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PART 1: PERIODIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ELEMENTS

Learning Competencies
After completing Part 1 of the module, the learner is able to:
1. Explain the periodic recurrence of similar properties among elements to their group number in terms
of electronic structure (STEM_GC11CB-IIcd-60)
2. Relate the number of valence electrons of elements to their group number in the periodic table
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-61)
3. Compare the properties of families of elements (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-62)
4. Predict the properties of individual elements based on their position in the periodic table
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-63)
5. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the periodic table (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-64)

Keywords for the concepts to be learned:

a. Periodic table i. Representative o. Shielding or screening
b. Metals elements/main p. Atomic radius
c. Non-metals group elements q. Ionic radius
d. Metalloids j. Transition elements r. Ionization Energy (First,
e. Alkali metals k. Lanthanides Second, Third,…)
f. Alkaline earth metals l. Actinides s. Electron affinity
g. Halogens m. Isoelectronic
h. Noble gases n. Effective nuclear charge

Historic Event
Development of the Periodic Table
The arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table was made possible
through the efforts of several chemists, such as; Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri
Mendeleev, and Henry Moseley. Read about their contributions on this topic.

I. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

The periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical
properties are grouped together. The elements are arranged according to increasing atomic
number. The rows are called periods. The vertical columns are called groups or families
according to the similarities in their properties. At present, it contains 118 elements;
however, elements 113 to 118 have just recently been synthesized and naming is not yet
fully complete.
There are 18 groups or families. There are two conventions in designating the groups. The
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) refers to the columns are Groups 1-18. Many
books, however, continue to refer to the columns as Groups 1A, 2A, 3B, and so on as shown
in the figure above. This teaching guide will use the Groups A and B convention.
Majority of the elements are metals (shown in light gray shade in the figure). Metals are
good conductors of electricity. The non-metals are shown as boxes with no shade. The
metalloids (shown in boxes with dark grey shade) have properties that are intermediate
between metals and nonmetals.
Some groups have been given collective names. Group 1A elements are called alkali metals;
Group 2A elements are referred to as alkaline earth metals; Group 7A elements are called
halogens; Group 8A elements are known as noble gases. The Group A elements are
classified as representative elements or main group elements. These elements have

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unfilled or filled s and p orbitals in the highest principal quantum number. The Group B
elements are called the transition elements where the d subshells are being filled up.
This, however, is not the universal convention. In Europe, the convention is to use B for
representative elements and A for transition elements; the opposite of the American
convention. However, in this lesson, the American convention will be followed. The two
separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table are lanthanides and the actinides.
Sometimes, they are referred to as the f-block elements.
Study Guide Questions:
1. Write the electron configuration (using 5. Comment on the outermost electron
noble gas notation) of the elements in configuration of the halogens.
Group 1A. 6. How many valence electrons do the
2. Comment on the outermost electron halogens have?
configuration of Group 1A elements. 7. Comment on the arrangement of the
3. How many valence electrons do Group 1A representative elements in the periodic
elements have? table with respect to their electron
4. Write the electron configuration (using configuration.
noble gas notation) of the halogens.

II. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS

Ions derived from representative elements
In the formation of cations from representative elements, the electrons are removed from
the outermost shell to achieve a noble gas configuration. In the formation of anions,
electrons are added to the highest partially filled n shell so that they become isoelectronic
(same number of electrons) with the noble gas.
Ions derived from transition elements
1. Consider the electron configuration of Mn and Mn2+.
Mn: [Ar]4s2 3d5
Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5
Note that for transition elements, the ns electrons are removed first. In filling up the orbitals,
the ns orbitals are filled first before the (n-1)d orbitals because the ns orbitals are more stable
and lower energy. However, the electron-electron interactions are different in a neutral atom
from that in an ion. For transition metal ions the 3d orbital is more stable. Hence, the 4s
electrons are removed first before the 3d electrons.
III. PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. The Effective Nuclear Charge
In many-electron atoms, the inner or core electrons shield the outer electrons from the
nucleus reducing the electrostatic attractions between the nucleus and the outer
electron. The effective nuclear charge, Zeff, is given by Zeff = Z - σ where Z is the
nuclear charge and σ is the shielding constant. Screening or shielding refers to how
an outer electron is blocked from the nuclear charge by the inner electrons. It means
that the attraction of the outer electron to the nucleus is not felt 100% because of the
effect of the inner electrons. Electrons in the inner shells are very effective in shielding
the nucleus. Electrons in the same shell as the electron of interest provide a relatively
smaller screening effect. To see how the effective nuclear charge varies across a
period, perform the following questions.
Example: Consider the Zeff for the outermost electron of Li.

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 Li (electron configuration [He] 2s1) has 2 inner core electrons to shield the
valence electrons. Qualitatively, the +3 charge of the Li nucleus will be
neutralized by the 2 inner electrons; the outer electron of Li will feel an
effective nuclear charge of about +1.
A. Approximate the Zeff for
1. boron (Z=5).
2. F (Z=9).
B. From the above analysis, how will Zeff vary across a period?
2. Atomic Radius
Atomic size is difficult to define because there is no distinct outer boundary to an atom.
The probability of finding the electron decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus but the probability does not fall to zero. Thus, it is safe to describe the effective
atomic radius which is the distance of the electron from the nucleus within which 95%
of the electron charge density is found. A more specific way to get atomic radius values
is to get one-half the distance between two nuclei in adjacent atoms (the internuclear
distance) in a metal solid or in a diatomic molecule.

The covalent radius is one-half

the distance between two
identical atoms joined together
by a single bond.
The metallic radius is one-half
the distance between the nuclei
of the two atoms in contact in
the crystalline solid metal.
Study Guide Questions:
1. How does the atomic radius vary within a period for representative elements?
2. How does the atomic radius vary down a group for representative elements?
3. Using the periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic radius. Explain
your reasoning.
a. C, Li, Be b. As, I, S c. P, Si, N

3. Ionic Radius
Ionic radii are very difficult to measure with certainty because they are affected by their
immediate environment. They can be measured by x-ray diffraction. The sizes vary
depending on the environment. This module focuses on the general trends and relative
sizes.
Atomic radius versus ionic radius
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed. When a metal atom
loses one or more electrons to form a positive ion, the positive nuclear charge
exceeds the negative charge of the electrons in the resulting cation. For isoelectronic
cations, the more positive the ionic charge, the smaller the ionic charge. Anions are
larger than the atoms from which they are formed.
When a non-metal gains one or more electrons, it forms a negative ion termed as anion.
The nuclear charge remains constant, but Zeff is reduced because of the additional
electrons. The additional electrons results in increase repulsions among the electrons in the
outer shell. This results to the tendency of the electrons to spread out more, thus increasing

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the size of the anion. For isoelectronic anions, the more negative charge, the larger is the
ionic radius.
Study Guide Questions:
1. Compare the size of a neutral atom of Na and a Na+ ion. Which is larger. Explain.
2. Compare the size of a Mg atom and a Mg2+ ion. Which is larger?
3. Compare the sizes of Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+. Arrange according to increasing size.
4. Compare the size of a F atom and a F – ion. Which is larger?
5. Which is larger, the O atom or the O2– ion? Which is larger?
6. Compare the sizes of F –, O2–, and N3–. Arrange according to increasing size.
7. Arrange the following set of ions and atoms in increasing size and explain.
a. K+, Cl -, S2-, Ca2+
b. N, Cs, As, Mg2+, Br -

4. Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to remove an
electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
Energy + X(g) —> X+ (g) + e–
The energy required to remove the first electron is called the first ionization energy. The
first ionization energy, IE1, has the lowest value. The second ionization energy, IE2, is the
energy required to strip the second electron from the atom; it has higher energy value, and
so on. IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < …
Examples of ionization energies:
Al(g) —> Al+(g) + e– IE1 = 577.9 kJ/mol
Al+(g) —> Al2+(g) + e– IE2 = 1,820 kJ/mol
Al2+(g) —> Al3+(g) + e– IE3 = 2,750 kJ/mol
Al3+(g) —> Al4+(g) + e– IE4 = 11,600 kJ/mol
a. Explain why IE for Al increases from IE1 to IE2 to IE3 to IE4.
b. Why is there a drastic increase in energy from IE3 to IE4 for Al?
5. Electron Affinity
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy change that
occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron.
For example, for the F atom,
F(g) + e–—> F– (g) Energy involved = -328 kJ/mol
The electron affinity is
F– (g) —> F(g) + e– Electron Affinity = EA = +328 kJ/mol
This is the reason why electron affinity is sometimes defined as the ionization energy of a
negative ion. The more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to accept an
electron and form an ion.Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period from left
to tight. The electron affinity generally decreases going down a group.
REAL-LIFE CONNECTIONS!
Some applications of metal ions
1. Knowledge of atomic and ionic radii is used to vary physical properties of materials. For
example:
a) Strengthening Glass. Normal glass windows that contain Na+ and Ca2+ ions are brittle and shatters
easily. Replacing the Na+ ions with bigger K + ions results in surfaces where surface sites are being
filled up leaving less opportunity for cracking.
b) Colors in gemstones. Pure Al2O3 is colorless. Substituting Al3+ with a little amount of Cr3+ in Al2O3
gives a red color in ruby.
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2. Explanation for the irregularities in the ionization potential trends for beryllium and boron
a) Boron has lower ionization energy than Be. The ionization energy of B is slightly less than that of
Be because boron removes an electron from a 2p orbital, which is less tightly bound than the 2s
involved in lithium and beryllium.
b) Hund’s rule play an important role in explaining the ionization energies of nitrogen and oxygen.
Remember, there are three 2p electrons that can be accommodated in different orbitals with parallel
spin so as to minimize their mutual repulsion. For O (2p)4 and subsequent elements in the period
some electrons are paired and repel more strongly, leading to IE values less than would be predicted
by extrapolation from the previous three elements.
----------------------------------
ACTIVITY 1
Directions: Fill up the blank periodic table with the Element as described by
each statement below:
1. Element A is the biggest in Group 1A. electrons.
2. Element B forms the biggest anion in 6. Element F has the highest ionization
period 2. energy in period 4.
3. Element C has complete d electrons in 7. Element G has the least electron affinity
period 4. in group 6.
4. Element D is the most electronegative in 8. Element H has the 4f14 configuration
period 2. 9. Element I is the first member of the
5. Element E will be isoelectronic with the actinide series
noble gas in period 3 when it loses two

PART 2: Ionic Bonds

Learning Competencies
After completing Part 2 of the module, the learner is able to:
1. Relate the stability of noble gases to their electron configuration (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-67);
2. State the Octet Rule (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-68);
3. Determine the charge of ions formed by the representative elements and relate this to their
ionization energy or electron affinity, valence electron configuration, and position in the periodic
table. (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-69);
4. Draw the Lewis structure of ions (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-70);
5. Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed by a metal and non-metal among the
representative elements. (STEM_GC11CBIId- g-71);
6. Draw the Lewis structure of ionic compounds. (STEM_GC11CBIId- g-72);
7. List the properties of ionic compounds and explain these properties in terms of their structure
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-73); and
8. Perform exercises on writing Lewis structures of ions/ionic compounds and molecules.
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-74).

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Keywords for the concepts to be learned:
a. Octet Rule c. Ionic bond
b. Lewis dot symbol d. Lattice energy

CONNECT, REVIEW, and SEARCH NEW ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

1. Briefly review the electron configuration of the elements found in Group 1A to Group
8A (representative elements).
2. Identify the valence electron of these elements.
3. Recall what are valence electrons and their importance.
4. Deliver the statement using the read-aloud protocol: “A chemist named Gilbert
Lewis noticed something interesting about elements that were very
stable.”
5. Answer the following questions:
a. To what group in the periodic table do these STABLE elements belong?
b. These elements are called the noble gases. Why? What is the common
characteristic of these gases?
c. Light bulbs are filled with Ar gas rather than oxygen gas. Why?
d. From the electron configuration, how many valence electrons do noble gases have?
e. Can we relate the number of valence electrons with the stability of the element?

I. OCTET RULE AND LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

According to Lewis, atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electron configuration.
And this maximum stability is attained when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
Except for He, the noble gases have eight outer electrons or an octet of electrons. The
Octet Rule states that when atoms of elements combine to form compounds, they tend to
lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve the same electron arrangement as the noble gas
nearest them in the periodic table. In combining with other atoms, only outer electrons, the
valence electrons, are involved. To keep track of these valence electrons, the Lewis dot
symbol is used. The Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for
each valence electron in an atom of the element. See examples below.

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 The Lewis dot symbols of the representative elements are shown in the table below.

PONDER: What common features exist for the dot symbols of the elements?

II. IONS FORMED FROM REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Ionization energy and electron affinity have been discussed in PART 1 of this module.
Review these concepts.
 Ionization energy increases from left to right across a period. It increases from bottom
to top in a group as shown in the figure below. What is the reason for the trend?

Using dot symbols and their electron configuration, the formation of the anions are shown
in the equations below.

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 Exercises
Give the charge and draw the Lewis dot symbol
a. of the anion formed when a sulphur atom accepts electrons.
b. of the cation formed when a Rb atom loses an electron
c. of the anion formed when a nitrogen atom accepts electrons
d. of the anion formed when an iodine atom accepts an electron

III. IONIC BOND FORMATION

From the previous section we saw that atoms with low ionization energies tend to form
cations while atoms with high electron affinities tend to form anions. These cations and
anions combine to form ionic compounds. An ionic bond is “the electrostatic force that
holds ions together in an ionic compound.” The
formation of the ionic compound, LiF, can be represented using the Lewis dot symbols.

The two ions, Li+ and F-, now attract each other to form LiF.
Exercises
1. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for CaO.
2. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Na2O.

IV. LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

The stability of the ionic compound depends on the strength of the interaction among all
the ions in an ionic solid. This stability is measured by the lattice energy of the compound.
The lattice energy is defined as the amount of energy required to completely separate one
mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions. Therefore, the stronger the interaction
among the ions in the ionic compound, the harder to separate them, the larger the lattice
energy, the stronger the ionic bond. The lattice energy is proportional to the product of
the charges of the ions and inversely proportional to r, the distance of separation between
the ions (Coulomb’s law). In the case of LiF, for example, the lattice energy is proportional
to

where QLi+ and QF- are charges of Li and F, k is the proportionality constant. Therefore,
the higher the ion charges, the stronger the bond; the shorter the distance between ions,
the stronger the bond. The lattice energy is correlated to the physical properties of ionic
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compounds such as the melting points. The larger the lattice energy, the harder to
separate the ions, the higher the melting point.
Exercises
1. Which is expected to have a higher melting point? LiF or NaF?
2. Arrange the melting points of the following ionic compounds in decreasing order: LiF, LiBr, LiI, and LiCl.
3. Which will have the higher melting point, NaCl or MgO? Explain.

V. PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds have the following general properties:
1. Ionic substances form crystalline solids.
2. In the solid state, the ions are in rigid formation in relatively fixed positions in a
crystal lattice. This makes them immobile and poor conductors of electricity and
heat.
3. However, when they melt or are dissolved in solution, they become good
electrical conductors.
4. Note, however, that not all ionic solids are soluble in water.
5. Because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction among ions in the solid,
they have high melting points and high boiling points.
6. Ionic solids are hard and brittle. The electrostatic forces have to be overcome to
move the ions and shift them away from one another.

ENRICH YOUR KNOWLEDGE!

Ions in the human body
Ions play an important role in the body. Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and copper ions are some
key ions involved in the electrical events inside the body. Potassium is the major positive ion inside the
cell, while sodium is the major positive ion found in the fluid outside the cell. Ionic chlorine is the most
abundant negative ion. What will happen to our body if there is an imbalance of any of these ions or certain
trace ions in the body? Imbalances of any of these ions, certain traces of ions in the body, or inhibition of
sodium ion transport across the cell membranes can lead to dysfunction in the conduction of electrical
messages. This dysfunction quickly leads to a general body disturbance and loss of ability to maintain
somewhat stable internal conditions.
ACTIVITY 2
Drawing Lewis Dot Symbols
I. Using a simple periodic table, accomplish the following table. Write the atomic
number, electron configuration (long form), number of valence electrons, and
Lewis dot symbol for each of the elements listed below.

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 II. Complete the following table.

III. Draw the Lewis dot symbol for the ions in Part II.

PART 3: Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures

Learning Competencies
After completing Part 3 of the module, the learner is able to:
1. Describe covalent bonding in terms of electron sharing (STEM_GC11CBIId- g-75)
2. Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent compounds (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-76)
3. Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic elements of the representative
block (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-77)
4. Draw Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds (STEM_GC11CBIId-g-78)
5. Determine the polarity of a bond based on the electronegativities of the atoms forming the bond
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-80)
Keywords for the concepts to be learned:
a. Lewis structure f. Double bond k. Percent ionic character
b. Covalent bond g. Triple bond l. Resonance
c. Lone pair h. Nonpolar covalent bond m. Incomplete octet
d. Bond pair i. Polar covalent bond n. Expanded octet
e. Single bond j. Electronegativity

QUESTIONS TO PONDER!
a. How are covalent bonds formed?
b. Why are the electrons often unequally shared by the atoms in a covalent bond?
c. How do we represent covalent compounds?
d. How do we name covalent compounds?
e. Are you familiar with the following compounds: water, naphthalene balls, sugar,
acetone, ethyl alcohol, ammonia?

I. FORMATION OF THE COVALENT BOND

It was Gilbert Lewis who suggested that the chemical bond is formed by sharing of electrons
in atoms. For the hydrogen molecule, this is depicted by The two electrons are shared
equally between the two atoms forming a covalent bond.
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The bond is typically depicted by a single line, H - H. The electrons are attracted to the
nuclei of both atoms keeping the atoms together to form a molecule. The formation of the
covalent bond for the F2 molecule.

The representation of the covalent compound above is called the Lewis structure. In the Lewis structure,
shared electrons that form a bond is represented by a line or a pair of dots; lone pairs are represented
by dots above the atom. Only valence electrons are included in Lewis structures.

Study Guide Questions:

a. From the Lewis structure of F2, how many d. Illustrate the formation of the covalent
electrons are around each fluorine atom bond in Cl2. How many bond pairs
in F2? are there? How many lone pairs?
b. How many bond pairs are there in the e. Illustrate the formation of the covalent
F2 molecule? bond in HCl
c. How many lone pairs are there in the F2
molecule?

Exercises
1. Draw the Lewis structure for H2O, CH4 (methane), and for NH3.
2. Which of the three molecules has the largest number of bond pairs (covalent bonds)?

The Lewis structure for carbon dioxide, CO2, and nitrogen gas, N2.

The examples of CO2 and N2 show that there are different types of covalent bonds that are
formed. Single bonds are formed when two atoms are held together by one pair of
electrons. Multiple bonds can be formed. A double bond is from the sharing of two pairs of
electrons such as in the case of O and C in CO2. A triple bond exists in N2 where the two
N atoms are held by three pairs of electrons.
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II. ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Consider the covalent bond in the molecule

Experimental evidence has shown that electrons are not equally shared between H and F;
the electrons spend more time near F rather than H. Therefore the electron density is shifted
more towards F rather than H. This leaves the F end of the molecule partially negative, δ -
, and the H end of the molecule partially positive, δ+. Such a bond is referred to as a polar
covalent bond. The polar covalent bond is somewhere between a purely covalent (nonpolar)
bond and an ionic bond (where there is almost complete transfer of electrons).
A property that distinguishes the polarity of bonds is electronegativity, the tendency of an
atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself. Electronegativity is a theoretical
concept and devised as a relative scale. That is, it can be estimated relative to, or in
comparison to, other elements in chemical bonds. Linus Pauling developed a relative scale
of electronegativities which is widely used in General Chemistry textbooks. In contrast,
ionization energies and electron affinities are physically measurable properties of elements.
In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period. It increases as
atomic radius decreases. The most electronegative elements are those in the upper right
hand side of the periodic table with fluorine as the most electronegative. Metals especially
the ones with large atomic radii are the least electronegative.
The difference in the electronegativity values (!EN) of two bonded atoms determines the
percent ionic character of the bond. If the bond is between two identical elements, for
example F—F, then the bond is purely covalent with 0 percent ionic character. The
difference in electronegativity is 0.

For the molecule H—Cl, the difference in electronegativity is 0.9 showing that the bond is a
polar covalent bond. A 50% ionic character corresponds to EN=1.7. While there is no bond
that is 100% ionic, an electronegativity difference of 2.0 or greater is usually classified to
be predominantly ionic. When EN ≥ 2.0, the bond is predominantly ionic. Even without
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electronegativity values, it is possible to predict the polarity of a bond by examining the
position of the bonded elements in the periodic table.

Exercises
1. Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent. Try explaining your answers.
A. The C-C bond in H3CCH3 C. The C-F bond in CF4
B. The K-I bond in KI D. The N-H bond in NH3
2. Arrange the flowing bonds according to increasing bond polarity: Cs to F, Cl to Cl, Br to Cl, Si to C.

III. WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES

1. The following guidelines are used in writing the Lewis structure of covalent molecules:
a. Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule putting bonded atoms next to each other.
In general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central position. H and F
usually occupy terminal (end) positions.
b. Count the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the structure.
Add electrons corresponding to the charge for negative ions; subtract electrons
corresponding to the charge for positive ions.
c. Distribute the valence electrons to the non-central atoms such that these atoms
fulfill the octet rule. Remaining electrons are assigned to the central atom.
Remember that bonds are equivalent to 2 electrons.
d. If the valence electrons are not enough, multiple bonds may be formed.

Exercises
1. Write the Lewis structure for NCl3.
2. Write the Lewis structure of OCS. C is the central atom.
3. Write the Lewis structure of CN–.
4. Write the Lewis structure of the following molecules: ethylene, acetylene, and carbon
tetrachloride.

IV. LEWIS STRUCTURE AND RESONANCE

1. The Lewis structure for the ozone molecule, O3.

a. The skeletal structure is

b. Valence electrons: 3 (6) = 18

c. Lewis structure is:

d. The Lewis structure can also be written as:

Note that the Lewis structure above has one double bond between oxygen atoms and one
single bond also with oxygen atoms. The double bonds are expected to be shorter than a
single bond. When measuring the bond lengths, we expect two values: one for the shorter
double bond and one for the longer single bond. However, experimental results show that
there is only one bond length obtained for ozone. The bond length is between that of a
single bond and a double bond. This means the above Lewis structure is not an accurate
representation of ozone. In fact, we are unable to write the accurate representation using
either the first or second Lewis structure shown above.

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To resolve this discrepancy, we represent the ozone molecule using the two structures
presented as follows:

Each of the above structures is called a resonance structure. The double sided arrow shows
that the structures are resonance structures. A resonance structure is one of two or more
Lewis structures for a molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis
structure.
What is the correct representation for ozone? The two resonance structures shown with the
double arrow.
ACTIVITY 3
a. Draw the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32–.
b. How many resonance structures will the NO3– have? Draw them.
V. EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
1. The octet rule works best for second-period elements. Hence there are many exceptions.
They fall into three categories:
a. Incomplete octet
b. Odd number of electrons
c. Expanded Octet
Incomplete octet
An example of a molecule with incomplete octet is BeH2, beryllium hydride. Its structure is
There are only 4 electrons around Be and not 8. Boron and aluminum also form molecules
with incomplete octets.
Exercise
Draw the Lewis structure of aluminum triiodide, AlI3, showing the incomplete octet.

Molecules with Odd Number of Electrons

Examples are nitric oxide, NO, and dinitrogen dioxide, N2O. Because they have an odd
number of electrons, the octet rule cannot be followed. The odd numbered molecules are
sometimes referred to as radicals. They are generally highly reactive.

Expanded Octets
Atoms belonging to the second period cannot have more than eight valence electrons
around the central atom because they only have the 2s and 2p subshells. This is different
for atoms of elements in the 3rd period and beyond. These elements have 3d orbitals that
can participate in the bonding. Hence they can have more than eight valence electrons
around the central atom. An example is SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, with the Lewis structure
shown below. SF6 has 12 electrons around the central atom.

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Another example is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5, where the central atom has 10 electrons
around it.

VI. NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS: A REVIEW

1. Here are some guidelines for naming covalent compounds and for writing their
formulas. For binary compounds, state the name of the first element. The name of
the second element ends in –ide.
HF Hydrogen fluoride
HI Hydrogen iodide
SiC Silicon carbide
2. Prefixes (as shown in the table below) are used to denote the number of atoms in the
formula. The prefix “mono” usually omitted for the first element in the formula.
Samples
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
SF6 sulfur hexafluoride

ACTIVITY 4
BRIEF REPORT
1. Look for 2 examples of covalent compounds that can be found in nature or used in
everyday life. Prepare a brief report that includes the following information:
a. Use of the covalent compounds
b. Chemical formula and chemical name of the covalent compounds
c. Structure of the compounds
PART 4: Geometry of Molecules and Polarity of Compounds
Learning Competencies
After completing Part 4 of the module, the learner is able to:
1. Explain the properties of covalent molecular compounds in terms of their structure (STEM_GC11CB-IId-
g-79)
2. Describe the geometry of simple compounds (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-81)
3. Determine the polarity of simple molecules (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-82)

Keywords for the concepts to be learned:

a. Molecular geometry d. linear h. octahedral
b. Valence Shell Electron Pair e. trigonal planar i. dipole moment
Repulsion Theory f. tetrahedral j. polar bond
c. Bond angle g. trigonal bipyramidal k. polar molecule

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I. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
What is molecular geometry? Why do we need to know about the geometry of molecules?
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules and their reactivity
towards other molecules.

How can we know the geometry of a molecule?

Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray diffraction. However,
the geometry of simple molecules can be predicted even without experimentation. While
the results of the prediction is only qualitative and not as accurate as experiment, they still
help in explaining the properties of chemical substances.
What is the basis of the prediction?

The prediction rests on the assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a
central atom repel one another. They want to be as far apart from one another as possible.
These valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding. They assume a
geometry or orientation that will minimize the repulsions. This is the stable orientation and
the one with lowest energy. This approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).

How do we apply the VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry?

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:
1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around the
central atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions are
greater than lone pair-bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than bond pair-
bond pair repulsions
5. Molecular geometry is a very important concept. Ask the learners to explain the VSEPR
theory in their own words or even in Filipino. Make sure they are not memorizing the
theory but can explain it.

What are the common orientations of electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs) that
minimize repulsions?

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Is the orientation of the electron pair the same as molecular geometry?
They are not necessarily the same. The molecular geometry is determined by the position
of the nuclei of the atoms. We do not “see” lone pairs.
II. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY OF SAMPLE MOLECULES
For this lesson, the following notation is adopted:
A refers to the central atom and X refers to another atom bonded to it. If there are lone
pairs attached to the central atom, this is indicated by the letter E. Hence, AX2E2 means
that A has two atoms of X bonded to it and A also has two lone pairs of electrons.
1. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BeCl2. This is of the type AX2.
a. The first thing to do before we can predict the molecular geometry is to draw the Lewis
structure of the molecule. This is shown below:

b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of Be? Two bond pairs surround Be.
c. How will two electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far apart from
one another as possible? Remember VSEPR Theory says they repel one another. To
minimize repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a linear arrangement as
shown above.
d. What is the molecular geometry? The molecular geometry is determined by the
arrangement of the nuclei of the atoms in the molecule. The molecular geometry of
BeCl2 is linear.
e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.

YOU TRY!
Predict the molecular geometry and bond angles of:
1. CO2,
2. BCl3,
3. O3,
4. CH4,
5. NH3,
6. H2O,
7. PF5 and
8. SF6.

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III. SUMMARY OF MOLECULAR GEOMETRICS

Dipole Moments and Polarity of Molecules

As earlier discussed in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are not equally shared by the
bonding atoms. Instead, there is a shift in electron density towards the move
electronegative atom. Such is the case with the bond in HF. This shift is symbolized by a
crossed arrow with the arrow pointing toward the direction of the shift.

The polarity of the bond can be experimentally measured in terms of the dipole moment, .
By definition, the dipole moment is the product of the charge, Q, and the distance between
the charges, r. To maintain neutrality, the charges on the ends of the molecule must be
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.

Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments. In the presence of an electric field, the positive
end of the molecules orient themselves towards the negative plate. Nonpolar molecules
have no dipole moments. Remember to distinguish between polar bonds versus polar
molecules. Some molecules have polar bonds but are not polar. The molecular geometry
determines whether the molecule is polar or not. The unit of the dipole moment is in terms
of the Debye¸D¸"where 1 D = 3.336 x 10-30 C m.

Examples
1. Is carbon dioxide a polar molecule or not?
To answer this, first determine the Lewis structure followed by the molecular geometry.
Then determine the net dipole moment for the molecule.
2. Is ammonia a polar molecule? Is so, which is the partially negative end?
Again draw the Lewis structure and determine the molecular geometry. The molecular
geometry of ammonia is pyramidal. Because N is more electronegative than H, the N
H bond is polar with the N end as the more negative end. The three dipole moment
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 vectors point towards N. There is a resultant dipole moment. The nitrogen end is the -
end. Therefore, NH3 is a polar molecule; the N end is the - end.
3. Is NF3 polar? If so, which end is partially negative?
The molecular geometry os NF3 is pyramidal like NH3. However, in NF3 the F atoms are
more electronegative than N; therefore, the dipole moment vectors point towards the
F atoms. NF3 is a polar molecule; the F end is partially negative while the N end is
partially positive.
4. Is water, H2O polar? Which is the partially negative end?
The molecular geometry of water is bent. The oxygen is more electronegative than
hydrogen; the dipole moment vectors point toward oxygen. Water is a polar molecule;
the oxygen end is the partially negative end. for H2O = 2.0967 D
5. Is carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, polar? What is the partially negative end?
CCl4 is nonpolar. The dipole moment vectors cancel each other out. for CCl4 = 0.

ACTIVITY 5
Determine the polarity of the following molecules.
If polar, determine the partially negative end.
1. CH4
2. H2CCl2
3. BF3
4. H2S

Arrange the following molecules in increasing order of polarity.

1. HF,
2. HCl,
3. HBr,
4. HI.

KEEP

BECAUSE YOU ARE

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