transitive] to get rid of anyone who opposes you: They ruthlessly smother all
opposition.
, suffocate / / verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to die or make someone die by preventing them from

breathing: She rolled onto her baby and actually suffocated it!

2 be suffocating to feel uncomfortable because there is not enough fresh air: Can you
open a window? I'm suffocating.

3 [transitive] to prevent a relationship, plan, business etc from developing well or

being successful: Jealousy can suffocate any relationship.
suffocation / / noun [uncountable] , strangle, choke
still : motionless, stationary, tranquil, calm, peaceful,
placid, pacific, serene
stimulating* : restorative1 / / adjective formal
making you feel healthier or stronger: the restorative power of long walks
, refreshing, energizing, invigorating, reinvigorating
stimulus : incentive, incitement, stimulation, provocation,
stimulant crouch / verb [intransitive]

1 also crouch down to lower your body close to the ground by bending your knees
completely: My legs began to ache from crouching for so long. | The boy crouched
down to fix his sandal.

2 if an animal crouches it sits as low as possible, often because it is frightened or is

going to attack something: The cat crouched, its eyes following the mouse as it
scurried away.

stingy / adjective

- 186 -
1 informal not generous, especially with money, when you can easily afford to be: Jim's
too stingy to give money to charity.

2 a stingy amount of something, especially food, is too small to be enough: The

helpings here are pretty stingy.
stingily adverb
stinginess noun [uncountable]
: parsimonious, miserly, mean
stir : agitate, incite, instigate, prompt, rouse, torment1 /noun

1 [uncountable] severe mental or physical suffering, often lasting a long time : in

torment: She lay awake all night in torment.

2 [countable] someone or something that makes you suffer,

arouse, provoke, stimulate, goad, spur
stock : store, inventory, reserve, hoard
stoop : bend, lean, bow, crouch / / verb [intransitive]

1 also crouch down to lower your body close to the ground by bending your knees
completely: My legs began to ache from crouching for so long. | The boy crouched
down to fix his sandal.

2 if an animal crouches it sits as low as possible, often because it is frightened or is

going to attack something: The cat crouched, its eyes following the mouse as it
scurried away.

stop : interrupt, arrest, halt

stout : stalwart, sturdy, athletic, vigorous
strain : stretch, tighten
strange : 1. unusual, extraordinary, curious, bizarre, odd,
queer, mysterious, eccentric, abnormal
2. foreign, alien
stranger : alien, foreigner
strategy : tactics
stray : wander, rove, roam, ramble
stream : current, run, flow
strength : power, force, vigor, might, energy, capacity
strenuous / / adjective

- 187 -
1 needing great effort or strength: a strenuous climb | The doctor advised Ken to avoid
strenuous exercise.

2 active and determined : make strenuous efforts: the strenuous efforts the council is
making to improve security
strenuously adverb : She strenuously denied the accusations.
: vigorous, energetic, active, eager, zealous, ardent,

earnest
stress : emphasis, accent, force
stretch : extend, lengthen, pull
strict : rigid , rigorous, stringent, stiff, severe, harsh,
austere, stern
strife / / noun [uncountable]
formal trouble between two people or groups; conflict1: a time of political strife
: conflict, discord, quarrel, struggle, clash, fight
stringent / / adjective

1 stringent rule/test/condition very strict and must be obeyed: stringent anti-noise

regulations

2 stringent economic conditions exist when there is a severe lack of money and strict
controls on the supply of money
stringently adverb
stringency noun [uncountable] : severe, constricted, tight, strict
strike : hit, knock, beat, pound, slap1 verb slapped, slapping

1 [transitive] to hit someone quickly with the flat part of your hand: Do you think it's
OK to slap children if they're really rude? | slap sb on the back (=hit them on the back
in a friendly way)

2 [transitive always + adv/prep] to put something down noisily on a surface, especially

when you are angry : slap sth on/down: I slapped the report down on his desk and told
him to do it again.

3 [intransitive] to hit a surface, making a sound like someone being slapped noisily
[+ against]: Small waves slapped against the jetty

- 188 -
slap sb down phrasal verb [transitive]
to unfairly and unkindly criticize someone so that they lose confidence

slap sth on phrasal verb [transitive] informal

1 to put or spread something quickly or carelessly onto a surface: She rushed upstairs
and slapped on some make-up.

2 to suddenly announce a new charge, tax etc, especially unfairly or without warning:
Many tour operators slap on supplements for single people.

strive : endeavor, try, struggle, toil

stroke : striking, blow, beating, beat
stroll : ramble, wander, roam, rove
strong : powerful, vigorous, mighty, potent
stubborn : obstinate, dogged, persistent, rigid, stiff, headstrong
stuff : material, substance, matter
stun : astound, daze, astonish, amaze, bewilder / verb [transitive]
to confuse someone, confound /k@n'faUnd/ verb [transitive]

1 to confuse and surprise people by being unexpected: His amazing recovery

confounded the medical specialists.

2 formal to defeat an enemy, plan etc

3 formal if a problem etc confounds you, you cannot understand it or solve it: Her
question completely confounded me.

4 confound it/him/them old-fashioned used to show that you are annoyed

, stupefying adjective
making you feel extremely surprised, tired, or bored: stupefying inefficiency
stupefy verb [transitive]

stupid : dull, senseless, foolish

sturdy : strong, robust, stalwart, muscular, stout
subdue : conquer, defeat, suppress, subjugate, subject
subject : subordinate, subjected, submissive, obedient
subjective : personal, individual ( Ant ) objective
submerse : dip, sink, plunge, immerse

- 189 -
submit : yield, surrender, obey
subordinate :
: Adj. inferior, secondary, dependent
junior, inferior, secondary supplementary
subscribe : agree, assent, consent
subsidize : back, finance, fund,
substance : matter, material, stuff
substantial* : real, actual, material
subtract : deduct, discount
succession : sequence, series
successive : consecutive, continuous
succinct adjective approving
clearly expressed in a few words: a very succinct explanation
succinctly adverb
succinctness noun [uncountable]
* : concise, brief, lean, terse, condensed, laconic adjective
using only a few words to say something
laconically adverb

suffer : 1. undergo, experience

2. sustain, bear, tolerate, stand
sufficient* : enough, adequate, ample
suggest : indicate, hint, intimate
summary : digest, extract, abstract
summit : top, peak, apex, pinnacle, acme, zenith
summon verb [transitive] formal

1 to officially order someone to come to a meeting, a court of law etc : summon sb to

sth: We were all summoned to a meeting with the principal. | summon sb to do sth:
They'll probably be summoning you to appear in court.

2 also summon sth up to make a great effort use your strength, courage, energy etc:
Summoning all her strength, Julia gave one last pull. | I couldn't summon up the
courage to ask you out until now.

3 summon a meeting/conference etc to arrange for a meeting to take place and order
people to come to it; convene
: call, bid, convene / / verb [intransitive, transitive] formal
if a group of people convene, or someone convenes them, they come together,

- 190 -
especially for a formal meeting: The President's foreign policy advisers convened for an
emergency session. | Shouldn't we convene a meeting about this?
, convoke / / verb [transitive] formal
to tell people that they must come together for a formal meeting

superficial : shallow1 / / adjective

1 something that is shallow has only a short distance from the bottom to the surface: a
shallow river | the shallow end of the swimming pool | a shallow grave

2 not interested in or showing any understanding of important or serious matters: a

shallow argument | If he's only interested in your looks, that just shows how shallow
he is.

3 shallow breathing breathing that only takes in small amounts of air

shallowly adverb
shallowness noun [uncountable] , external, outward
supernatural : miraculous, abnormal adjective
very different from usual in a way that seems strange, worrying, wrong, or dangerous:
abnormal behaviour | an abnormal level of cholesterol | abnormal for sb to do sth: My
parents thought it was abnormal for a boy to be interested in ballet.

supply : furnish, provide, replenish / verb [transitive + with]

formal to fill something again or put new supplies into something
replenishment noun [uncountable]

support: aid, help, assist, advocate

suppose : assume, presume
surpass : exceed, excel, transcend, outdo, beat, outstrip
surplus : remainder
surprise : astonish, amaze, astound, startle
surrender : submit, yield
survey : watch, inspect, examine, scrutinize
outlive : persist,
suspect : surmise, imagine, consider, suppose, guess,
conjecture
suspend : 1. defer, postpone, delay
2. stop, cease, interrupt, arrest
suspense : uncertainty, doubt, indecision, hesitation, misgiving

- 191 -
suspicion : doubt, mistrust, distrust
sustain : bear, carry, support, uphold
swallow : eat, gorge, gulp, engulf, devour
sway : swing, wave, brandish / / verb [transitive + at]
to wave something around in a dangerous or threatening way, especially a weapon: A
man leapt out brandishing a kitchen knife.
, rule, reign, govern
swear : avow, vow
sweat : perspiration
sweep : clean
sweeping : broad, wide, extensive, comprehensive, wholesale,
vast
swift : speedy, fleet, rapid
swivel1 // swivelled, swivelling BrE swiveled, swiveling AmE also swivel around/round
verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to turn something around that is fixed to a moving central

point: He swivelled the camera on the tripod to follow the riders.

2 [intransitive] to turn around quickly in this way

: v. spin, rotate, turn.

***** (T) *****

taboo : prohibition
tactics : strategy, maneuvering
tale : story, narrative, account, fiction
talent : aptitude, capacity, capability, gift, genius, faculty
talkative : garrulous / / adjective
always talking a lot: Ian isn't normally this garrulous!
garrulously adverb
garrulousness noun [uncountable] , wordy, verbose
tall : high, elevated, towering, lofty
tame : domesticated, mild, docile, domestic (Ant) wild
tangible : real, substantial, concrete, substantive
tear : rend / / past tense and past participle rent / / verb [transitive] literary
to tear or break something violently into pieces, rip, sever, split

- 192 -
tease : irritate, bother, trouble, disturb, annoy, plague,
molest, harry, harass
tedious : tiresome, irksome, wearisome, tiring, monotonous,
boring
temperament / / noun [countable, uncountable]
the emotional part of someone's character, especially how likely they are to be happy,
angry etc; disposition (1): a sunny temperament
: disposition, make-up, temper, nature
temperate : moderate, self-restrained, sober (Ant) immoderate
temporary : transient, transitory, fleeting /adjective [usually before noun]
lasting for only a short time : fleeting glimpse/impression/glance etc: I caught a fleeting
glimpse of them as they drove past. | fleeting moment: For one fleeting moment, I
thought I recognized her.
fleetingly adverb , ephemeral / / adjective
popular or important for only a short time: Fashions are by nature fickle and
ephemeral.
ephemerally adverb

tempt : induce, persuade, entice, allure, seduce, attract,decoy, lure

tempting : inviting, seductive, attractive, alluring
tendency : trend, proneness, inclination, bent
tender : soft, delicate, lenient /'li:ni@nt/ adjective
not strict in the way you punish someone or control their behaviour: Judges have been
accused of being far too lenient in rape cases. | a very lenient sentence
leniently adverb
leniency also lenience noun [uncountable] , mild
tense : rigid, strained, nervous (Ant) relaxed
terrible : dreadful, awful, frightful, appalling, horrible
terrific : splendid // adjective formal

1 excellent or very fine: a splendid person | a splendid suggestion

2 beautiful and impressive: There are some splendid villas near Rome. | a splendid
view of the port
splendidly adverb : Joe and my father are getting along splendidly.
, glorious, superb, marvelous, sensational
terror : horror, panic, fright, dismay
tiresome : wearisome, tedious, dull, boredom
toil : work, labor, strive / / verb past tense strove /strUv/ past participle

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striven /'/ noun [intransitive] formal
to make a great effort to achieve something
[+ for/after]: We must continue to strive for greater efficiency. | strive to do sth: The
film studio is striving to improve its public image.

tolerance : toleration, patience

tolerate* :v endure
tool : instrument, implement, utensil / / noun [countable]
a tool or object with a particular use, especially in cooking: kitchen utensils

top : apex, zenith, acme, peak, summit, pinnacle,

culmination, vertex
torment : afflict, pain, rack, torture, harass, harry, annoy,
vex, distress
torrential* : wild, violent
tide : stream, current
touch : impress, move, strike, stir
tough : firm, strong, hard, sturdy
trace* : vestige, mark, sign, track, footprint, trail
traffic : trade
tragic : mournful, pathetic, pitiful, disastrous
trail1 / / verb

1 [intransitive, transitive always + adv/prep] if something trails behind you, or if you

trail it behind you, it gets pulled behind you as you move along
[+ across/in/through]: She walked slowly along the path, her skirt trailing in the mud. |
trail sth in/on/through: Rees was leaning out of the boat trailing his hand through the
water.

2 also trail along [intransitive always + adv/prep] to walk slowly, especially because you
are tired or bored, and often following other people
[+ behind/around]: Susie trailed along behind her parents.

3 [intransitive, transitive usually in progressive] to be losing in a game, competition, or

election: The Democrats are still trailing in the latest poll. | trail (sb) by: At the end of
the first half Bolton were trailing by two goals to nil.

4 [transitive] to follow a person or animal by looking for signs that they have gone in a
particular direction: Police trailed the gang for several days.

- 194 -
 also trailer

trail away/off phrasal verb [intransitive]

if someone's voice trails away or off, it becomes gradually quieter and then stops: She
trailed off, silenced by the look Kris gave her.
: drag, draw
traitor : betrayer
transact / / verb [intransitive, transitive]
formal to do business: Most deals are transacted over the phone.
: settle, perform, manage, conduct, execute
transform : change alter, convert, transmute
transmit : send, dispatch1 also despatch BrE / / verb [transitive]

1 formal to send someone or something somewhere for a particular purpose : dispatch

sb/sth to: A reporter was dispatched to Naples to cover the riot.

2 old-fashioned to deliberately kill a person or animal

3 old-fashioned to finish all of something, convey, carry, transfer

transparent : clear, pellucid / / adjective literary
very clear; transparent (1): a pellucid stream
pellucidly adverb , lucid, impid // adjective literary
clear or transparent: limpid blue eyes
limpidly adverb
limpidness noun [uncountable]
limpidity / / noun [uncountable] , crystalline
transport : carry, convey, transport
trap : pitfall / / noun [countable]
a problem or difficulty that is likely to happen in a particular job, course of action, or
activity: English spelling presents many pitfalls for foreign learners. | avoid a pitfall:
This little booklet will help you avoid the more obvious pitfalls of travelling alone.
, snare1 / / noun [countable]

1 a trap for catching an animal, especially one that uses a wire or rope to catch the
animal by its foot

2 literary something that is intended to trick someone and get them into a difficult
situation

- 195 -
treachery / / noun

1 [uncountable] behaviour that is not loyal to someone who trusts you, especially
when this helps their enemies: the treachery of those who plotted against the king

2 [countable usually plural] a disloyal action against someone who trusts you
: betrayal, treason /'tri:zFn/ noun [uncountable]
the crime of being disloyal to your country or its government, especially by helping its
enemies or trying to remove the government using violence
[+ against]: an act of treason against the state | commit treason (=do something that is
treason) | high treason (=treason of the worst kind)

treasure : prize, cherish // verb [transitive usually passive]

1 to love someone or something very much and take care of them well: his most
cherished possession

2 to be very important to someone : cherished hopes/dreams/ideas etc: one of our

cherished hopes, a community centre for the village | cherished memories

treat : entertain, regale / / verb

regale sb with sth phrasal verb

to entertain someone with something, especially stories: Bailey regaled the customers
with tales of our exploits., feast
tremble: shake, quiver, quaver, quake, shiver, shudder1 / / verb [intransitive]

1 to shake uncontrollably for a short time because you are frightened, or cold, or
because you think something is very unpleasant
[+ at]: He touched Ralph's bare shoulder and Ralph shuddered at the human contact.

2 if a vehicle or machine shudders, it shakes violently: The train shuddered to a halt.

3 I shudder to think used to say that you do not want to think about something
because it is too unpleasant: I shudder to think what they'll say when they see the
mess the house is in.

shudder at phrasal verb [transitive]

to think that something is very bad or unpleasant: Modern doctors shudder at

- 196 -
treatments such as bleeding people with leeches.

tremendous : huge, gigantic, colossal

trend : tendency, direction, inclination
trespass1 / / verb [intransitive + on]

1 to go onto someone's private land without their permission

2 old use to do something wrong; sin1

trespasser noun [countable]

trespass on sth phrasal verb [transitive]

to unfairly use more than you should of someone else's time, help etc, for your own
advantage: It would be trespassing on their hospitality to accept any more from them.
: encroach, infringe / / verb [transitive]
to do something that is against a law or someone's legal rights: Increasing care must be
taken not to infringe copyright.
infringement noun [countable, uncountable]: a minor infringement of the rules

infringe on/upon sth phrasal verb [transitive]

to limit someone's freedom in some way: He found that all the media attention was
infringing upon his private life., intrude, invade
trial : affliction, suffering, distress, sorrow, trouble,
trick : cheat, swindle, beguile / / verb [transitive]

1 to persuade or trick someone into doing something, especially by saying nice things
to them: Carr beguiled the voters with his good looks and grand talk.

2 literary to do something that makes the time pass, especially in an enjoyable way,
deceive, defraud, delude
trifling : trivial, insignificant, unimportant, petty, negligible,
slight
trim1 / / trimmed, trimming verb [transitive]

1 CUT to make something look neater by cutting small pieces off it: Your hair needs
trimming. | Can you trim the hedge?

2 REDUCE to remove parts of a plan to reduce its cost: We need to trim the Defence
budget by a further ?00m.

- 197 -
3 DECORATE [usually passive] to decorate the edges of clothes by adding a piece of
different material : trim sth with: a dress trimmed with lace

4 SAIL to move the sails of a boat into a position that makes the boat go faster

5 trim your sails informal to spend less money

trim sth off phrasal verb [transitive]

to cut small pieces off something so that it looks neater: Trim off the ragged edges. :
clip1 / / noun

1 FOR FASTENING [countable] a small metal or plastic object for holding or fastening
things together: Fasten the microphone clip to your shirt front. | hair clip (=a piece of
metal or plastic for keeping hair in the right place)
뾱ee also bulldog 쟠lip, paperclip

2 CUT [singular] a process in which you make something shorter or tidier by cutting it:
I'll have to give that hedge a clip.

3 FILM [countable] a short part of a film that is shown by itself: Clips from Mel Gibson's
new movie

4 a clip round the ear/earhole BrE informal a short blow on the side of someone's head

5 GUN [countable] a container for bullets which passes them rapidly into the gun so
that they can be fired

6 NEWSPAPER [countable] an article that is cut from a newspaper or magazine for a

particular reason

7 $100/50 cents etc a clip AmE informal if things cost $100, 50 cents etc a clip, they
cost that amount of money each

8 at a good/fair etc clip quickly: Traffic was going by at a fair clip.

9 WOOL [countable] AustrE, NZE the total amount of wool that is taken from a group
of sheep at one time
, prune1 / / verb [transitive]

- 198 -
1 also prune back to cut some of the branches of a tree or bush to make it grow better:
I need to prune the roses this weekend.

2 also prune down to get rid of the unnecessary parts of something: The essay's too
long, you need to prune it down.
, shave, shear, arrange
triumph1 / / noun

1 [countable] an important victory or success, especially after a difficult struggle:

Winning the championship represents a personal triumph for the team's manager.
[+ over]: a brave man's triumph over adversity

2 a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction that you get from victory or success: yells of
triumph

3 [countable] a very successful example of something: The gallery is a triumph of

design. : win, succeed, prevail
troop : band, squad / / noun [countable]

1 a group of players from which a team will be chosen for a particular sports event: the
Italian World Cup squad

2 the police department responsible for dealing with a particular kind of crime :
drugs/fraud/vice squad: Officers of the narcotics squad raided the club.

3 a small group of soldiers working together as a unit: a drill squad

4 AmE a group of cheerleaders

, party company, group, herd, flock, swarm, throng
trouble :1 disturb, distress, worry, annoy, vex, bother,
1. effort, struggle, endeavor, striving, exertion,pains
2. discomfort, inconvenience.
troublesome : annoying, laborious // adjective

1 laborious task/process/method etc a job or piece of work that is difficult and needs a
lot of effort: the laborious task of collating all the evidence

2 seeming to be done slowly and with difficulty: laborious progress through the work

- 199 -
laboriously adverb
laboriousness noun [uncountable] , difficult, arduous, burdensome, hard
true : factual, actual, real, authentic / adjective

1 done or made in the traditional or original way: authentic Chinese food

2 a painting, document, book etc that is authentic has been proved to be by a

particular person

3 based on facts: an authentic account

authentically / adverb , genuine
trust : confidence, belief, faith, credit
trustworthy : reliable, true, stanch //giving strong, loyal support to another
person, organization, belief etc; steadfast: They are staunch trade unionists. | a
staunch friend and ally
staunchly adverb
staunchness noun [uncountable] , dependable, credible
tumult /noun [countable, uncountable] formal

1 a state of confusion, noise, and excitement, often caused by a large crowd: His
announcement was drowned in the tumult. | in tumult (=in a state of confusion or
change): The whole country is in tumult.

2 a state of mental confusion caused by strong emotions such as anger, sadness etc : in
tumult (=anxious, confused, or unhappy): His mind was in tumult. : commotion,
disturbance, disorder, turbulence, uproar, agitation, uprising,
twinkle : glimmer1 / / noun [uncountable]

1 a glimmer of hope/doubt/recognition a small sign of hope, doubt etc

2 a light that is not very bright: the glimmer of a candle, sparkle

twist : contort, distort
typical : representative, symbolic, model, exemplary
tyrannical : arbitrary, despot / / noun [countable]
someone such as a ruler who used power in a cruel and unfair way
despotic / adjective
despotically / adverb , oppressive
tyrant : dictator, oppressor

- 200 -
 ***** (U) *****

ugly : unlovely, unsightly, homely

ultimate : final, last, extreme
umpire : referee, arbiter, judge
unaccountable : inexplicable, strange, incomprehensible
unanimity / noun [uncountable]
formal a state or situation of complete agreement among a group of people
: accord, agreement
unassuming : modest, unpretending, unpretentious, humble
unbearable : unendurable, intolerable, insufferable, insupportable
unbecoming : inappropriate, unsuitable
unbiased : fair, impartial, unprejudiced, disinterested
unbounded : unlimited, boundless, limitless, immense,
immeasurable, vast, infinite, endless, interminable / adjective
very long and boring: interminable delays
interminably adverb : an interminably long speech

uncivil : impolite, discourteous, impudent

uncompromising : unyielding, inflexible, rigid, firm, obstinate
undergo : experience, suffer
undermine : ruin, thwart
undertake : assume
unequaled : unparalleled, matchless, peerless /adjective
better than any other: Torvill and Dean's peerless performances in ice dancing

unexampled : unprecedented, matchless, peerless

uniform* : invariable, unchanging, consistent
uninterested : unconcerned, indifferent
unite : join, combine, incorporate, connect, conjoin, link,
associate
universal : entire, ecumenical adjective
supporting the idea of uniting the different branches of the Christian religion
ecumenically / adverb

- 201 -
unlawful : illegal, illicit, illegitimate
unmindful : heedless, regardless, careless, inattentive, neglectful
unparalleled : matchless, unmatched, unequaled, unrivaled,
peerless
unpleasant : disagreeable, offensive, repulsive
unreasonable : irrational, senseless, foolish, silly, preposterous adjective
formal

1 completely unreasonable; absurd: The whole idea sounds absolutely preposterous!

2 extremely unusual and silly: Look at that preposterous car!

preposterously adverb
preposterousness noun [uncountable] ,absurd, stupid, idiotic
unrefined : coarse, crude, unpolished, vulgar / / adjective

1 remarks, jokes etc that are vulgar deal with sex in a very rude and offensive way

2 impolite and showing bad manners: vulgar habits

3 especially BrE not showing good judgment about what is beautiful or suitable: a
vulgar display of wealth
vulgarly adverb

unrelenting : relentless, implacable, inexorable, harsh, merciless,

pitiless, cruel, ruthless
unsettled : unstable, unsteady, shaky, unfixed, changeable,
infirm
unsophisticated: simple, artless, ingenuous, naive
unstable : infirm, unsteady, precarious / adjective

1 a precarious situation or state is likely to become very dangerous: The refugees live a
precarious existence in shanty towns. | a precarious peace

2 someone or something precarious is likely to fall

precariously adverb : a cup of tea balanced precariously on her knee
precariousness noun [uncountable] , inconstant, unsettled
unsteady : unsettled, changeable, unstable
untie : unfasten, loose, unknot
unyielding : inflexible, firm, stanch, steadfast, adamant /adjective formal

- 202 -
determined not to change your opinion, decision, etc: We tried to negotiate, but they
were adamant. | adamant that: Melinda was adamant that she would not travel with
us.
adamantly adverb resolute, determined
upright : erect, vertical, perpendicular, conscientious,
righteous, honest, virtuous
uproar : disturbance, tumult, turbulence, commotion, clamor
upset : 1. overturn, capsize, overthrow
2. defeat, subdue, overwhelm, embarrass / / verb [transitive]

1 to make someone feel anxious, ashamed, or uncomfortable, especially in a social

situation: The old woman's blunt questions embarrassed her, making her momentarily
tongue-tied.

2 to do something that causes problems for a government, political organization, or

politician: a series of revelations that has embarrassed the government

urge : force, impel, press, instigate // verb [transitive]

1 to start something such as a legal process or an official inquiry: Without evidence it

would be impossible to instigate an official investigation.

2 to start trouble by persuading someone to do something bad: A foreign government

was accused of having instigated the bloodshed.
instigator noun [countable] , stimulate, persuade, induce
urgent : pressing, mperative1 / / adjective

1 extremely important and needing to be done or dealt with immediately : it is

imperative (that): It is absolutely imperative that these safety measures are
implemented immediately. | it is imperative to do sth: By now, it had become
imperative to evacuate the area.

2 a voice, manner etc that is imperative is very firm and has a feeling of authority

3 technical an imperative verb is one that expresses a command

imperatively adverb , exigent /adjective formal

1 demanding a lot of attention from other people in a way that is unreasonable

- 203 -
2 an exigent situation is urgent, so that you must deal with it very quickly

useful : serviceable, advantageous, profitable, beneficial

***** (V) *****

ineffective : empty, devoid, destitute /adjective

1 having no money, no food, and nowhere to live: Many people were so destitute they
lived out of garbage cans.

2 be destitute of formal to be completely without something: a man destitute of all

compassion
destitution noun [uncountable]

vacant : empty, void, unoccupied

vacant : unoccupied
vagabond : wandering, nomadic, vagrant
vague : indefinite, unspecified, obscure1 / adjective

1 not at all well known and usually not very important: an obscure poet | The exact
origin of the paisley design is obscure.

2 difficult to understand: obscure legal phrases

obscurely adverb , uncertain, indistinct, dim, unsettled
vain : useless, worthless, trifling, trivial, unavailing, futile
valid : just, sound, logical, cogent, effective, binding, legal
vanish : disappear, end, cease, fade
variable : changeable, inconstant, fickle, unsteady
variety* : adj. diversity, kind, sort, species, type
various : diverse, varied
vary* : change, alter, diversify, transform, transmute
vast : extensive, immense, huge, enormous, gigantic,
colossal, prodigious, stupendous
velocity* : speed, pace, rapidity, celerity

- 204 -
vengeance / / noun

1 [uncountable] something violent or harmful that you do to someone in order to

punish them for harming you, your family etc: Hamlet is driven by a desire for
vengeance after his father is killed.

2 with a vengeance if something is done with a vengeance, it is done much more than
is expected or normal: The music started up again with a vengeance. : avenging,
revenge
venture: hazard, danger, jeopardy, risk, peril
verbal : oral, spoken
verge : edge, rim, margin, brim, brink, limit
version : translation
vertical : upright, plumb1 / verb [transitive]

1 plumb the depths of despair/misery/bad taste etc to express a bad quality or feel an
unpleasant emotion in a very extreme way: When his wife left him Matt plumbed the
very depths of despair.

2 to succeed in understanding something completely; fathom2: Psychologists are

trying to plumb the deepest mysteries of the human psyche.

plumb sth in phrasal verb [transitive]

to connect a piece of equipment such as a washing machine to the water supply
, erect, perpendicular
vibrant : vibrating, shaking, oscillating
vibrate : oscillate, shake, tremble, quiver, shiver
vice : wickedness, evil
vicious : immoral, deprave / / verb [transitive] formal
to be an evil influence on someone, especially someone who is young or not very
experienced
depravity / / noun [uncountable]: scenes of depravity
depravation / / noun [uncountable] , corrupt, malicious
view : 1. prospect, outlook, idea, notion
2. opinion, see, behold, witness, contemplate
vigilant : attentive, wary, alert, awake, watchful
vigorous : strong, robust, sturdy, energetic, powerful
villain / / noun [countable]

- 205 -
1 the main bad character in a film, play, or story

2 BrE informal a bad person or criminal: Watch him - he's a bit of a villain!

3 the villain of the piece often humorous the person or thing that has caused all the
trouble in a particular situation: The CIA is commonly regarded as the villain of the
piece.
: rascal, scoundrel
violation : breach1 noun

1 breach of the law/rules/agreement etc an action that breaks a law, rule, or

agreement between people, groups, or countries: a clear breach of the 1994 Trade
Agreement | be in breach of sth: We will expel any member found to be in breach of
the rules. | breach of contract: If they fail to deliver the goods, we will sue them for
breach of contract.

2 breach of confidence/trust/etiquette etc an action that breaks the rules of what

people consider good or moral behaviour: Bond shook the Queen's hand in a
deliberate breach of etiquette. | The company regards revealing confidential
information as a serious breach of trust.

3 [countable] a serious disagreement between people, groups, or countries with the

result that they do not have a good relationship any more: Britain could not risk a
breach with the US over sanctions. | heal the breach (=make people etc stop
disagreeing and be friends again)

4 breach of the peace BrE law an action such as fighting that annoys people in a public
place

5 step into the breach to help by doing someone else's job or work when they are
suddenly unable to do it

6 [countable] a hole or broken place in a wall or similar structure, especially one made
during a military attack: a breach in the castle wall

7 a breach of security/duty etc the result of someone breaking a system, not doing
their duty etc: There had been a major breach of security at the air base.,
infringement, transgression
violence : vehemence, intensity, force

- 206 -
virgin : maiden, maid
virtual* : practical, implicit / / adjective

1 implicit criticism/threat/approval criticism etc that is suggested or understood

without being stated directly: Her words contained an implicit threat. | implicit
criticism
explicit

2 be implicit in formal to form a central part of something, but without being openly
stated: Confidentiality is implicit in your relationship with a counsellor.

3 implicit trust/faith trust etc that is complete and contains no doubts: They had an
implicit faith in his powers.
implicitly adverb : We trusted Lopez implicitly.

virtually* : 1. In fact or to all purposes; practically

2. nearly
virtue : goodness, uprightness, morality / / noun

1 [uncountable] beliefs or ideas about what is right and wrong and about how people
should behave: traditional morality | declining standards of morality

2 [uncountable] the degree to which something is right or acceptable

[+ of]: a discussion on the morality of abortion

3 [countable, uncountable] a system of beliefs and values concerning how people

should behave, which is accepted by a particular person or group: Christian morality |
a direct clash in moralities
immorality, justice
virtuous : right, upright, moral, righteous, good, chaste
visible : apparent, manifest, obvious, evident, open,
observable, clear, conspicuous, unmistakable
vision : sight, perception, discernment
visionary : fanciful, imaginary, speculative, illusory
vista /noun [countable]

1 literary a far view of beautiful scenery, especially looking between rows of trees,
buildings etc: The balcony commanded a vista of the harbour.

- 207 -
2 the possibility of new experiences, ideas, events etc: Exchange programs open up
new vistas for students.
: view, prospect, perspective
vital : indispensable, important, critical, cardinal
vivid : bright, brilliant, animated, spirited, vivacious,
lively, vigorous, energetic
vocation : business, occupation, pursuit, profession,employment,
calling
vogue / / noun [singular, uncountable]
if something is the vogue, it is popular or fashionable for a period of time
[+ for]: the vogue for childbirth at home | be in vogue/be the vogue: Short skirts are
very much in vogue just now.
: fashion, style, mode
void : useless, ineffectual, vain
volume : size, measure, magnitude, mass
voluntary : spontaneous, free, unforced
vow : pledge, promise
voyage : cruise, sailing
vulgar : coarse, mean, rude

***** (W)*****

wage : pay, salary, earnings

wake : rouse, waken, arouse, awaken, stimulate, activate,
provoke, animate, motivate
wakeful: watchful, vigilant, wary, observant, alert
wallow1 / / verb [intransitive]

1 wallow in self-pity/despair/defeat etc to seem to enjoy being sad etc, especially

because you get sympathy from other people: Stop wallowing in self-pity, and do
something positive.

2 if an animal wallows, it rolls around in mud, water etc for pleasure: hippos wallowing
in the mud

- 208 -
3 if a ship or boat wallows, it moves with difficulty through a rough sea
: lounder1 / / verb [intransitive]

1 [always + adv/prep] to move awkwardly or with difficulty, especially in water, mud

etc

2 to be unable to decide what to say or do so that you find it difficult to continue: He

left his interviewer floundering by answering every question with the word `no'.

3 to have a lot of problems and have difficulty continuing: Brando's career was
floundering when he was offered the role., roll
wander : ramble, rove, roam, stray, stroll, meander
ware : good, merchandise
warp1 / / verb

1 [intransitive, transitive] to bend or twist and to be no longer in the correct shape, or

to make something do this: The door's been warped or something, it won't close
properly.

2 to have a bad effect on someone so that they think strangely about things: Henry's
view of women had been warped by a painful divorce.
: bend, deform, twist
wary : alert, careful, cautious
waste : squander, dissipate // verb formal

1 [intransitive, transitive] to scatter or disappear, or make something do this: England's

arrogance was dissipated by a 1-0 defeat by the United States.

2 [transitive] to gradually waste something such as money or energy by trying to do a

lot of different or unnecessary things, lavish
watchful : vigilant, alert, observant, attentive, heedful, careful,
circumspect, cautious, wary
wave : undulate /verb [intransitive]
formal to move or be shaped like waves that are rising and falling: undulating hills
undulation noun [countable, uncountable] , fluctuate / / verb [intransitive]
if something such as a price or amount fluctuates, it changes very often from a high
level to a low one and back again
[+ between]: The present output of oil fluctuates between 3 and 5 million gallons per
week. | fluctuate wildly: House prices fluctuated wildly in the 80s.

- 209 -
weak : fragile, frail, delicate, feeble
weaken: enfeeble, undermine, deplete / / verb [transitive usually passive]
to reduce the amount of something that is available: Our food reserves had been
severely depleted over the winter.
depletion / noun [uncountable]: the depletion of the ozone layer
, diminish, lessen, lower, reduce, impair, minimize
weakness : flaw, defect, fault
wealth : abundance, profusion
wear-out : exhausted
wearisome : tiresome, boring, tedious, irksome, monotonous,
prosaic / adjective
boring, ordinary, or lacking in imagination: a prosaic writing style | People said he'd
been a pirate, but the truth was more prosaic.
prosaically / adverb , dull
weary1 /adjective

1 very tired, especially because you have been doing something for a long time: I just
feel weary - I wish I didn't have to work nights. | a weary smile | weary of doing sth:
I'm weary of arguing all the time.

2 especially literary making you very tired: a long and weary march
wearily adverb : Alice signed wearily.
weariness noun [uncountable]
: exhausted, tired, wearied, fatigued
weave : intertwine, twist, curl, meander, twine, spiral, coil
weigh : consider, ponder, contemplate
wet : drenched, dampened, moistened, moist, humid
whim / / noun [countable]
a sudden feeling that you would like to do something or have something, especially
when there is no particularly important or good reason : on a whim (=because of a
whim): I went to visit her on a whim. | at the whim of: The palace decor kept changing
at the whim of the princess. | a passing whim (=one that will soon be forgotten) | sb's
every whim: I was spoiled. My every whim was catered to.
: caprice / / noun

1 [countable, uncountable] a sudden and unreasonable change of mind or behaviour:

the caprices of a spoilt child

- 210 -
2 [uncountable] the tendency to change your mind suddenly or behave in an
unexpected way
, whimsy // noun

1 [uncountable] a way of thinking or behaving that is unusual, strange, and often

amusing

2 [countable] a strange idea or desire that does not seem to have any sensible
purpose: This room, by some architectural whimsy, completely unbalanced the house.

whip1 / noun

1 [countable] a long thin piece of rope or leather with a handle used for making
animals move or punishing people : crack a whip (=make a loud noise with a whip)

2 [countable] a member of the US Congress or the British Parliament who is

responsible for making sure that the members of their party attend and vote
also Chief whip

3 [countable] a written order sent to members of the US Congress or the British

Parliament telling them when and how to vote

4 chocolate whip/strawberry whip etc [countable, uncountable] BrE a sweet dish made
from the white part of eggs and chocolate or fruit, beaten together to make a smooth,
light mixture
also crack of the whip crack1 (20), give sb a fair crack of the whip fair1 (11)
: lash1 / verb

1 TIE [transitive always + adv/prep] to tie something tightly to something else with a
rope, or tie two things together : lash sth to/onto etc: The oars were lashed to the
sides of the boat.

2 WIND/RAIN ETC [intransitive always + adv/prep, transitive] to hit against something

with violent force: The rain lashed her face. | waves lashing the shore
[+ against/down/across]: The wind lashed violently against the door.

3 HIT [transitive] to hit someone very hard with a whip, stick etc: The guards would
lash any of the prisoners who fell behind.

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4 TAIL [intransitive, transitive] if an animal lashes its tail or its tail lashes, it moves it
from side to side quickly and strongly, especially because it is angry

5 CRITICIZE [transitive] a word meaning to criticize someone angrily, used especially in

newspapers: Judge lashes drug-dealers.

6 lash sb into a fury/rage/frenzy etc to deliberately make a group of people have

strong violent feelings: The crowd was being lashed into a frenzy by the speaker.

lash out phrasal verb [intransitive]

1 to suddenly speak angrily to someone

[+ at]: I used to lash out at my children for no reason.

2 to try to hit someone, with a series of violent, uncontrolled movements: In its panic,
the bear started to lash out.
, beat, flog, thrash, beat
whirl : spin, rotate, revolve, wheel
wholesale* : extensive, indiscriminate / adjective

1 indiscriminate killing, violence, damage etc is done without any thought about who is
harmed or what is damaged: the indiscriminate slaughter of innocent civilians

2 not thinking carefully before you make a choice

indiscriminately adverb

wholesome /adjective

1 likely to make you healthy: well-balanced wholesome meals

2 considered to have a good moral effect: games that are just good clean wholesome
fun
wholesomeness noun [uncountable]
: healthful, healthy, salutary / / adjective
a salutary experience is unpleasant but teaches you something

wicked : evil, immoral, impious, profane, blaspheme / / verb [intransitive +

against]
to speak in a way that insults God or people's religious beliefs, or to use the names of

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God and holy things when swearing
?blasphemer noun [countable]
,
corrupt, vicious, vile
widepread : extensive, prevalent, sweeping
wild : 1. untamed, undomesticated
2. violent, furious /'fjU@ri@s ?fjUr ? adjective

1 [not before noun] extremely angry: I've never been so furious in my whole life.
[+ with/at/about etc]: He was furious with himself for not standing up to Gillman.

2 [only before noun] done with a lot of energy, effort, or anger: There was a sudden
furious barking from the backyard. | furious debate/argument: a furious debate in
Parliament over the new tax
furiously adver
, boisterous, tempestuous / / adjective

1 a tempestuous relationship or period of time includes many strong emotions: a

tempestuous marriage

2 literary a tempestuous sea or wind is very rough and violent; stormy: lost in the dark
tempestuous night
tempestuously adverb tempestuousness
noun [uncountable], frantic
wily : shrewd, cunning, crafty
win : obtain, gain, procure, secure, earn, acquire, attain
wise : judicious, sensible, sagacious / / adjective formal
able to understand and judge things very well; wise1 (2)
sagaciously adverb , rational, reasonable, sage1 // noun

1 [uncountable] a plant with grey-green leaves that are used in cooking

2 [countable] literary someone, especially an old man, who is very wise

withdraw : retire, retreat, secede

wither : fade, decay, decline, wilt1 / / verb [intransitive]

1 if a plant wilts, it bends over because it is too dry or old

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2 informal to feel weak, tired, or upset, especially because you are too hot
, languish
withhold : reserve, retain, hold back
witness : 1. see, perceive, observe, watch, notice
2. testimony, evidence
witty : amusing, clever, comic
woe : distress, affliction, sorrow, grief, anguish, agony
wonder : surprise, astonishment, amazement, awe,
bewilderment
wonderful : marvelous, remarkable, awesome, startling,
prodigious, astonishing, amazing, phenomenal
workmanship : handicraft, handiwork
worry : trouble, torment, annoy, plague, pester, vex, tease,
harry, harass, molest, irritate, disturb
worship : revere, respect, venerate, adore
worthy : worthwhile, deserving
wound : injure, hurt
wrap : cover, envelop, muffle /verb [transitive usually passive]

1 to make a sound less loud and clear: The falling snow muffled the noise of the traffic.

2 also muffle up to cover yourself with something thick and warm: He went out into
the snow muffled up in his scarf and thick overcoat.

wrath : anger, ire, rage, resentment, indignation, fury

wreck : destroy, devastate, ruin, shatter
wretched : miserable, pitiable, dejected, distressed, pitiful

***** (Y) *****

yawn : gape
yearn : crave / / verb [transitive]

1 to have an extremely strong desire for something, especially a drug: She's an

insecure child who craves attention.

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2 formal to ask seriously for something: May I crave your pardon?
, desire, want
yearning : longing, craving, desire
yield : 1. produce, bear
2. surrender, submit, concede

***** (Z) *****

zeal : passion, enthusiasm, fervor, ardor, zealousness

zealous : ardent, enthusiastic, eager, earnest, fervent,
passionate
zenith : apex, peak, tip
zest / / noun

1 [uncountable] eager interest and enjoyment: zest for life

2 [singular, uncountable] the quality of being exciting and interesting: The danger of
being caught added a certain zest to the affair.

3 [uncountable] the outer skin of an orange or lemon (1), used in cooking

zestful adjective
zestfully adverb
: gusto / / noun [uncountable]
with gusto if you do something with gusto, you do it with a lot of eagerness and
energy: Brendon always sang hymns with great gusto.
, heartiness, eagerness
zone : area, area, region, district, section

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