In this course practical and theoretical knowledge is conveyed on the topics of

"synchronous and slip-ring rotor machines". Experiment-based investigations of

these machines with different rotors are at the focal point and provide information
and training on how these machines operate, respond and function.

Objectives:
 Slip-ring rotors, synchronous and reluctance machines
 Design and components
 Terminal designations
 Circuit diagrams
 Rotors
 Slip-rings and carbon brushes
 Motor and generator operation
 Measurements of rotor currents and voltages
 Nominal data, rating plate
 Asynchronous and synchronous speed
 Operating response
 Starting resistors, starting
 Excitation
 Applications

Stator

 Synchronous and asynchronous

machines are referred to as poly-
phase induction machines, due to the
fact that the functionality of both is
based on a rotating magnetic
field. The component of the motor
which generates this rotating magnetic
field is the stator. It is equipped with
several current-carrying windings and
a core made of stacked metal sheets.

The stator of our experimental motor

contains 24 pole pieces and grooves
which are formed out of pressed steel
sheets welded into a core.
Three windings made of copper wire
are slotted into the grooves. These
copper wires make up the three windings which are connected to a three-phase
power supply. The windings are colour-coded green, red and transparent for the
purpose of identification. Each respective winding end can be tapped via 2 mm
sockets.
If we look at the green colored winding, we see that the winding end leads
downward through four grooves on one side, only to emerge upwards on the
exact opposite side. The same also holds true for the other two windings, with
the difference that they are connected four grooves along.

Rotors

The rotor is mounted on the motor shaft which transfers the torque to the working
machine. There are a vast multitude of different construction designs, which then
determine the operating attributes of the poly-phase machine:

 with and without windings

 with and without slip-rings
 squirrel-cage rotor
 permanent magnet
 with/without salient poles

The three rotors which are included with this experiment motor and shown here without
the connection plate are as follows:

Reluctance
Synchronous rotor with 2
Slip-ring rotor with 2 poles rotor with 2
poles
poles
Static magnetic field

When a direct current flows through a winding, this creates a magnetomotive

force and flux which builds up into a magnetic field with a definite orientation. A
magnetic north and south pole arise.

Press the three colored buttons one after the other to see the basic arrangement
of the three windings and to switch a current on each winding. Observe the
changes in the distribution of the field lines and the position of the poles.

As the three windings are spatially arranged at 120 degree intervals, the current
flowing into the different windings generates one magnetic field each with
different orientations. In the illustration you can recognise this by the magnetic
flux lines which change their directions accordingly. 
If a permanent magnet is inserted as a rotor, attractive and repulsive forces arise
due to the fact that in a magnetic circuit like poles repel and opposite poles
attract.
Depending on the position of the permanent magnetic rotor these forces exercise
a torque on the rotor.

Rotating magnetic field

A sinusoidal current flows through each of the three coils. Three alternating
magnetic fields arise in the interior of the stator. Each magnetic field intensity
represented by a vector for magnetic flux B is proportional to the momentary
value of the current.

The three magnetic fields are superpositioned and added together for an
aggregated total magnetic field. 
Graphically speaking this can also be demonstrated using vector addition of the
three vectors. The sum vector, which represents the entire magnetic field,
maintains a constant amplitude during the entire period but alters its position in
space. A rotating magnetic field is created.

In summary we can conclude that:

If the stator windings of a three-phase machine are connected to the three

phases of the three-phase system, a symmetrical and rotating magnetic field is
produced in the interior of the stator.
History of slip-ring rotor machines

 Asynchronous machines were

invented around 1885. The inventors
were the Italian Galileo Ferraris and
the Yugoslavian Nicola Tesla.

Michael von Dolivo-Dobrowolski built

the first three-phase asynchronous
motor in 1889 using a triple-phase
system which he gave the name three-
phase alternating current. Motors with
slip-ring rotors as well as short-circuit
rotors were already being built at the
beginning of the eighteen-nineties.

Modern applications of slip-ring rotor machines

An asynchronous motor with squirrel-cage has the advantage over DC machines

in that it is considerably simpler and more robust in terms of its design. As a
result, this machine is less expensive and requires less maintenance. One
disadvantage is the fact that the operating speed is closely tied to the mains
frequency which establishes the synchronous speed of the stator's rotating field.
Consequently, on the one hand speeds higher than 3000 rpm cannot be reached
in a 50 Hz network and on the other hand continuous speed adjustment over a
larger range is only possible with considerable effort or inordinate power losses.

Asynchronous machines with short-

circuited rotors are the electrical
machines most frequently used. They
are simpler, more robust and less
expensive than motors with slip-ring
rotors. However, motors with slip-ring
rotors offer the advantage that
operating response can be modified
since rotor windings are externally
accessible. Because of the more
favorable starting behaviour which is
attainable with starting resistors, slip-ring motors are selected for bigger drives
which might have to run up under greater loads (so-called heavy
starting). Generally rotor-circuit resistors can be used to continuously adjust the
speed over a certain range.
Slip-ring rotors are thus particularly suitable for robust applications:

 Belt drive and excavator drives

 Crusher plants
 Cement plants

Principle of operation

In asynchronous machines a distinction is drawn between machines with

squirrel-cage rotors and those with slip-ring rotors. In terms of physical response
and in the design of the stator, slip-ring rotor machines do not differ in any way
from squirrel-cage machines.
However it is the rotors of the machines which are different, having considerable
dissimilarities in their construction.         

Principal differences between slip-ring rotor and squirrel-cage

machines

A squirrel-cage rotor (left) has a winding in the form of individual rods, which are
connected at both ends via short-circuit rings. There is no other way to access
the rotor winding from outside and thus no possibility of influencing the rotor's
operating response.

A slip-ring rotor, like its stator, is equipped with a "real" three-phase winding
which is connected in the standard three-phase star configuration. These
windings are represented in the diagram as three single windings shown in three
different colours - one colour per winding.
The ends of the rotating three-phase windings are connected to the slip-rings, on
which carbon brushes impinge. The terminals of the carbon brushes are
connected up to terminal panel. Thus the rotor winding ends, as well as the ends
of the stator winding, are accessible at the terminal for connection to a circuit.
The operating response of the rotor can be modified as a function of and in
accordance with the circuit configuration.
Normally the rotor winding is completely short-circuited after run-up using
resistors.

Ways of alterating speed

The following holds true for the speed in all asynchronous machines:

where: 
p = number of pole pairs
f1 = frequency of the stator voltage being applied
s = slip

It implies that the following means can be used to change the motor's speed:

 Change the number of pole pairs p, e.g. in pole-changing motors

 Change the frequency f1 of the motor's supply voltage
 Modify the slip s by changing the stator voltage
 Modify the slip s by making changes to the rotor

The first three modifications can be performed on all asynchronous machines

and have already been described in the previous UniTrain-I machine course
"Electrical Machines II: Three-phase machines".

The fourth method mentioned above requires access to the rotor windings, which
is only provided in slip-ring machines. Consequently, only the two additional
procedures that follow are available to influence the slip s:

 Change the rotor resistance

 Integrate a cascade circuit, apply a counter e.m.f

Circuit and terminal designations

 The circuit shows a typical
implementation of a slip-ring rotor
machine with rotor resistors:

1. Main switch
2. Terminals for the stator
windings U, V, W
3. Stator
4. Rotor
5. Terminals of the rotor
winding K, L, M via slip-
rings and carbon
brushes
6. Variable, stepped
starting resistors
Operating response with starting resistors

 Frequently the operating response of electrical machines is shown by load

characteristics. In these characteristics you can see the torque is available at
each speed.
The curves of load characteristics of slip-ring machines can be influenced by the
starting resistors in the rotor circuit. The rotor winding can be short-circuited
either directly via the carbon brushes or via one of the normally variable series
resistors. The illustration shows the torque-speed characteristic of an
asynchronous machine with short-circuited rotor windings.

Press the green button and observe how the curve changes with increasing rotor
resistance. Focus particularly on the following three factors:

 No-load speed
 Slope of the curve
 Torque at speed 0

Result:

 The no-load speed is independent of the rotor resistance at near-

synchronous speed.
 The greater the resistance, the smoother the characteristic turns
out. This has an unfavourable effect on speed stability e.g. in the
case of load fluctuations.
 When starting (n = 0) a higher torque is available with rotor
resistors. When the rotor resistors are too large the available
torque decreases again.

When resistors are connected into the rotor circuit this causes a reduction in the
starting current and at the same time an increase in the starting torque. This
effect is caused by, among other things, an improvement in the cos  factor in
the rotor circuit

Starting the slip-ring rotor machine

 Simulate switching on the system by pressing the green button and observe the
curve of the torque and the starting resistor setting during the run-up process.

Observation:

During the step-by-step deactivation of the starting resistors the torque changes
its segmented trajectory to follow different curves. Thus it is possible to achieve
the characteristic curve plotted in black, which also depicts the maximum of the
respective curves.

R0 represents the rotor resistance when the slip-rings are short-circuited.

The prerequistes for correct operation are:

 correct dimensioning of the starting resistors

 performing the switching at the right time

By selecting R, you can even reach a state where the maximum possible torque,
the pull-out torque arises as the starting torque at the speed n = 0.

Design of the slip-ring rotor

 The rotor bears a coated core of core sheets right on the shaft. This consists of
11 core sheets each with six grooves. In these grooves the windings are
inserted, each one staggered by 120 degrees. On one side the winding ends are
then connected in star configuration and on the other side each end is soldered
onto a slip-ring.
The three windings are wound with laquered wires of different colour.

The core sheets are slightly angled with respect to each other which ensures that
the torque is distributed more evenly.

The rotor of the experiment slip-ring rotor is mounted

on bearings at both ends. On one side there is a solid
connection to a terminal plate, on the other side the
rotor can be removed from its bearing.

Front plate of the slip-ring rotor

The front plate of the rotor contains a circuit diagram as well as the terminals
where the ends of the rotor windings are connected up to 2 mm sockets, which
have been labelled K, L and M. A star connection permits the direct short-
circuiting of the rotor with the aid of three short-circuiting links. 

Slip-rings and carbon brushes

 One end of each of the rotor windings is permanently connected to one of the
three rotating slip rings. The contact between the rotating rotor windings and the
stationary connection terminal field is established with the aid of the carbon
brushes. The holder section containing the carbon brushes is designed to move
back and forth. A spring is used to exert a constant force to press the carbon
brushes against the slip-rings.

The carbon brush is tightly clamped into

the holder and can easily be replaced by
loosening a screw. The clamp effects a
low-resistance connection between the
carbon and the holder. It is possible, for
example, to connect a starting resistor to
the screw connection.

History of synchronous machines

 The generation of alternating current
began back around the middle of the
Nineteenth Century with single-phase
generators, which were used, for
example, to feed power into lighting
plants. The first three-phase
synchronous generators were built
independently of each other by F. A.
Haselwander und Bradley in 1887.

As the technology developed further,

two basic designs gradually emerged
which differed primarily in the way their
rotors were constructed.

 The so-called salient-pole machine comprises a rotor, whose

exciter poles distributed around its perimeter generate the main
magnetic field similar to the way a DC machine does.
 Parallel to this Charles E. L. Brown, a founder of Brown, Boveri,
AG., invented the cylindrical rotor in 1901 in which the exciter
winding is distributed over several grooves machined into the
drum perimeter.

Modern application areas I - MotorsI

 Synchronous motors have long had

the problem of not being able to start
under their own power when
connected to the mains. For that
reason they have played a much less
significant role in comparison to the
asynchronous motor. In spite of this
synchronous machines find use in
applications where a constant load-
independent speed is required as in
the case of converter sets and piston
compressors.

Modern converter technology eliminates this disadvantage because then the

machines can be run up using variable frequency at full torque from rest. In
particular, as permanently-excited synchronous machines they do not require
any exciter power and have power dissipation in the rotor, so that they are
currently the machines with the highest power density and the greatest efficiency.
They are experiencing their highest growth
rates in the area of converter-fed drives.

Synchronous machines are made in huge

numbers in the area of small and miniature
devices, e.g. for watches and disc players.

Modern applications II - Generators

Synchronous machines are of primary significance as generators. Practically all

electrical energy produced in power stations today is generated by three-phase
synchronous generators. 

Drum-type model generators also referred to

as turbo-generators are currently being
manufactured which can attain power levels of
up to approx. 2 GW.

Principle of operation

No-load operation

 If a bar magnet is brought into the magnetic field of a stator the bar magnet
always aligns itself with this external magnetic field. When the magnetic field of
the stator (red arrow) rotates, the bar magnet also locks into rotation with the field
without being displaced out of its primary position. When operating at no-load the
north pole of the stator is opposite the south pole of the rotor and viceversa.

Start the animation by pressing the green START button.

Under load

 If you try to slow down the bar magnet, it remains a little behind its sought after
position, but it still maintains its synchronous speed. The rotor lags behind the
stator field by the rotor displacement angle  < 0. This makes a mechanical
driving torque available at the shaft M = Ft r = MK> sin

which is practically sinusoidally dependent on the rotor displacement angle. At 

= - 90° the torque reaches its maximum value M (- 90° ) = M K = pull-out torque,
which when exceeded the synchronous machine is no longer able to generate
driving torque and thus starts decelerating. For safety reasons only about half the
pull-out torque is utilised:
M MN ½ MK.

In generator mode all of the statements made above hold true, except that here
the rotor draws ahead by the rotor displacement angle .

Start the animation by pressing the green START button.

Types of synchronous machines

Synchronous machines with drum-type rotors

 If synchronous generators are driven by steam or gas turbines (thermal-electric

power stations), then the speed is chosen to be as high as possible in line with
the design of the turbine. For 50 Hz power grids the result for a 2-pole version a
maximum speed of 3000 rpm. The rotor diameter is restricted by the acceleration
forces which arise. Due to the mechanical stress involved it is the drum-type non-
salient pole rotor which is selected. The desired power means a volume is
required which can be attained by choosing a rotor with an extended length.

 Synchronous machines with salient pole rotors

 The turbines of hydraulic power plants operate with very low speeds

 Hydraulic power plants with low water pressure and high volumetric flow:
KAPLAN and FRANCIS turbines: 80...400 rpm
 Storage power stations with high water pressure and low volumetric flow:
PELTON turbines: 400...1000 rpm

To adapt this rotation speed to the mains frequency the number of poles selected
must be considerable. Due to the low acceleration forces brought about by the
low speed it is possible here to have salient poles with concentric exciter coils.
The salient-pole synchronous generator has a large diameter and a reduced
axial length. In this construction design the air gap on the periphery is not
constant, i.e. the magnetic conductivity varies along the perimeter.

The illustration is a schematic depiction of a salient pole machine with 3 pole

pairs.
Exitement

 The rotor has its own magnetic field

which interacts with the stator's
rotating field. It is designed either as
an electromagnet or as a permanent
magnet. In its design as an
electromagnet the rotor is provided
with a winding, which is supplied with
a DC current via slip-rings and carbon
brushes. This is for a process called
excitation. The following situations
result depending on how strong this is:

 The rotor field is

stronger than the stator
field: In this case the
synchronous machine
is over-excited
and responds like a
capacitor, absorbing
capacitive reactive
power, i.e. it can supply
inductive reactive
power.
 Rotor field is weaker than the stator field: The synchronous
machine is under-excited and responds like an inductor
absorbing inductive reactive power, i.e. it can supply capacitive
reactive power.

It is precisely this possibility which is important in supplying power because in

addition to active power, the grids need primarily inductive reactive power during
the day and capacitive reactive power at night.

Since this is only feasible using synchronous machines, power stations almost
exclusively use synchronous generators to generate electrical power. Even in
motor operation the reactive power can be regulated using the excitation or
under suitable excitation the optimum active power can be set using cos .

Ways of altering speed

The following is true for all synchronous machines:

where: 
p = number of pole pairs
f1 = frequency of the applied stator voltage

Any changed in the motor speed is thus only possible by carrying out the
following measures:

 Change the number of pole pairs p, e.g. in pole changing motors

 Change the frequency f1 of the motor supply voltage

Only recently has it been possible to adjust the speed of synchronous machines
through modern static converter technology to permit the generation of a
frequency and amplitude adjustable power supply.

Circuit and terminal designations

The circuit shows a typical synchronous

machine application connected on line

1. Switch for the stator voltage

2. Switch for the exciter voltage
3. Connection terminals of the
stator windings U, V, W
4. Stator
5. Rotor
6. Connection terminals F1 and F2
of the rotor winding via slip-
rings and brushes
Rating plate

Each electrical machine has a rating plate permanently attached to it and

normally situated on the terminal box. Besides the rating specifications the rating
plate normally contains other data like nomenclature, designation and
manufacturer.

The boxes mean the

following:

1.
Specification
of the

manufacturer
2. Machine type designation
3. Three-phase motor for connection to a three-phase power system
in star or delta circuit configuration
4. Synchronous motor
5. Rated speed
6. Rated voltage of the exciter winding
7. Rated current of the exciter winding
8. Place of manufacture
9. Rated frequency
10. The cos factor describes the ratio of the active power to the
apparent power
11. Rated current of the stator winding in delta or star connection
12. Insulation class
13. IP protection type describes the protection against water
infiltration or ingress of foreign bodies
14. DIN/VDE official guidelines to which manufacturer complied
15. Rated voltage of the stator winding in delta or star connection
16. Power available at the shaft

Operating response in motor operation

As a rule the operating response of electrical machines is depicted by its load

characteristics (torque-speed characteristic). There you can see the torque
available at each rotation speed.
Press the green button and observe how the speed and the rotor displacement
angle respond with increasing torque.

After starting up, the motor rotates synchronously with the rotating magnetic field.
The torque and the rotor displacement angle are practically 0.
If it is subjected to a load the torque and the rotor displacement angle increase.
However, the rotation speed is independent of the load and remains constant.
If the load exceeds the pull-out torque the synchronism is interrupted and the
motor comes to a halt.

Generator connected to a constant-voltage constant-

frequency system

The majority of synchronous

generators are connected to each
other via the electrical power supply
grid. This grid is referred to as a stiff or
constant voltage constant frequency
system because certain conditions
determined for it may not be changed.

 The mains voltage U1 is

constant.
 The frequency f1 is
constant.

If generators are connected to the

system, then these synchronisation
conditions as well as the following
must be fulfilled:

 UG = U1    UG: generator

voltage
 fG = f1
  G=1 : phase angle

The fulfilment of these synchronisation conditions constitutes synchronisation.

The result is that the generator is run up to the synchronisation point. The voltage
is adjusted accordingly via the exciter current while the frequency and phase
angle are controlled via the speed or torque of the turbine.

Technical mechanisms are required for synchronisation. The following diagram

shows the basic circuit involved.
The voltage and frequency measuring instruments are often used as dual
measuing instruments. If they indicate that both the voltage as well as the
frequency in the constant voltage constant frequency system and in the
generator system are identical than the initial two conditions required for
synchronisation are fulfilled.
Lamp circuits are frequently used to check for phase equality. The lamp circuit
shown here is designated a synchronising dark connection. If none of the lamps
light up, the synchronisation conditions are fulfilled and the generator can be
switched on line using the switch.

After switching on line the generator is permanently coupled to the system and
can feed into the system active power, capacitive or inductive reactive power
depending on excitation and turbine control.

Design of Rotor 1

 The rotor carries a layered core of dynamo sheets directly on its shaft. The one
here comprises 8 sheets of dynamo steel with two salient poles. A winding is
attached to the punched surface area, whose ends have each been soldered to
one slip-ring. There is a tap in the centre of the winding which is soldered to the
centre of the slip-ring. However, this is not needed for the remaining
experiments.

The rotor of the UniTrain salient pole

rotor, as used in the experiments, is
mounted on ball-bearings at both ends.
On one side there is a fixed connection
to the terminal connection plate and on
the other side the rotor can be
removed from the stator's bearing
mount.

Front panel of the rotor

The front panel of the rotor contains a circuit diagram as well as the ends of the
rotor winding connected to 2 mm sockets and designated F1 and F2.

History of reluctance machines

The so-called reluctance motor is based on well-established technology which

has gone practically unused for many decades. Already as early as 1840 an
amateur was the first to register a patent for this rather simple electric motor,
which offers some astonishing advantages over conventional drives: in general
they are lighter, cheaper and permit high speeds.

Reluctance machines were unable to prevail on the market place for decades
due to the fact that they have several disadvantages when connected to a
constant voltage constant frequency mains system. But in this electronic era,
electronic controls can be used to implement design measures and
corresponding control modifications to compensate for the disadvantages
inherent in this drive.

We may distinguish between 3 different designs:

 Asynchronous motors with reluctance torque

 Stepping motors
 Switched reluctance drives

Modern applications of reluctance machines

 Reluctance machines can be manufactured

at low cost like squirrel-cage machines. In
contrast to the latter, reluctance machines
can operate in synchronisation with the mains frequency. For that reason they
are used for general applications with load-independent constant speed or under
difficult operating conditions e.g. high vibration, increased ambient temperatures,
etc. or to permit the simultaneous operation of several motors e.g. lifting drives,
conveyor belts.

In particular the "switched reluctance drive" version of the machine seems to

have a bright future of broad application. Here we have an overall concept which
leads to cost-savings. Since all reluctance machines can be operated at higher
speeds overall, this also means that more compact machines and drives can
thus be realised. Examples of this are:

 Use as a traction motor (drive unit) in future, electrically driven motor

vehicles
 Regenerative energy sources: using biogas mini-turbines with very high
speeds up to over 30,000 rpm extremely compact 1 MW energy
generating systems can be assembled.
 In household appliances: For example, the vacuum cleaner where a fast
running reluctance motor can considerably lower the cost of the turbine

Advantages:
 Low cost, robust and maintenance-free motor
 Constant load-independent synchronous speed
 Very high rotation speeds feasible
 Asynchronous mains starting without starting aids
 Precise speed drive without measured value feedback (speedometer)
 High operation temperature permitted
 High starting torque possible
 Motor overload is non-critical
 Rotor exhibits low moment of inertia

Disadvantages:
 Difficulties with pull-in torque for high flywheel mass
 Poor power factor due to high reactive magnetization power
 Unfavourable efficiency (in smaller machines)
 Unevenly distributed torque
 Oscillations possible

Principle of operation

 The operational principle of a reluctance motor is as simple as can be. A

bearing-mounted and rotatable iron bar aligns itself with the magnetic field
generated by the the electric current. 
  Switched reluctance motor: by means of deliberate step switching
the iron bar is put into a rotating motion. To switch the stator
winding, normally the rotor angle is evaluated using sensors. 
 Asynchronous motor with reluctance torque: the iron bar is put into
a rotating motion by a rotating magnetic field determined by the
mains voltage.

Reluctance is a concept which stands for the magnetic resistance which the
rotor's rotation induces in opposition to the electromagnetic field.

Thanks to the rotor's salient poles self-induction of the stator coils in reluctance
motors is a function of the rotor's position. From this the motor builds up torque.
Change in induction is caused by a change in the magnetic resistance, which is
responsible for the flux through the respective coils under consideration. When
the rotor is turning the stator coil's self induction alternates periodically between
its lowest and highest (peak) value.

 The rotor position associated with the lowest inductance for the
stator coil under consideration is called the unaligned rotor
position with reference to this coil.
 The rotor position involving the maximum inductance for the stator
coil under consideration is called the aligned rotor position with
reference to this coil.

Assuming that linear ratios exist in the iron core the torque of the reluctance
motor can be expressed as follows

The following conclusions can be drawn from this result:

 The torque M is proportional to the square of the current i , i.e. the

direction of the torque is independent of the current direction in the
windings.
 The polarity of the torque is dependent on the polarity of the
change in inductance during rotation of the rotor. When the
inductance increases we have a positive torque (motor operation),
when the inductance drops a negative torque is generated
(generator operation).
 Any large change in inductance as a function of the rotor position
brings about high torque.
  The rotation direction of the switched reluctance motor (SRM) is
determined by the switching sequence selected for the motor
windings.

Design of s reluctance machines

In comparison with other electrical motors a reluctance machine has a very

simple design. The rotor of the reluctance machine has no windings or
permanent magnets. Since reluctance motors use the standard stator found in
asynchronous motors basically all mechanical variations available in
asynchronous motors can be implemented here.

The reluctance motors are normally built with 4 or 6 poles, however you might
also find other numbers of pole pairs. All grooves and short-circuit (cage) rings
are die cast with aluminium. This type of rotor construction makes it extremely
robust and stable even under high rotation speeds.

Design of a switched reluctance machine

A switched reluctance motor is a special type of reluctacne machine. Both main
element, stator and rotor, are deeply grooved and have an even number of teeth.
The windings are situated exclusively in the stator and take the form of tightly-
wound coils. As such the salient poles are in the stator. The rotor is not equipped
with any windings, permanent magnets or squirrel-cage. A special feature of
switched reluctance motors is that the stator and rotor each have a different
number of teeth. This is necessary to generate torque without direction reversal.
As such the design engineer has numerous possible combinations to select from
when choosing the number of stator teeth ZS and rotor teeth ZL.
The tooth ratio ZS/ZL is critical for the rotor's rotation direction relative to the direction
of the revolving stator field. When the tooth ratio is smaller than 1, a torque is exerted on
the rotor to move in the stator field's direction. On the other hand, when the tooth ratio is
greater than 1 the rotor rotates in the opposite direction.
Let us assume that in a two-pole machine the stator coils situated diagonally opposite
each other are connected in series, each one forming one phase winding, and each of
these phase windings generate one torque pulse when a rotor tooth rotates past it. The
superpositioning of the individual pulses adds up to an aggregate torque. If the number of
torque pulses per revolution is low, e.g. when there are only a few teeth per pole pair or a
small number of phase windings, then the torque exerted on the motor shaft demonstrates
considerable torque harmonics. This is also referred to as a high torque ripple. Sudden
torque impulses can arise which lead to increase noise build-up and oscillation tendencies
in the drive. With an increased number of teeth per pole pair the torque exerted on the
shaft can be gradually smoothed. For reluctance motors which are supposed to output
very evenly distributed torque at low speeds it is thus recommended to have a high
number of phase windings.
Circuit and terminal designations

The circuit shows the connection of the reluctance motor to a system with
constant frequency and constant voltage and its designations:

 Main switch
 Connection terminals
for the stator windings
U, V, W
 Stator
 Rotor

In the case of the switched reluctance

motor there is an electronic control unit
connected between the constant
voltage constant frequency system
and the machine. Furthermore a
sensor arrangement is normally
required for the shaft which provides a
feedback signal of the rotor position to
the control unit.
Rating plate

Each electrical machine has a rating plate which is permanently connected to it,
normally in the proximity of the terminal connection box. The rating plate contains
in addition to the rated data of the machine also specifications such as machine
type designation and
manufacturer.

The boxes contain the

following information:

1.
Manufacturer
2. Type

designation
3. Three-phase motor for connection to a three-phase power supply
system in star or delta connection
4. Three-phase motor
5. Rated speed
6. Available output at the shaft
7. Place of manufacture
8. Rated frequency
9. The cos factor describes the ratio of the active power to the
apparent power
10. Rated current of the stator winding in delta or star connection
11. Insulation class
12. The IP protection class describes the protection against ingress of
fluids and foreign bodies
13. Rated voltage of the stator winding in delta or star connection
14. DIN/VDE guidelines governing machine design and manufacture

Operating response - start-up and synchronisation

 The reluctance motor combines features from both asynchronous and
synchronous machines. Thus the torque-speed characteristic of reluctance
motors comprises two areas.

 In the first area (1, green) the torque characteristic proceeds like a
characteristic for an asynchronous motor. This area is passed through
only during asynchronous starting.
 In the second area (2, orange) the speed maintains synchronous
operation irrespective of the load, and you see the corresponding linear
appearance of the curve. This is the area where the machine normally
operates.

If reluctance motors are switched to a fixed frequency they initially run up in line
with the asynchronous characteristic until the point of intersection arises with the
load torque. Since the torque is proportional to the square of the current, high
starting torques are possible.

During asynchronous startup a sinusoidal torque characteristic with slip

frequency is superpositioned on the torque. A positive half-wave of this torque
has to accelerate the drive by the slip speed into for synchronisation to occur.
Naturally synchronisation is only possible up to a certain moment of inertia.

If the motors are run up to a frequency ramp using a frequency converter,

operation remains exclusively on the second characteristic which is parallel
shifted from an initial value of zero by the frequency converter.

Oscillating response

Since reluctance motors - just like any synchronous motor - form a spring and
mass system in conjunction with the load, mechanical resonance vibrations are
possible. In particular, 2 and 4-pole motors with external flywheels can be prone
to such oscillations in an operating range below approx. 25 Hz.

Operating response - load and loss of synchronisation

 Under load the reluctance motor runs at synchronous speed up to the point
where the synchronous pull-out torque (loss of synchronisation torque) is
exceeded.

The characteristic of the load torque versus the load angle is shaped almost like
a sine curve. When the load torque is raised to the maximum of the first sine half-
wave, the rotor pulls into the next stable working point and operates
asynchronously. If the load torque is still too high, the torque continues to pull-out
until rest is reached. The operating state can be recognised through the extreme
current fluctuation and the audible increase in noise. Under prolonged
asynchronous operation reluctance motors can suffer damage due to the fact
that the standard asynchronous power output can only be utilised up to
approximately 30 - 50%.

According to DIN / VDE 530 the synchronous pull-put torque amounts to a

minimum of 135% of the rated torque.

Training objectives
Welcome to the UniTrain-I Stepper Motors course. The LUCAS-NÜLLE team
hopes that you have a lot of fun working successfully through the course topics
and experiments. The pages that follow provide you with an overview of the
course contents and the equipment required.

This course gives a brief summary of stepper motors, sufficient to understand

and work with them.

Course contents
 Origin, development and applications of stepper motors
 Types of stepper motors
 Control of stepper motors
 Getting to know the most important modes of operation
 Determining specific parameters
 The purpose of current regulation
 Understanding with the aid of experiments

Requirements
Requirements for successful completion of the course

 Basic knowledge of electrical engineering

 Basic knowledge of magnetism
History

The earliest known stepper motors were used in the telegraph industry in about
1850. The invention of dial telegraph equipment meant that driving machinery
was required that could move it to specific angles. At each of the specific
positions a letter of the alphabet was typed and the position could be controlled
from a remote location.

This so called ratchet and pawl system was controlled by a coil, which would pull
the rotor towards it so that it could rotate in single steps in one direction.

Later the "solenoid motor" was invented that developed the ratchet and pawl
system a step further. This type of motor made it possible to rotate the wheel in
both directions.

Two symmetrically mounted, axially directed solenoids, one for each direction of
rotation, are activated to impart a torque to the rotor. This torque arises due to
the rotor sliding along an inclined plane when pulled by the magnet. The same
system is used in ball-point pens. The position of the rotor balls are then forced
into the grooves by a spring.

This type of motor was used as of 1930, e.g. for military purposes, such as the
control of torpedoes. Its advantage was that there remains a large rest torque
acting when the exciter is switched off.
Around 1920, rotating armature motors came into existence. These require no
mechanical assistance. There are two distinct types, one with the rotor forming a
permanent magnet and another using soft iron (to form a reluctance motor). A
comprehensive patent for reluctance motors was already in place at that time. In
the 1950s, advances in materials science led to ever better permanent magnets
and permanently excited motors grew in popularity throughout the 1960s. From
1960 onwards a hybrid motor was developed that combined the features of the
permanently excited and reluctance motor types.
Areas of application

Stepper motors are used for positioning drives, for printers, clocks, displays and
in the textile industry. The power ratings employed range from 10 µW (in quartz
watches) to 500 W. The frequency of the stepping can be as high as several
kilohertz.

Ink-jet printer:

The print head is positioned by means of a

stepper motor.

Floppy drive:

Read and write heads are positioned by a stepper

motor.

 
 Panel display:

The flipping of the individual display panels is

triggered by a stepper motor

Advantages of stepper motors:

 The construction can be adapted to match the application
 Fixed, pre-defined positions
 Positions are changed in discrete steps
 Rotations of specific angles or numbers of steps can be made
 No gears or brakes are required and movements can be made slowly

  

Disadvantages of stepper motors:

 If a position is skipped (so the motor is out of step), the motor must be
reconfigured
 Uneven torque over the angle
 Depending on the control system there may be overshoots
 Complicated control systems
 No feedback as to the actual position of the rotor

Reluctance-type stepper motors

Reluctance motors can manage several steps per revolution when equipped with
a kind or cog. The key aspect is the type of control. If current passes through a
specific winding,  the teeth orient themselves according to the magnetic flux. The
flux tends towards the angle of least resistance (reluctance) and the soft iron
rotor is aligned accordingly, as shown below. If current passes through windings
A and A’ then B or B’ and C or C’ can receive current next, depending on which
direction the motor is to turn. Reluctance motors can have very small step
angles, which is not possible with permanently excited motors. They can also
achieve high revs, since the mass of the rotor is comparatively low. However, the
torque is very low and there is no cogging torque. Reluctance motors have at
least three windings, but usually more than four. As can be seen, the stator field
runs in the opposite direction to that of the rotor.
  
 
Direction
of current
is into the
page
Direction
of current
is out of
the page
No current
in the
winding

   

 Advantages: 
 High revs are possible

 Small step angles are possible

 Disadvantages: 
 Bulky design

 Low torque
 No cogging torque when current is turned off

Permanently excited stepper motors

In terms of design and function these permanently excited stepper motors are
cylindrical-rotor, synchronous machines (see illustration). Whereas with standard
synchronous motors, the stator field rotates continuously, in a stepper motor it is
clocked so that it can be moved by a specified angle (step).

 
 
 Direction of
current into the
page
Direction of
current out of the
page
No current in the
winding

 
 

Advantages: 
 Cogging torque holds the rotor still when switched off
 High torque

 Disadvantages: 
 Small step angles are impossible to achieve
 Bulky design

How a hybrid stepper motor works

The moment of inertia of a hybrid stepper motor is greater than that of a

reluctance motor. The animation and pictures show how the hybrid motor is
designed.

Since the design is complicated, the magnetic alignment of the two phase
winding pairs (half-steps) are shown in the illustration in different colours. The
windings are linked together crosswise. In full-step mode 40 steps are required
for one revolution and in half-step mode 80 steps are required.
  
 
Direction of
current into the
page
Direction of
current out of the
page
No current in
winding

   

The axially aligned, permanently magnetic pole of the rotor gives rise to a
magnetically induced direct current that is responsible for the cogging torque and
the high operating torque.

Design, flow of direct current in a hybrid motor

 If current flows through a winding, the rotor is aligned as in the the following
illustration.
 Rotor alignment and AC field lines for a hybrid motor.

 Advantages:  
 High revs are possible
 High torque
 High cogging torque

 Small step angles are possible

 Small design

 Disadvantages: 
 Complicated design (see picture)

Stepper motor

Unipolar stepper motors

The differences in the two types of motor lies in the design of the windings. The
illustration shows the design for a unipolar, permanently excited stepper motor.
 Unipolar stepper motor

The advantage of a unipolar stepper motor is in the simple design of its power-
electronic actuator. One disadvantage is due to the poor utilisation of the
components since only half the winding is under current at any time and the
windings that are not under current have no effect on the torque. An actuator
controlling a unipolar stepper motor is depicted in the following illustration.

Electronic actuator for controlling a unipolar stepper

The four stator windings can have current applied to them by turning on the
corresponding power transistors. Demagnetisation is achieved by means of free-wheeling
circuits, each consisting of a diode and a zener diode connected in series.

Bipolar stepper motors

Better efficiency and use of the magnets can be achieved by using a bipolar
instead of a unipolar motor. However, it needs to be recognised that a bipolar
configuration needs twice as many power transistors to control it than a unipolar
version. Controlling the "upper" transistors is more complicated since the
potential of the emitters of these transistors depends on the switching state of the
bridge pair. The following illustration depicts the design of a bipolar stepper
motor.

Design of bipolar, permanently excited stepper motor

Due to the greater efficiency and the resulting smaller design, it is bipolar stepper
motors that are used most often. The following illustration shows the control
circuitry for a bipolar stepper motor.

Electronic actuator for controlling a bipolar stepper motor

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of unipolar control:  

 Simple design
 Control can be achieved simply
Disadvantages of unipolar control: 
 Poor efficiency

 Advantages of bipolar control:  

 High efficiency
 Simple design of windings

 Disadvantages of bipolar control: 

 Complicated control circuitry
 Twice the number of power transistors

Damping

We will deal with damping only briefly. Damping of a stepper motor is dependent
on the materials used for the design, losses in the iron, hysteresis losses, etc. 

Since stepper motors have a natural resonant frequency, the torque curve is
discontinuous. If the motor is sufficiently loaded (damped) at this frequency, a
torque also develops even at this point. If the motor only has a small amount of
intrinsic damping, it can sometimes be difficult to operate it near its own resonant
frequency.

It is more difficult with resonances at medium step rates. They cause a further
zone of instability for the operation of the motor in the form of slow oscillation of
the rotor speed around the synchronous speed. This can cause the motor to stop
due to loss of synchronisation.
Training objectives
Welcome to the UniTrain-I course Linear motors. The team from LUCAS-
NÜLLE wishes you lots of fun and success in working through the course topics
and performing the experiments. The following pages provide you with an
overview of the course content and required material.

Since the discovery of the wheel, mankind has exploited roundnessin a variety of
ways. In electrical machines, the vast majority of commercially-manufactured
units are designed to produce rotary motion, although the same forces of
electromagnetism can be put to use to create a linear motor that operates
directly to produces motion in a straight line. This requires no crank or any other
mechanism to converting rotary motion to linear motion. In the past few years,
linear motors have been gaining widespread acceptance in a variety of
applications.

A linear motor is                                                                                           

  "No more than an ordinary electrical motor spread out",   

                                                                                     Professor Eric Laithwaite

In this course, experimental investigations are performed on a slotless,

synchronous, permanent-magnet linear motor. The purpose of this prototype is
for use and testing in a laboratory. Its design and the subsequent tests will
provide valuable information on this type of electrical machine and the results,
once extrapolated, will be of assistance in designing genuine industrial
prototypes.

Training objectives
Electromagnetic concepts

 Movement of the motor and induced voltage

 Force of the motor and current in the coils
 Direction of force and the right-hand rule

Operation of a linear motor

 Design of a three-phase motor

  Conditions for continuous movement
 Interaction between motor and power supply

Positioning of a linear motor

 Positioning control system 

 How to measure the position of the motor
 Motor start-up - the reference frame
 Applications

Prerequisites
Prerequisites for successful completion of the course

 Basic knowledge of electronics

 Basic knowledge of electrical machines (asynchronous motors)
 Basic knowledge of self-commutated converters

It is recommended that the following UniTrain-I courses have been completed in

advance of this one:

 UniTrain-I course on three-phase machines

Linear motor board

The linear motor board features a complete, functioning linear motor with position
sensing and regulation. The integrated power electronics circuitry makes for a
compact design.

Move the cursor over the picture for a description of the individual components
on the board.

Areas of application

Applications are many and varied, ranging from simple sliding doors to full control
of a 10-ton vehicle. Nowadays linear motors are also becoming increasingly
popular solutions in modern automation applications. 

Linear motors are potentially effective in any application requiring linear motion.

Here are some typical applications for various kinds of linear motors.

Filling bottles

The high dynamic force in combination with high precision positioning of the
linear motors enable bottles to be accurately filled on a moving conveyor belt.

Printing and labelling

Linear motor technology offers impact-free positioning and controlled-force

printing cycles, allowing fragile products to be printed significantly faster.
               

One linear motor module applies glue to boxes as they pass by on a high speed
conveyor belt before they are folded shut.

                              

The safety centre opened in Sindelfingen 1972 starts accelerating test vehicles

with an electric linear motor that runs underneath the vehicles along a 100-meter
trench. Modern sled units like the Benedix accident simulator were also
developed at this time.
              

Ohio was one of the first parks in the world to install a roller coaster which
uses a linear induction motor (LIM) to electro-magnetically accelerate its
vehicles..

 A fuel cell manufacturer requires a two axis (X-Y) linear positioning system for
precisely dispensing pliable fuel cell material.

 The latest though not yet the ultimate technology

Maglev (magnetically levitated trains)

The principal of a magnetically levitated train is that it floats on a magnetic field
and is propelled by a linear induction motor.

History

The history of linear motors goes back as far as the last decade of the nineteenth
century. The main reason why linear motors were not accepted sooner was that
the ancillary technology was not yet in existence to support them.

The concept of a linear motor was pioneered by Professor Eric Laithwaite

 
Types of linear motor   Application
 
 

1890s           Linear Induction Motors  Shuttle drives for weaving

 
 Railway traction motors
 

1905  Linear induction motors

 1917  First DC linear motor  Launcher

 
  
 First really large scale linear
1946  Alternative to a wind tunnel
motor
 
 

1962  Single sided linear primary  Russian car factory

 
Machine tools

and            
 
Synchronous linear motors with
 Present robots
high energy permanent magnets
day

Configurations of linear motors

Linear motors can be implemented in many different ways. Thats why there are
many criteria for differentiating these types. These criteria include:
  Geometrical form of the primary and secondary part (e.g. planar or
cylindrical)
 Primary part made of iron with coils placed in the slots.
 Primary part made of iron without any slots, so that the coils are located in
the space between the iron plate and the magnets.
 Non-ferrous primary

In this course, a planar linear motor with a non-ferrous primary part is used.

 Planar linear motor

A linear motor can be visualised by cutting open and rolling out a rotary motor.
After rolling it out, the coils in the primary part and the magnets in the secondary
part are in a single plane and these planes move relative to one another.

Two different variants are possible: often the secondary part is situated on a
stationary part of the machine and the primary part is moved. This is the principle
used in this course. The disadvantage of this method is that the wires for the
motor current and the sensors have to be connected to the moving primary part.

Another solution is that the primary part is fixed and the secondary part can be
moved.

Which solution is used depends on the application or the problem in hand.

The ever-present problem of this type of motor is the vertical force of attraction
between the primary and the secondary part. This force of attraction can be
many times bigger than the horizontal propulsive force and must be
compensated for using mechanical guidance (mechanical support) of the
movable part.

Cylindrical (tubular) moving magnet linear motors

Another type is seen when the plane of the coils and the magnets are rolled back
around an axis. The movement of the motor is oriented along the axis.

A cylindrical geometry results where the coils and the magnets are arranged
along the axis of movement. One big advantage of this method is that only a
 horizontal force is produced and no radial force. That is why the requirement for
mechanical guidance of the movable part is also much less.

 The primary part is arranged around the cylindrical part of the secondary part.
The primary part thus forms an outer cylinder and the secondary part an inner
cylinder. In another solution, the primary part forms the inner and the secondary
part forms the outer cylinder.

This means that either the primary or the secondary part can be moved.

Comparison with rotary motors

Linear motion can be achieved using two different solutions. The first solution
consists of a rotary motor in combination with a gear and a ball screw
arrangement. In this solution the linear motion is accomplished by mechanical
means. The torque of the rotary motor is transformed into a propulsive force,
transmitted by the ball screw.

The second solution will perform the linear motion with a linear motor. The
interaction between the primary part and the secondary part directly produces the
propulsive forces.

Linear motors offer significant advantages over ball screw and rack-pinion
systems.

 
 
Linear motor   Ball Screw
 
 
Advantages Easy to operate at high speed and Thrust greater for given restrictions on
  high acceleration                  size
 Less maintenance even at high
speed and high acceleration

Easy to achieve fast and accurate

positioning because of direct drive
 
Stroke has no limit

No moving parts
Price lower due to mass production
Silent operation
 
Compact size

Easy control and installation

No lubrication or maintenance

Excellent constant velocity (smooth

motion)
Speed and acceleration limited

Thrust lower for given restrictions Frequent maintenance is necessary if

on size operated at high speed and acceleration
because of wearing
Higher price
Limited stroke
    Linear encoder required
Disadvantages  Have no beginning and an end to its
motion
Less suited for strongly varying
loads (Too) high friction

Difficult application (Too) low stiffness

Hysteresis, Vibrations

Motor constant

In describing a linear motor, the quantity "motor constant" is used. Knowing what

the "motor constant" is allows an understanding of the relationship between force
and current.

We know that the mechanical power of linear motor can be expressed as follows:
 P (mechanical) = F * v

The mechanical power is given by the force F which acts on a body moving at
velocity v.

 Electrical power can be calculated using the formula:     

P (electrical) = 3 * U * I

In this formula, the RMS values (RMS = root mean square) of the induced
voltage and the motor current are used. The coefficient 3 indicates that this
motor consists of a three-phase winding.

We assume the mechanical power and electrical power are equal.

F * v = 3 * U * I

As a result we get:

F / I = 3 U / v

The ratio of force to motor current is proportional to the ratio of the induced
phase voltage to the velocity.

With the knowledge of this formula we can make use of the results of the last
experiment to determine the motor constant of our linear motor. We can take
either the results of the slow-movement experiment or the results of the fast-
movement experiment. To improve the accuracy of the result, you should
calculate the mean value of the results derived from both experiments.

Before we do calculate motor constant, we should define the quantity "pole-

pitch".

The pole-pitch is the total width of a magnet plus half the distance between the
magnets multiplied by two (as illustrated in the diagram below).

With the linear motor used in this course, the pole pitch is 16 mm.
Magnetic field produced by a coil

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form
a coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil
along its longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil.
The magnetic field encircling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the
other loops to produce a concentrated field down the centre of the coil. A loosely
wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The
magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound
more tightly. It should be mentioned that the intensity of the field is proportional to
the current flowing in the coil.

Let us compare the field of this coil with the field of a permanent magnet. The
field lines are again closed. The shape of the lines is similar to the shape of the
permanent magnet. The field has a north pole on the right and a south pole on
the left.

The next diagram shows a 2D representation of the field produced by a coil used
in a linear motor. The result is taken from a numerical computation of the
magnetic field. The square areas correspond to the copper winding of the coil
which is cut along the central line. The total amount of current flowing in the
square areas is given by the number of turns times the the current in each wire.
The current comes out on the left side area and goes in to the right side area.
The intensitiy of the field is high inside the coil. It decreases with the distance
from the coil.  
     
In the next diagram this coil is placed over the surface of the permanent magnet
assembly. The field produced by the magnets is omitted. One can see that the
field of the coils also passes through the plate underneath the magnets.The north
pole of this field is oriented in the direction of magnets.

Resultant force

In the following picture, the magnetic fields of the coil and the magnets are
superimposed.

It can be seen that when the coil is in the position pictured above, both fields are
in the same direction. The north pole of the field from the coil is opposite the
south pole of the middle magnet. As opposite poles attract, there is a vertical
force of attraction present. No horizontal force is present to move the magnets
from this position. Thus, this is a point of stable equilibrium in terms of the
horizontal position of the coils. For the motor to function, the horizontal force is of
importance because this force moves the primary and the secondary part relative
to each other.

In the next chapter we will therefore study how the horizontal force depends on the
movement of current carrying coils over the magnet track.

Determination of position using an encoder

The position controller needs to know the actual position of the motor. To
determine this position, various different types of sensors are available.

The performance of direct drives is decisively influenced by the selection of the

position encoder and direct drives place rigorous demands on the quality of the
position signals.

Optimum measurement signals

 Increase the quality of a machined surface

 Reduce vibration in a machine frame
 Prevent excessive noise due to the speed of the motor
 Prevent additional heat generation in the motor

Encoders are ideal for machines such as milling machines, machining plant,

drilling machines, lathes and grinding machines.

This type of sensor (encoder) uses a measurement scale with absolute coding.

The biggest advantage of this sensor is that directly after switching on the
system, the actual position of the motor is known. Such a sensor, on the other
hand, is complicated and expensive.

Another type of sensor uses a measurement scale with incremental coding. This
scale has markings at regular intervals, which are read by the electronics of the
encoder and presented as a signal to the position controller. That is why this
sensor can only determine the change in position of the motor and not the
absolute position and hence a reference position must be defined when a motor
with such a sensor is started.

That is the reason why a reference point is defined when the motor in this course
is started. All positions will be given in reference to this defined position.

 Determination of position using magnetic field sensors

The position controller needs to know the actual position of the motor. To
determine this position, various different types of sensors are available.

The secondary of a linear motor has alternately magnetised magnets of known

width and separation (pole pitch). By measuring this magnetic field, the position
of the motor can be determined as in the case of an incremental encoder. The
measurement of the magnetic field is achieved using magnetic field sensor, also
called a Hall sensor. These work according to the principle that a moving
electron is displaced from its path in a magnetic field.

 The following animation shows that when a Hall sensor moves over a bar
magnet, the output voltage produced is proportional to the intensity of the
magnetic field.
Measurement of position

As described before, with a magnetic field sensor, also called a Hall sensor, the
magnetic field of a motor can be measured. The field can be measured with just
one sensor although this cannot determine the direction in which the motor is
running. 

That is why a second Hall sensor needs to be used. This is placed at a distance
of half of the pole pitch.

 The magnetic field of the of the motor magnets forms a sine wave at a particular
distance above the magnets. Now, if the primary of the motor is moved and
hence the Hall sensors mounted upon it, the output signal from the Hall sensors
will be of sine/cosine form. as shown in the following diagram.

With these two signals, the motion of the motor can be controlled and the
direction of motion can be determined.

Reference point

Motivation for determining the reference point

Magnetic field sensors measure the magnetic field of the motor magnets. The
whole motor consists of 8 magnet pairs, each pair with a north pole and a south
pole. With the help of Hall sensors, the position of a motor can be determined
uniquely within a region covered by each pole pair. On the transit to the next pole
pair, the signal repeats itself, which means that it cannot be determined at which
pole pair the motor is currently located. This kind of measurement system is of
incremental type where the movement is detected but the absolute position
cannot be determined.

For position control, which needs to be able to work for the whole region
available, a suitable scale must be designed. For this reason, a reference point
needs to be defined. This reference point can be located on the magnetic track of
the motor with the help of some extra marking. Depending on this reference
point, the direction of the motor can be uniquely defined as positive or
negative. For the purposes of position control, the end positions of the track can
be defined as limiting values.

Another possibility is to set the reference point dynamically. In this method, a
random position is defined as reference position. The maximum possible
movement in either the positive and negative directions is unknown and must be
determined relative to the previously defined reference point.

This is the method that will be used in this course and hence each step of this
method needs to be described :

 First of all, the reference point is defined at a random point ( the

best place is normally in the middle of the magnetic track of the
motor).
  Then the motor is moved by hand all the way to the left. The
controller analyses the path and recognises it as the maximum
distance to the left.
 The controller receives a signal once the distance has been
covered.
 The motor is now moved by hand all the way to the right and this
distance is also signalled to the controller.

In the following experiment, the reference position is defined in this way. After these
steps have been completed, the whole length of the motor (i.e. the whole path that the
motor can move) is defined. Then we can start with the programming of a path, also
called an operational profile.

Difference between absolute and relative positioning

After executing the reference position operation, the movable distances in

positive and negative directions are known. When writing positioning programs,
or operating profiles, the different positions that are to be achieved must be
presented to the controller in order. This is possible using two different methods:

1. Absolute positioning

The first method is called absolute positioning. All the positions are given in
reference to the full path, which is defined through the reference position.

 For example

(The origin is the reference point which has the value zero)

1. Step: move to  +5 cm

2. Step: move to  +9 cm
3. Step: move to  -6 cm
4. and so on.

2. Relative positioning

The second method is called relative positioning. Here, only the difference

between two steps will be given. The final position of above described profile will
be reached using the following steps. 

For example

(The origin is the reference point which has the value zero)

1. Step: move +5 cm
 2. Step: move +4 cm
3. Step: move -15 cm
4. and so on.

Both these profiles will be executed in the following experiments. 

Training objectives
Welcome to the UniTrain-I course BLDC motors. The team from LUCAS-
NÜLLE wishes you lots of fun and success in working through the course
subjects and performing the experiments. The following pages provide you with
an overview of the course content and the materials that are required.

This course is designed convey theoretical knowledge of BLDC motors

(brushless DC motors), demonstrated and cemented by means of practical
experiments on such a motor. BLDC motors are increasingly replacing
conventional DC motors in commercial applications. During this course you will
find out some of the reasons why this is happening.

Training contents
 History
 Design
 How BLDC motors work
 Electronic commutation
 Circuit designs 
 Electrical valves and control
 Position detection systems for a rotor
 Open- and closed-loop control of motors

Prerequisites
The following should have been studied in advance in order for the course to be
completed successfully:

 Magnetism and its effects

 Basic knowledge of how electrical machines work, in particular DC
machines
 Basic knowledge of electrical engineering
 Basic knowledge of automatic control technology

Introduction
DC motors are very popular machines for drive technology due to their
controllability both in terms of torque and speed. The torque is proportional to the
current and independent of the speed.

However, DC motors have one huge disadvantage: the commutator (see

photograph) of a DC machine requires maintenance at regular intervals because
the carbon brushes wear down due to the friction with the copper laminated
sheets of the commutator. Consequently, the commutator is the the greatest
weakness of a DC motor. A commutator is needed to be able to supply a current
to the coils in the rotor relative to the magnetic field of the stator.

One solution would be to replace the commutator with external, electronic valves,
but this does not solve the problem of how to get power to the rotor. If we look to 
the design of a permanently excited DC machine for a solution, then it may be
seen that the rotor windings and the permanent magnets of the stator are
capable of being swapped over. Doing this provides you with a permanently
excited synchronous machine (PSM).

This solves the problem of how to get power transferred to the rotor. Now the
external commutator only needs to switch the windings at the right time (i.e.
when the rotor is in the appropriate position. This new design also offers many
more additional advantages:

 Higher efficiency since the design means less space is needed

 Elimination of temperature-critical components in the machine
 Heat can be released directly through the outer wall
 No further need for maintenance
 Rotor can be immersed in fluids (protection classes)
 Lower noise factor
 Less rotor inertia: improved acceleration or decceleration
 Identical operating response to a conventional DC motor
 The potential number of magnetic pole pairs can easily range from
2 to16

In summary:

The difference between a DC motor and a brushless DC motor (BLDC) or

electronically-commutated (EC) motor is in the design: windings are located in
the stator with permanent magnets in the rotor. Commutation is performed by
means of semiconductor components. It is difficult to say why people refer to a
brushless DC motor, since the design is far more reminiscent of a permanently
excited synchronous motor. The operating response of a BLDC motor with
closed-loop control is more like that of a DC motor, however, so this might be the
reason for the nomenclature.

Another difference between a BLDC motor and a permanently excited synchronous

motor is the power supply. A permanently excited synchronous motor is powered via a
sinusoidally-shaped current, whereas a BLDC motor is normally powered by a current
with a square-wave form.  This is reflected in the characteristic for the magnetic flux. A
permanently excited synchronous machine is designed so that magnetisation is brought
about following a sinusoidal curve. In contrast a BLDC motor is magnetised in a fashion
that is more trapezoidal in nature. If you switch the two types of machines on and
measure the voltage present at the unconnected terminals, the voltage characteristic will
either be sinusoidal or not.

History

BLDC machines have gradually been developed from DC motors and

permanently excited synchronous motors over the last 50 years. It was with the
emergence of transistor semiconductors (electronic valves) that the idea of a
BLDC motor first appeared.
For the first time, the development of semiconductor components made it
possible to achieve multi-phase drive of a permanently excited motor with
variable frequencies and thus significantly reduce the initial run-up problems
afflicting such machines. Also, new and better magnetic materials were being
developed, e.g. using rare-earth metals. This boosted the effectiveness of
permanently excited synchronous machines.

The operating response of a permanently excited synchronous machine with a

rotor-speed adjusted feed frequency closely matches the response of a DC
machine in terms of speed, torque and current.

Due to the simple design, this type of motor is very cost-effective. BLDC motors came
into being as a result of the so-called block-shaped form of their power supply current.

Disadvantages of BLDC motors

Disadvantages of BLDC motors as compared to DC machines

 The standard range tends to be in the upper speed range

 Additional semiconductors are required
 Rotor position detection is required
 Open-loop control is required for the winding current 
 The simplest form of DC machine needs only a mains switch to
control it(on/off)
 Increased technical complexity leads to additional sources of error

 Added costs for electronic commutation must be offset by long

service life.

 
Design of BLDC motors

Like any electrical machine BLDC motors consist of a stationary component and
a moveable (mostly rotating) part. The stationary part is called the stator and the
rotating component of the machine is called the rotor.  The following picture
shows a rotor equipped with permanent magnets:

The photograph below shows a stator including windings:

 
The number of pole pairs here is two. The number of pole pairs determines the
ratio of the mechanical rotation of the rotor to the rotation of the electrical field. In
this case where the number of pole pairs is two, two electrical rotations are
required so that the rotor can complete one actual revolution. 

One more possible design of BLDC motor is an external rotor model. In

this version the stator with its windings is located on the inside of the motor. The
permanent magnets rotate around the stator. This design is typical for ventilator
or fan drives, which are mostly operated using two phases:

The permanent magnets are in a staggered arrangement inside the fan impeller

(wheel). Electronic commutation is controlled by a Hall sensor (located at the top right
between the poles

Advantages and purpose of electronic commutation

Electronic commutation has the following advantages over the traditional

mechanical commutation found in DC motors:

 There is no wear and tear on commutator brushes (reducing

maintenance).
 Interference (radio, EMC) is reduced as there is no brush
sparking.
 The space for the commutator can be saved = more compact
design, 1/3 less space needed.
 A higher power density is achieved due to a more compact
design.
 Higher speeds are possible.
 Areas of application can be extended to include hazardous
explosive environments etc.
The purpose of electronic commutation is to modify the power currents to the
magnetic field of the rotor in an optimum manner. As such the angle between the
magnetic flux of the stator windings and the rotor should amount to <= 90°. This
angle ensures that the maximum possible torque is obtained.

 Control design for a BLDC motor

The fully controlled six-pulse bridge circuit is controlled either via a

programmable microcontroller or using hard-wired  ICs, depending on the
operating requirements.

Here too, the decision to utilise one method or the other depends on the
application. For example, if you need to control a sinusoidal current, the so-called
"voltage model" is the most sensible solution. This model is very algorithm-
intensive but can be ably handled nowadays using a relatively inexpensive 16-bit
microcontroller. The parameters needed in this case to carry out automatic
control are computed from relatively few input variables. In addition to these
variables that need constant measuring, there are some additional mechanical
parameters for the respective machines that need entering.

The following image shows the general structure of a BLDC design:

Pole detection

Pole detection using current pulses

Pole detection utilises current pulses to make use of the saturation of the stator
winding. In addition to the magnetic flux from the permanent magnets of the rotor
poles, the stator winding also generates a magnetic flux. The overall flux
determines from these aspects (winding flux, rotor flux) either adds to or
weakens the saturation of the inductors in the motor. When the components of
the motor are more saturated the current in the windings is correspondingly
larger. 

Saturation occurs sooner or later depending on the position of a pole. The

current peaks in the corresponding winding allow the position of the rotor to be
identified to an accuracy of 60°.

In the animation the magnetic north pole is being sopught. The pattern of colours
is determined via the current peaks. This serves to identify the present position of
the rotor and the sector containing the north pole.

The pattern of current peaks is characteristic for the areas relating to 60° and can
be compared with a table. The position is derived by superimposing the three
measurements.

The position also identifies what will be the next switching state. The example in
the animation shows how the next switching position is determined for rotation of
the rotor in a clockwise direction.

To identify the sequence of current peaks, the detecting circuitry needs to be

appropriately calibrated, i.e. the circuitry needs to recalibrated for every new
motor. Pulses must also be narrow enough not to adversely affect the motion of
the rotor.

There are a variety of names for this and other similar methods that are used by
various manufacturers.
Some examples:

 PING methods(Agile Systems)

 INFORM = INdirect Flux detection by On-line Reactance
Measurement (TU Vienna)
 SMART START (Fairchild)
This kind of position detection only works up to a certain speed since the time it takes to
make the detection subtracts from the time possible to execute control. Full control of
120° per phase becomes impossible at higher speeds.

Resolvers

A resolver is the tool that provides the most precise rotor position detection
capability. A resolver is always necessary if the rotor's position needs to be
known (e.g. for automatic position control), i.e. when the rotor is supposed to
attain a specific angle and this angle must be maintained precisely.

Nevertheless resolver solutions tend to be the exception. This is because the

design of a resolver makes it considerably more expensive than other
possibilities. Depending on the type, an additional voltage supply may be
required. This voltage has to have a considerably higher frequency than the
maximum electrical speed of the motor. It can then be transferred to the rotor as
in a transformer. The following animation demonstrates the design of a resolver
and how it operates:

Two coils are located in the stator. Constant, high-frequency sine and cosine

voltages are applied to these coils. The respective rotor position can be deduced
from measurement and evaluation of the rotor voltage. An evaluation unit then
needs to be installed downstream which can identify the correct position from the
multiple possibilities innate in the the arctan function.    

 Incremental encoder

An incremental encoder is an optical device. It is used about as often as the Hall

solution. The encoder is usually assembled out of plexiglass discs with black
strips arranged in axial patterns. Such disc plates are attached to the rotor
shaft. Signals are produced in conjunction with fork-type light barriers on
the stator. A certain position is ascertained by counting the number of light and
dark pulses. Each layer is called a track. One track with a fixed position would be
sufficient to determine the rotation speed.

If the direction also needs to be identified, an additional track is added, displaced

by 90° with respect to the first track. Now both the direction and the speed can be
obtained.

By using a third track it is possible to determine the absolute position, which is

attained only once per each 360° revolution. From this reference position, the
location of the rotor can be determined precisely using one or both of the first two
tracks. These are referred to as the x, y and z tracks:
There are other types of incremental encoders such as absolute shaft-angle
encoders. Their design is similar to this incremental encoder. Using this device
any position can be determined precisely, e.g. using Gray code, variables of
which correspond to tracks. Use of light barriers makes it difficult to obtain a
precise position at high speeds (too many line segments/divisions).

Sensorless control

Closed-loop sensorless control of a BLDC machine normally incvolves a

synthesis of pole detection for low speeds and back e.m.f measurement at higher
speeds. As such, the machine is controlled starting from a stationary position
using pole recognition and switches over to back e.m.f. for higher speeds. This
type of rotor position detection is not suitable for highly dynamic motor starts.

It is also possible to run the BLDC motor up without using a feedback loop for the
rotor position (stepper motor operation) and subsequently switch to rotor position
detection via back e.m.f . This procedure makes sense, for example, with fan
motors that operate at higher speeds because the speed at the lower run-up
range tends to be unimportant. This type of sensorless control is sufficient for
most applications (low load fluctuation, minimum speed, automatic speed and
torque control), as is the case, for example, with blowers or pump drives.

There are again various possibilities for detecting rotor position. As mentioned
above it is normally some sort of synthesis that is utilised. The following image
demonstrates the design structure for sensorless closed-loop control, where the
rotor position is determined using the output voltage and the output current:

 
Here a vector analyser outputs the momentary rotor position  based on the
output current and output voltage. This is followed by the automatic current and
speed control which is dealt with later. 

The complete control function can now be housed in a single module with no
feedback lines from the motor required. No further connections are needed.  

Sensorless closed-loop control is by far the most economical solution when large

numbers of units are needed. There is no need to use separate sensors, only the current
within the voltage supply has to be measured . As such, the open- and closed-loop control
unit is able to assume the function of rotor position detection. Hence the motor is just a
motor without any sensor equipment. Using factory-made ICs, closed-loop control and
rotor position evaluation can be carried out in its entirety making it cheaper to
manufacture, assemble and operate the voltage and current sensors. This means lower
costs.

Current detection

In order to be able to set a particular current in the motor windings, the

instantaneous current level must be known. This information allows a choice to
be made as to whether the current needs to be lowered or increased. There are
several possibilites for detecting the current level. The differences are merely a
question of sophistication and thus costs regarding the respective current
detection.

One solution involves linear Hall sensors which are used to directly derive the
induced line-to-line currents.
A more economical and less complex variation involves connecting resistors to
the motor terminals then measuring the voltage drop across them to determine
the current flow.

The most inexpensive solution is to connect a measurement resistor in the input

and output arms of the DC circuit:

 
 Because of their simplicity, resistor methods are the most popular ones used to
detect current level. 

Since the trend is heading to ever greater integration of components, the

possibility arises of determining the current in the transistors themselves. As
such it is possible to implement overcurrent limitation for short-circuits within the
transistor bridge circuit .

Training contents
 The purpose of transformers
 Design and function of transformers
 Transformer designs
 Characteristic parameters for transformers
 Response with no load
 Response under load
 Equivalent circuit for a transformer
 Single-phase transformers
 Autotransformers
 Three-phase transformers

Prerequisites
Prerequisites for completing the course successfully include:

 Fundamentals of DC circuits
 Fundamentals of AC and three-phase circuits
 Measurement of electrical variables

Types of transformer

Transformers can be distinguished by a variety of factors. The most

common point of difference relates to the physical design of the transformer
itself. The key aspects here relate to the types of winding for the coils and the
shape of the iron core. There may, nevertheless, be other distinguishing features
such as the use of various coolants, the intended operating mode of the
component or some special application for which it is used etc. The following list
includes some distinguishing features and the types of transformer to which they
refer.

Distinguished by physical design

Core-type (double-core) transformer
Toroidal-core transformer
Shell transformer
Distinguished by coolant
Oil transformer
Dry transformer

Distinguished by power transmission

Regular transformer
Autotransformator

Distinguished by function
Power transformer
Booster transformer
Exciter transformer

Distinguished by variable transformer ratio

Voltage regulating transformer
Transformer with tap changer

Distinguished by installed location

Indoor transformer
Outdoor transformer

Distinguished by specific application for energy transmission

Step-up transformer
Step-down transformer
In-phase (booster) transformer
Quadrature (booster) transformer

Distinguished by protective functionality (for low-power transformers)

Insulation transformer (e.g. for door bells or toys)
Isolating transformer

Distinguished by application (special transformers)

Oven transformer
Welding transformer
Railway transformer
Ship's transformer
Current converting transformer
Locomotive transformer
The photographs below depict some typical types of transformer: toroidal core
transformers (top left), three-phase transformer (top right), autotransformer (bottom left)
and door-bell transformer (bottom right).
Design and principle of operation of transformers

Transformers are electrical machines that convert AC or three-phase voltages to

higher or lower levels. Whereas in the high voltage energy supply  industry they
are used for this transforming function, when used in measuring equipment their
function is mainly as a converter. They can also be used as drivers for
transmitting low voltage signals. The principle by which they operate is based on
electromagnetic inductio. In the following we shallinitially deal with transformers
that operate with single-phase AC.

Design of a transformer
The following graphic shows the principle features in the design of a transformer
for single-phase AC.

The transformer has a closed iron core made of insulated slices of sheet metal in
order to suppress any eddies. To ensure that losses in the iron resulting from the
fluctuating magnetism are kept to a minimum, laminates specially designed for
transformers are used. The iron core forms a carrier for two windings usually
having a differing number of turns N1 and N2. The winding to which electrical
energy is fed in the form of an AC voltage is called the primary winding (on the
left in the above graphic) and the current flowing through this winding is thus
called the primary current I1. The winding from which electrical energy is output is
called the secondary winding (on the right in the above graphic) and the current
that flows through is accordingly called the Secondary current I2. The voltages U1
and U2 across the two windings are equally known as the primary and secondary
voltages. The terminals for the primary winding are usually labelled 1U and
1V and those for the secondary are 2U and 2V.

Operation of a transformer
The AC voltage applied to the primary winding is generated in that it varies
constantly  in magnitude and direction and thereby gives rise to a magnetic field
in the core, which similarly varies in magnitude and direction. Apart from a small
leakage field, represented by the comparatively few field lines passing through
the air around the core, most of the magnetic field is concentrated within the core
itself, as shown by the concentration of field lines therein. The field is thus largely
enclosed within a loop formed by the core and this field therefore
also encompasses the secondary winding. The magnetic field (of magnetic flux
) is thus common to both windings and gives rise to a firm coupling between the
two. The law of induction means that the magnetic field induces a voltage in the
secondary winding which has the same frequency as the voltage in the primary.
If the secondary winding is connected to a load (such as the resistor in the graphic), a
current then flows and is given the name secondary current.

Equivalent circuit, no-load response and transformer

ratio for a transformer

Equivalent circuit for a transformer

The complete circuit symbol for a single phase transformer as used in circuit
diagrams is shown in the following graphic. The symbol illustrates the key factors
of a transformer, i.e. its two windings.

If the electrical properties (specifically voltage and current) are to be studied in

greater detail, it can be advantageous to resolve the actual transformer into a set
of idealised components. To simplify this let us assume that a transformer has a
transformer ratio of R = 1 (see below). In such a case both the windings have the
same number of turns and can be represented as in the diagram below as an
inductive reactance of magnitude Xh.

The losses in the iron that occur when no load is present can be represented as
a simple resistance RFe in parallel with Xh:
The resistance of the windings themselves can effectively be represented as two
resistors R1 and R2. The windings' leakage fields also give rise to self-induced
voltages that can be represented by two inductors XS1 and XS2. The complete
equivalent circuit diagram for a transformer is therefore as follows.

Response with no load

When there is no load, i.e. when the terminals of the secondary winding are not
connected to anything, the transformer behaves as if there were no secondary
winding at all, i.e. just like an inductor coil. Because of its high inductance and
thus the high inductive reactance, the current that flows when no load is present
is therefore very small. This small current nonetheless produces an alternating
magnetic field and is often called the magnetising current. This magnetising
current is shifted with respect to the voltage applied to the primary by very nearly
90°.

Voltage and current with no load

The current in the primary winding causes an alternating magnetic field that
induces a no-load voltage across the secondary winding. A peak value of for
this no-load voltage is dependent on the peak value of the magnetic flux , on
the cross-section of the iron core A, on the angular frequency  of the input
current and on the number of windings N in the secondary winding. The following
equation arises:

The angular frequency is related to the normal frequency and has a magnitude
2 f and the peak voltage is the same as the RMS voltage U0 multiplied by .
This gives rise to a standard equation for transformers of the following form:
The following graphics depict the voltage and current in terms of the equivalent
circuit (top) and in the form of a vector diagram (bottom). The alternating
magnetising current  Im leads to an alternating magnetic field that induces a
voltage in the primary winding of magnitude U0, that is somewhat smaller than
the applied voltage U. The no-load current I0 is made up of the magnetising
current that generates a magnetic flux  and a current Iv that represents the heat
produced by the changing magnetic field in the core (that can be thought of as a
resistive load). The magnetising current and the magnetic flux are in phase and
shifted back by 90° with respect to the input voltage. Due to the additional
component Iv, the phase shift of the no-load current is actually slightly less than
90°. The power factor with no load is practically 0.

Transformer ratio
The equation for the transformer is not only valid for the secondary winding but
also for the primary. Since the flux, core cross section and frequency are all
identical and the resistance of the coils can be considered negligible, the
following relationship arises:
where the suffix 1 applies to the primary side of the transformer and 2 applies to the
secondary. The following conclusion can thus be made:

The ratio of the voltages on the two sides of a

transformer is equivalent to the ratio of the number of
turns in each winding.

In windings with a larger number of turns the voltage induced is therefore higher
and in those with fewer turns the voltage is lower. The ratio of the number of
turns on the side with the greater voltage (whether it be the primary or the
secondary) to the number of turns on the side with lower voltage is called the
transformer ratio.

If we regard the transformer as lossless then, once a load is present, the power
applied to the primary S1 = U1 I1 must be equal to the power output from the
secondary S2 = U2 I2. This means that the current response is in inverse
proportion to the ratio of turns, resulting in the following relationship:

The interactive animation below seeks to illustrate the relationship between

voltage, current and number of turns. Use the sliders to choose various values
for the primary voltage, secondary current and number of turns and observe how
this affects the corresponding values on the other side of the transformer.
Response under load

When a load is present, current can flow through the secondary winding. This
current acts to weaken the magnetic fields as a result of Lenz's law, since it
generates a magnetic field of its own in the opposing direction. This causes a
portion of the resultant field to be displaced outside the core so that it only
permeates one of the two windings. This component is called the leakage field.
The leakage field causes a drop in the voltage so that the secondary voltage is
no longer as large as the ratio of the windings would imply. The following graphic
shows the magnetic field lines without a load (top) and with a load (bottom). The
green lines represent the field produced by the primary current and the dotted
green line is the contra-field, with the yellow lines representing the leakage field.

The current flowing in the secondary winding also makes the input current higher.
These currents are associated with voltage drops across the windings due to
their internal resistance. A loaded transformer thus behaves like a generator with
an internal resistance of its own made up of resistive and inductive components.
In the equivalent circuit for a transformer of transformer ratio 1 as described
earlier, there is no longer any need for the high-resistance parallel branch made
up of  Xh and RFe. All the relevant components are thus represented by a series
arrangement. The contributions of the two windings can then be joined together
to form two combined resistance components R and XL. The following graphic
depicts the resulting, simplified equivalent circuit for such a transformer, here
shown with a resistive load RL. I is the current that flows through the load.

The output voltage U2 is smaller then the input to the transformer U1 by a factor
given by the voltage drop wthin the transformer itself. The two voltages are
phase shifted by an angle  that is dependent on the nature of the load. The
vector diagram below shows the relationship for a resistive load where output
voltage and load current are in phase.

The voltage drop internal to the transformer is made up of the two components I
x R and
I x XL, indicated in the diagram by the grey triangle. This is called the Kapps
triangle.
Types of load

The voltage output from a transformer depends on the load current and also on
the nature of the load. We have already touched on the behaviour with a purely
resistive load so let us proceed with two other types of load.

Inductive load
The following vector diagram illustrates how the voltages are related for a purely
inductive load. In this case the current through the load has a phase that is 90°
behind that of output voltage. This also applies to the voltage drop due to Ohm's
law I x R. Since the voltage across the load is of the same phase as the inductive
voltage drop I x XL, the drop in voltage internal to the transformer is really quite
large in this case. 

Capacitive load
The situation for a capacitive load in shown in the following vector diagram. Here
the load current ois 90° ahead of the output voltage. In this case, the output
voltage is greater than the input, since the internal inductance of the transformer
and the capacitance of the load form a resonant circuit. For this reason large
capacitors should never be connected directly to the mains.
Resistive inductive load
A load with both resistive and inductive components is described by the vector
diagram that follows. The phase shift between load current and output voltage
can be anywhere between 0 and 90° depending on the magnitude of the two load
components. This situation gives rise to the greatest drop in voltage since the
effective and reactive power components for the load act just like the internal
resistance of the transformer itself.
Short-circuit voltage and current

Short circuit voltage

One measure for the change in voltage resulting from connection of a load is the
short-circuit voltage Uk. This is the voltage that would have to be across the
primary winding at the nominal frequency with the secondary shorted out, in
order for it to conduct the nominal current I1N. Usually, short-circuit voltages are
quoted in terms of the referenced voltage uk that is a percentage of the nominal
voltage UN.

Example: a 220V/24V, 1A/9A transformer with the 24 V winding shorted out

needs to be supplied with a voltage of 22 V to conduct a current of 1 A in the
primary. The short-circuit voltage is then given by Uk = 22V. The short-circuit
voltage with reference to the nominal voltage is uk = 22V/220V = 10%.

The short-circuit voltage of a tranformer is a measure of its internal resistance

(impedance). A low (referenced) short circuit voltage means that the transformer
has a low internal resistance, meaning that the output voltage drops only slightly
in the presence of a load. Transformers with low short-circuit voltage are stable
or "hard" in terms of voltage and those with higher short-circuit voltage are more
"soft".

The magnitude of a transformer's short-circuit voltage is largely dependent on the

leakage it produces. If a transformer is to have low short-circuit voltage, the
windings are so arranged that even those field lines that are not confined to the
iron core, still permeate both windings. Such windings are thus placed together
on the same leg of the core. Transformers with low short-circuit voltage must be
prevented from actually experiencing a short circuit. They are mainly used as
mains transformers, in energy distribution and as voltage converters.

If the transformer is to have high short-circuit voltage, then field lines are allowed
not escape from the iron core. Windings are arranged in such a way that such
stray field lines only pass through one winding. The windings are thus separated
on a leg or may be on two different legs altogether. Transformers with high short-
circuit voltage are proof against short circuits, i.e. a short circuit will not destroy
them. They are used for door bells, as ignition transformers or for welding.

Short-circuit current
If the terminals at the output of a transformer are connected together with
practically zero resistance while the transformer is in operation, then a short
circuit has occurred. The transformers then outputs a current called the short-
circuit current. Current that flows several periods of the frequency after the short-
circuit has arisen is called the sustained short-circuit current Ikd. This is large for
transformers with low short-circuit voltage and low for those with large short-
circuit voltage. High short-circuit current can lead to the destruction of switches,
bus bars and other operating components. The sustained short circuit current is
given by the following equation:

Where IN is the nominal current of the transformer and uk is the referenced short-
circuit voltage in %.

Example: at the output of a 220V/24V, 1A/9A transformer with a referenced

short-circuit voltage of 5% a short circuit occurs. In this case, the sustained short-
circuit current is as follows: 

The current that flows in the immediate aftermath of the short circuit is called the
peak short-circuit currrent Is. This can be more the double the sustained short
circuit currrent. Its magnitude depends not only on the sustained short-circuit
currents but on the momentary value of the voltage at the instant of the short
circuit. It is a particular bad situation if the short circuit happens to occur at a time
with the momentary voltage is actually zero. This is when the magnetising current
and the magnetic flux are at their highest. According to Lenz's law the short
circuit current that now arises seeks to counteract its cause - the reduction in the
flux density. Thus the short-circuited winding tries to retain the magnetism that
was present at the instant of the short. For a number of frequency periods the
sustained short-circuit is superimposed with a decaying DC voltage. The peak
short -circuit current is given by the following equation:

Example: in the situation described above, a worst-case scenario results in a

peak short-circuit current as follows:
The following graphic depicts how the short circuit proceeds in the aftermath of a
short (marked by the lightning symbol).

(1) Load current before the short

(2) Peak short-circuit current
(3) Decaying DC component
(4) Sustained short-circuit current

Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio between the effective power

consumed and the power output:

Since every transformer is inevitably subject to some losses, the efficiency is

always less than one. The losses are composed of iron losses PVFe und and
winding losses (losses in the copper) PVCu. The former result from the continual
changes in the magnetism of the core, while the latter are due to loss of heat due
to the current in the windings. Therefore the efficiency is given by the following
equation:

The effective power output is derived from the apparent power S as follows:
Example: a 250VA transformer is under full load with a power factor of 0.7. The
iron losses are 10W and the copper losses are 15W. The efficiency is then
derived as follows:

The magnetic field inside the iron core is always the same regardless of the load
so that iron losses are therefore always the same. The windings however may
conduct differing amounts of current depending on the load. The winding losses
increase in proportion to the square of the load impedance. Transformers are at
their most efficient when the load is nominal and has a power factor of 1. The
smaller the power factor becomes, the lower the efficiency of the transformer for
the same apparent power.

Example: a transformer with nominal power rating S = 10 kVA supplies several

loads one after the other with nominal power. The loads have power factors as
follows: a) cos  = 1, b) cos  = 0.8 und c) cos  = 0.6. The transmitted effective
power P is then given by the following:

a)
b)
c)

Design of autotransformers

Design
Autotransformers represent a special type of transformer in which the primary
and secondary windings are actually the same coil. That means there is no
electrical isolation between the primary and secondary. The single coil is
arranged in a series circuit with a parallel branch. The following graphic depicts a
schematic of the autotransformer design. The series circuit (1) is the winding with
the higher voltage while the tapped parallel branch (2) has the lower voltage.
The circuit is reminiscent of a voltage divider using resistors. This similarity is
only superficial, though, because the way the circuit works is entirely different.
The applied voltage can only be separated into smaller components with a
voltage divider, i.e. reduced, whereas an autotransformer also allows the voltage
to be increased.

Referring to the above diagram, to transform a voltage down, a voltage U1 is

applied to the winding in the series circuit and a smaller voltage U2 is tapped from
the parallel circuit. To transform up, the voltage U1 is applied to the parallel circuit
and a higher voltage U2 is output across the full length of the winding in the
series circuit. The transformation ratio is given by the ratio of turns just as it is
with a dual winding transformer.

Example: an autotransformer has a total of 300 winding turns and is tapped at a

point that encompasses 270 of these turns. A voltage of 198 V is applied across
the latter. The voltage across the series portion is then given by the folllowing:

Efficiency and nominal power

Under load the current flowing in the common winding is simply the difference
between the primary and secondary currents. This means that the winding itself
can be manufactured with conductors of much smaller cross section. Use of an
autotransformer leads not only to savings in materials but a reduction of power
dissipation due to heating. The closer the transformer ratio is to 1:1, the smaller
is the current that flows through the common winding. Autotransformers are thus
particularly useful in applications where the voltage ratio is not very far from 1:1.
The efficiency can be as high as 99.8% in such cases.

The total power output available from an autotransformer is called the throughput
rating SD. This is partly made up of the current conducted between the input
winding and the output winding and partly composed of an inductive component.
The greater the power transmitted by conduction, the less the power transmitted
by induction for a fixed throughput rating. This puts a limit on the size of the
transformer and thus on its nominal power output SB. If U1 is the larger of the two
voltages and U2 the lower, the following equation applies:

Since the common winding means that there is no electrical isolation from the mains, no
autotransformer can be used as a safety transformer.

Design of three-phase transformers

Three-phase systems
For economic reasons, electrical energy is not transmitted using single-phase
systems but by means of three-phase transformers. The three-phase system
used for this has three single-phase AC voltages of the same amplitude, each
phase shifted by 120° with respect to the others. The following graphic depicts
how the phase voltages change over time along with the accompanying vector
diagram.

The individual phases are usually termed L1, L2 and L3.

Design of a three-phase transformer
Three-phase current can be transmitted in principle using three identical single-
phase transformers with primary and secondary windings connected in either star
or delta configuration. The principle is illustrated in the following graphic:

For medium and low-power applications, however, the materials and size
requirements mean that this kind of transformation results in overly large
equipment. It is therefore, more usual and more practical to use a three-phase
transformer with a common iron core for all the windings. The following graphic
shows a three-phase transformer possessed of a common core with three
sections that is equivalent in function to the arrangement above (it is shown here
in star-star circuit configuration). The equivalent circuit for this transformer is
shown on the right.

The following photograph is an example of a three-phase transformer with an oil-

cooled core. The oil in this type of transformer is not only for cooling but also
provides electrical insulation. So that the heat that develops can conduct away,
the oil vessel is equipped with slats that increase its surface area to act as a heat
sink. For the oil reservoir to expand when the load is great and the operating
temperature is therefore higher, an oil expansion tank is fitted above the vessel
and connected to it by pipes.

Circuit configurations and vector groups

Types of circuit
A three-phase transformer has three phase windings L1, L2 and L3 on both its
primary and secondary sides and these can be wired in various ways. On the
primary side star configured circuits are designated with a capital Y (they are also
known as Y or wye circuits) and delta configurations are designated with a capital
D. On the secondary side the labels use small letters and can be any of star (y),
delta (d) or zig-zag (z) (also called interconnected star). It is possible for the
circuits on the primary and secondary sides to be different. The letter N or n
indicates that a neutral point (mid-point conductor) is connected on the primary or
secondary side.

Vector groups
Depending on the types of circuit on the primary and secondary sides there are
various types of vector group, so called because their vector diagrams are crucial to
describing the characteristics of the arrangement. They are labelled in terms of the circuit
configuration for the primary and secondary sides along with any neutral connection, plus
an identifying number that represents the phase-shift angle between the primary and
secondary voltage. The number indicates the number of multiples of 30° that make up the
phase shift so that you multiply the number by 30° to get the angle. Thus a grouping
labelled Dy5 has a primary delta configuration and a secondary star configuration that
gives rise to a phase-shift of  5 x 30° = 150°. Since transformers can only be connected in
parallel if they are of the same vector group, the group must be be indicated on the rating
plate or determined by measurement. The following table contains the most important
vector groups' vector diagrams, circuit diagrams and group designation.

Vector diagram Circuit diagram Vector group

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Vector group

Yy0

Yd5

Yy6

Yzn11

Dd0

Dyn5

Deriving the designating numeral

Every vector group has its distinctive identifying number that gives the phase
shift between the primary and secondary voltages in multiples of 30°. In order to
determine what this number is, the phases are compared between the points 1V
and 2V (where V refers to the second winding). The following circuit (delta D on
the primary side, star y on the secondary) is provided as an example.
To determine the phase number, proceed as follows:

First draw the vector diagram for the primary side with the vector to the point 1V
pointing upwards. The corresponding point 2V on the secondary side is now
imagined to be connected to 1V so that the points are coincident on the vector
diagram (see the left-hand side of the following graphic).

The vector diagram for the secondary side is now drawn starting from this point
(as shown in red on the following graphic). The important factor is to observe the
direction of the vectors. In the example we move away from point 2V along the
vector. Next, the neutral point for the secondary side is determined. If the
secondary circuit is in delta configuration, as in the example, the neutral point
must be extrapolated as shown by the dotted lines.

Having found the neutral point N2 a vector is drawn from there to point 2V (green
arrow in the diagram below). This should then be transposed as if it began  from
the same point as the neutral of the primary. The respective phase angle is now
given by the angle between the vectors N1→1V and N2→2V, which in this case
turns out to be 150°. Dividing the angle by 30° results in the desired numeral,
which is 5. This group is thus designated Yd5.