HKDSE CHEMISTRY – A Modern View

(Second Edition)

(Chemistry)
Coursebook 4A
Suggested answers

Chapter 36 Rate of chemical reaction Page

Number
 Class practice 1

 Think about 5

 Chapter exercise 5

Chapter 37 Factors affecting rate of reaction

 Class practice 11

 Think about 14

 Writing practice 14

 Chapter exercise 14

Chapter 38 Molar volume of gases at room temperature and pressure

(r.t.p.)
 Class practice 21

 Self-test 24

 Think about 26

 Chapter exercise 27

 Part exercise 34

Chapter 39 Dynamic equilibrium

 Class practice 44
 Think about 45

 Chapter exercise 46

Chapter 40 Equilibrium constant

 Class practice 49

 Self-test 53

 Think about 53

 Try it now 54

 Chapter exercise 55

Chapter 41 The effect of changes in concentration and temperature on

chemical equilibria
 Class practice 64

 Think about 67

 Chapter exercise 68

 Part exercise 76
HKDSE CHEMISTRY ⎯ A Modern View (Second Edition) Coursebook 4A

Chapter 36 Rate of chemical reaction

Class Practice
A36.1 (p.36-3)
(a) Putting a piece of calcium in water
(b) Adding silver nitrate solution to sodium chloride solution

A36.2 (p.36-7)
(0.48 − 0) mol dm −3
(a) Rate of formation of NO2(g) = = 0.24 mol dm–3 s–1
2s
(b) From the equation, mole ratio of NO2 to N2 = 2 : 1.
1
Rate of consumption of N2(g) = × Rate of formation of NO2(g)
2
1
= × 0.24 mol dm–3 s–1 = 0.12 mol dm–3 s–1
2
(c) From the equation, mole ratio of NO2 to O2 = 2 : 2 = 1 : 1.
Rate of consumption of O2(g) = Rate of formation of NO2(g)
= 0.24 mol dm–3 s–1

A36.3 (p.36-12)
(a) Instantaneous rate of reaction at point A
(7.0 − 0) mol dm −3
= = 3.5 mol dm–3 min–1
(2 − 0) min
Instantaneous rate of reaction at point B
(6.0 − 3.9) mol dm −3
= = 1.1 mol dm–3 min–1
(3.9 − 2) min
Instantaneous rate of reaction at point C = 0 mol dm–3 min–1 as the curve has
become horizontal starting from the 7th minute.
(b) At the start of the reaction, the rate of reaction is the highest. As the reaction
proceeds, the rate of reaction becomes lower and lower and finally it becomes
zero.
(c) Average rate of the whole course of reaction
(5.4 − 0) mol dm −3
= = 0.77 mol dm–3 min–1
(7.0 − 0) min

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A36.4 (p.36-13)
(a)

of
CH3COOH(aq) (mol dm–3)
Concentration

Time (min)
(b) Draw a tangent at time t = 0, then find the slope of the tangent.
Initial rate of the reaction
= slope of the tangent to the curve at time t = 0.
(0.13 − 0) mol dm −3
= = 2.6 × 10–3 mol dm–3 min–1
(50 − 0) min
(c) Draw a tangent at time t = 125, then find the slope of the tangent.
Instantaneous rate at the 125th minute
= slope of the tangent to the curve at time t = 125
(0.149 − 0.125) mol dm −3
= = 4.8 × 10–4 mol dm–3 min–1
(125 − 75) min
(d) The instantaneous rate decreases during the course of the reaction.

A36.5 (p.36-17)
(a)
Volume of N2(g) liberated (cm3)

Time (min)

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(b) 58.5 cm3

(c) Average rate of the reaction for the first 4 minutes
(51.0 − 0) cm3
= = 12.75 cm3 min–1
(4 − 0) min

A36.6 (p.36-19)
1. (a) Pressure sensor
(b)
Pressure (kPa) inside the
boiling tube

Time (min)

2. SO2 is very soluble in water. The volume of the SO2 measured is too small or the
change in the pressure of the reaction system is not obvious.

A36.7 (p.36-22)
(a) The escape of the carbon dioxide formed from the reaction mixture causes the
decrease in mass of the flask and its content during the experiment.
(b)
Time of reaction
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
(min)
Mass of CO2
0 0.80 1.50 2.05 2.50 2.90 3.05 3.25 3.40
produced (g)
Time of reaction
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
(min)
Mass of CO2
3.51 3.59 3.64 3.67 3.69 3.70 3.70 3.70 3.70
produced (g)

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(c)

total mass of CO2

produced the end of reaction
Mass of CO2 produced (g)

total time of reaction

Time (min)
(d) Draw a tangent at time t = 0, then find the slope of the tangent.
Initial rate of the reaction = slope of the tangent to the curve at time t = 0
(2 − 0) g
=
(0.8 − 0) min
=2.5 g min–1
(3.70 − 0) g
(e) Average rate for the whole course of the reaction = = 0.53 g min–1
(7.0 − 0) min

A36.8 (p.36-29)
(a) To quench the reaction in the small portion of reaction mixture.
6.50
(b) Number of moles of S2O32– reacted = 5 × 10–3 × mol = 3.25 × 10–5 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of S2O32– to I2 = 2 : 1.
3.25  10 −5
∴number of moles of I2 present = mol = 1.63 × 10–5 mol
2
Concentration of iodine in the third portion
1.63  10 −5
= mol dm–3 = 1.63 × 10–3 mol dm–3
10.0
1000

A36.9 (p.36-30)
(a) As O2 is the only gaseous product in the reaction, the progress of the reaction can
be followed by measuring the volume of O2 formed at regular time intervals. The
volume of O2 can be measured using a gas syringe.
(b) As CH3COOH(aq) can react with NaOH(aq), the progress of the reaction can be
followed by measuring the change in concentration of CH3COOH(aq) with time

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using titrimetric analysis. At regular time intervals, extract a small portion of the
reaction mixture. Quench the portion and then titrate it with standard NaOH(aq).
Add phenolphthalein to the portion as an indicator. At the end point, the colour of
the indicator changes from pink to very pale pink (or nearly colourless).
(c) The reaction involves a decrease in the number of moles of gases. If the reaction
is performed in a closed container, the progress of reaction can be followed by
measuring the decrease in pressure of the reaction system with time. The
pressure inside the closed container can be measured by using a pressure sensor
connected to a data-logger.

Think about
Think about (p.36-2)
1. No. Chemical reactions proceed with a wide range of rates. Refer to Section
36.1.
2. By measuring the change in concentration of a reactant or a product with time.

Think about (p.36-20)

H2 has a very low density. The change in mass of the reaction mixture may be very
small. The electronic balance used in the school laboratory may not be sensitive
enough to detect the small change.

Think about (p.36-26)

The concentration(s) of the reactant(s) decrease(s) upon dilution and cold water
lowers the temperature of the reaction mixture. Both factors can slow down the
chemical reactions.

Chapter exercise (p.36-37)

1. increase; decrease
2. Average
3. Instantaneous; tangent
4. (a) volume
(b) pressure
(c) mass
(d) intensity
5. titration; titrimetric analysis
6. Quenching
7. B
8. C

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From the equation, mole ratio of S2O32– to H+ = 1 : 2.

∴rate of consumption of H+(aq) = 2 × rate of consumption of S2O32–(aq)
= 2 × 0.25 mol dm–3 s–1
= 0.50 mol dm–3 s–1

9. B
From the equation, mole ratio of Cr3+ to SO32– = 2 : 3.
∴rate of change in concentration of SO32–(aq)
3
= – × rate of change in concentration of Cr3+(aq)
2
3
= – × 0.02 mol dm–3 s–1
2
= –0.03 mol dm–3 s–1
(The negative sign tells us that the concentration of SO32–(aq) is decreasing
because it is a reactant in the reaction.)

10. D
Total volume of the mixture = (50 + 50) cm3 = 100 cm3
0.0025
Molarity of I2(aq) at the 25th second = M = 0.025 M
100
1000
0.025 M
Rate of formation of I2(aq) = = 0.001 M s–1
25 s

11. B
B forms very rapidly at first because the concentration of reactant A is very high
at the start. As time passes, B forms less rapidly because the concentration of A
decreases as reaction proceeds. Finally, no more B forms because all reactant A is
consumed.

12. B
The initial rate is equal to the instantaneous rate at time t = 0. To determine the
initial rate of a chemical reaction, a tangent is drawn on the curve at time t = 0.

13. D
(1): MnO2 is a catalyst here that remains chemically unchanged at the end of the
reaction. It is not consumed in the reaction.

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(2) and (3): the curve becomes horizontal at the time interval between P and Q.
This indicates that no more oxygen evolves in the reaction. The reaction has
stopped.

14. C
(A): ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(B): Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(C): ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(D): Zn(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → (CH3COO)2Zn(aq) + H2(g)
No gas evolves in (C). Hence, the progress of the reaction cannot be followed by
the set-up shown in the question.

15. B
(A): carbon dioxide formed in the reaction. If the carbon dioxide formed is
allowed to escape from the reaction mixture, the mass of the reaction mixture
decreases with time.
(B): all the substances in the reaction are colourless.
(C): hydrogen is the only gaseous product in the reaction. If the reaction is
carried out in an airtight container, the pressure that builds up can be measured
by using a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger.
(D): as the reaction proceeds, the concentration of NaOH(aq) decreases. A small
portion (known volume) of the reaction mixture can be withdrawn at regular time
intervals, quenched and then titrated with standard HCl(aq). As a result, the
change in concentration of NaOH(aq) in the reaction mixture during the course
of the reaction can be determined.

2.0
16. (a) Number of moles of CaCO3 = mol = 0.020 mol
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0  3
50
Number of moles of HCl = 2.0 × mol = 0.1 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 to HCl = 1 : 2.
Since 0.020 mol of CaCO3 required only 0.020 × 2 mol = 0.040 mol of HCl
for complete reaction, CaCO3 is the limiting reactant.
(0 − 2.0) g
(b) (i) Rate of consumption of CaCO3(s) = – = 0.0167 g s–1
120 s
(ii) Average rate of consumption of CaCO3 in mol s–1
0.0167
= mol s–1 = 1.67 × 10–4 mol s–1
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0  3

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From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 to HCl = 1 : 2.

∴ rate of consumption of HCl(aq) in mol dm–3 s–1
1.67  10 −4  2
= mol dm–3 s–1 = 6.68 × 10–3 mol dm–3 s–1
50
1000
(iii) From the equation, mole ratio of CaCO3 to CO2 = 1 : 1.
∴rate of production of CO2 in g s–1
= 1.67 × 10–4 × (12.0 + 16.0 × 2) g s–1 = 7.35 × 10–3 g s–1

17. (a) Hydrogen

(40 − 0) cm 3
(b) (i) Initial rate of the reaction = = 40 cm3 min–1
(1 − 0) min
(ii) Average rate of the reaction from the 2nd minute to the 3rd minute
(42.9 − 37.0) cm 3
= = 5.9 cm3 min–1
(3 − 2) min
(c) At the 4th minute
(d) The pressure inside the system will increase when more gas evolves. If the
reaction is carried out in an airtight container, the rate of the reaction can be
followed by measuring the change in pressure of the reaction system with
time, using a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger.

18. (a) 150 cm3

(b) At the 22nd minute
150 cm 3
(c) Average rate of O2(g) produced = = 6.82 cm3 min−1
22 min
(d) From the graph, about 112 cm3 of O2 were produced at the 4th minute.
Percentage of H2O2 decomposed at the 4th minute
112
=  100% = 74.7%
150
(e) The slope of the tangent at the 2nd minute is greater than that at the 6th
minute. This tells us that the instantaneous rate at the 2nd minute is higher
than that at the 6th minute.
(f) The curve is very steep at first because the concentration of H2O2(aq) is
very high at the start of the reaction. Then, the curve becomes less steep
with time. This is because as the reaction proceeds, the concentration of
hydrogen peroxide decreases with time. Finally, the curve becomes
horizontal because all the H2O2(aq) is consumed.

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(g)
gas syringe

O2(g) collected

H2O2(aq)

19. (a)
Decrease in total mass (g)

Time (min)
(b) (i) This is because the carbon dioxide gas evolved in the reaction escaped
from the reaction mixture.
(ii) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(c) This can prevent the acid from splashing out (the acid that splashes would
be trapped by the cotton wool). But at the same time it allows the escape of
carbon dioxide from the flask.
(d) This is because the conical flask has to be saturated with the carbon dioxide
formed first. As a result, the total mass of the conical flask and its content
does not change much initially.
(e) Mass of CO2 formed = 0.540 g
0.540
Number of moles of CO2 formed = mol = 0.0123 mol
12.0 + 16.0  2
From the equation in (b)(ii), mole ratio of HCl to CO2 = 2 : 1.
∴number of moles of HCl used = 0.0123 × 2 mol = 0.0246 mol

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0.0246
Molarity of the hydrochloric acid = M = 0.984 M
25
1000

20. – As nitrogen (N2) is the only gaseous product in the reaction, the rate of
reaction can be followed by measuring the volume of N2 formed with time.
The volume of N2 can be measured by using a gas syringe.
– If the reaction is performed in a closed container, the rate of reaction can be
followed by measuring the increase in pressure of the reaction system with
time. The pressure inside the closed container can be measured by using a
pressure sensor connected to a data-logger.
– Put the reaction mixture (in a conical flask) onto an electronic balance. The
rate of reaction can be followed by measuring the total loss in mass (as a
result of the escape of N2) of the conical flask and its content with time.

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Chapter 37 Factors affecting rate of reaction

Class Practice
A37.1 (p.37-7)
1. (a) 2.0 M
(b) Yes. This is because same mass of zinc strip is used in all the experiments.
(c)
Volume of hydrogen
collected (cm3)

Time (min)

2. (a) The reaction between magnesium ribbon and 50 cm3 of 2.0 M hydrochloric
acid.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid while ethanoic acid is a weak acid. The
H+(aq) concentration in 2.0 M HCl(aq) is higher than that in 2.0 M
CH3COOH(aq). Since reaction rate increases with an increase in
concentration of reactant, the rate of reaction between magnesium ribbon
and 50 cm3 of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid is higher.
50
(b) Number of moles of HCl and CH3COOH used = 2.0 × mol = 0.1 mol
1000
0 .1
Number of moles of Mg used = mol = 4.12 × 10−3 mol
24.3
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to H+ = 1 : 2.
The amount of acid used is in great excess and magnesium is the limiting
reactant. As the same mass of magnesium is used in the two reactions, the
same amount of hydrogen gas is produced.

A37.2 (p.37-10)
(a) Br2(aq) is brown in colour. As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of Br2(aq)
decreases. Hence, the colour intensity of the reaction mixture decreases with
time.

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(b) Put some small ice cubes in the water bath. Measure the temperature of the
reaction mixture until it falls to about 10°C below the room temperature.
(c)
Colour intensity of
reaction mixture

15˚C
25˚C

Time (s)
(d) As the temperature decreases, the reactant particles have less kinetic energy and
move slower. As a result, the reactant particles will have a lower frequency to
collide with each other. Besides, less reactant particles have sufficient energy to
react when temperature decreases. Thus, the number of effective collisions per
unit time decreases. The rate of reaction decreases.

A37.3 (p.37-13)
(a) CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(b) About 275 cm3
(c) The actual volume of carbon dioxide collected is less than expected. The
difference is (360 − 275) cm3 = 85 cm3. This happens probably because some of
the carbon dioxide has dissolved in water and the powdered calcium carbonate
used is not pure.
(d)
Volume of carbon dioxide (cm3)

Time (min)

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(e) Carbon dioxide forms as the only gaseous product. We can carry out the reaction
in an airtight container. The progress of reaction can be followed by measuring
the pressure of the reaction system with time by using a pressure sensor
connected to a data-logger.
When the carbon dioxide formed is allowed to escape from the reaction flask, the
mass of the reaction mixture decreases. Hence, we can follow the progress of
reaction by measuring the change in mass of the reaction mixture (in a reaction
flask) with time using an electronic balance.

A37.4 (p.37-16)
CuO(s)
(a) 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
(b) It acts as a catalyst.
(c) and (g)

with CuO(s)
Volume of gas collected (cm3)

without CuO(s)

Time (s)

(d) At the beginning of the reaction, the reaction rate is the highest because the
concentration of H2O2(aq) is the highest at that time. As the reaction proceeds,
the reaction rate decreases because the concentration of H2O2(aq) decreases.
Finally, the reaction rate becomes zero because all the H2O2(aq) is used up. The
reaction stops.
(e) At the 70th second
(f) 0.5 g (This is because catalyst is not consumed at the end of the reaction.)

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Think about
Think about (p.37-2)
1. Lemon juice provides an acidic medium not suitable for enzymes to work.
Therefore, the enzymes (catalysts) cannot speed up the browning process.
2. Temperature, amount/concentration of enzyme, etc.

Think about (p.37-6)

No. This is because solids and liquids are not compressible.

Writing practice 37.1 (p.37-8)

A decrease in the concentration of a reactant means a decrease in the number of
reactant particles per unit volume. Once the particles become less crowded, they will
have a smaller chance to collide. This decreases the number of effective collisions per
unit time. Hence the reaction rate decreases.

Chapter exercise (p.37-24)

1. collide; effective collisions
2. effective collisions
3. concentration; temperature; surface area; catalyst
4. Catalysts
5. Enzymes
6. B
According to the collision theory, reactant particles need to possess sufficient
energy and be in correct orientation to give effective collisions, which result in a
reaction.

7. A
C2O42–(aq) ions are colourless, while MnO4–(aq) ions are purple in colour. When
a less concentrated potassium permanganate solution is used, the colour intensity
of the reaction mixture should be lower than that of the original experiment.
Besides, as the reaction proceeds, the concentration of MnO4–(aq) ions decreases.

8. B
Since sulphuric acid was used in excess in both reactions, the same volume of
hydrogen gas would evolve even a higher concentration of acid was used.
However, the reaction would complete in a shorter time when a higher
concentration of acid was used.

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9. A
Note the axes of all the graphs. They are not concentration-time graph. Reaction
rate increases with an increase in temperature. The graph of reaction rate against
temperature is an exponential curve.

10. A
(1): since same concentration of acid is used, the initial rate of the reaction would
be the same.
(2): since a lower concentration of acid is used, the initial rate of the reaction
would be lower.
(3): same concentration of acid is used. However, the temperature is higher.
Hence, the initial rate of the reaction would be higher.

11. C
(A): as a smaller mass of marble chips is used, the total volume of carbon
dioxide evolved will be smaller.
(B): as the surface area of marble increases, the rate of the reaction will be higher.
However, the total volume of carbon dioxide evolved will be the same as same
mass of marble chips is used.
(C): the concentration of acid will be lower when water is added to dilute the
acid. The rate of reaction will be lower. The total volume of carbon dioxide
evolved will be the same as same mass of marble chips is used.
(D): the reaction rate will be higher if the temperature is higher.

12. B

13. A
No catalyst is needed for anodization.

14. B

15. (a)
Concentration of Volume of Na2S2O3(aq) Volume of distilled
Sample
Na2S2O3(aq) (M) used (cm3) water added (cm3)
1 0.100 20 0
2 0.075 15 5
3 0.050 10 10

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4 0.025 5 15
(b) The amount of concentrated HCl(aq) added was the same in each
experiment. All the experiments were carried out at room temperature and
pressure.
(c)

1
(s −1 )
Time

Conc. of Na2S2O3(aq) (M)

(d) From the graph, when the rate of reaction is 0.015 s–1, the concentration of
Na2S2O3(aq) is 0.059 M.
(e) The rate of reaction increases with the concentration of Na2S2O3(aq) used.
(f) His statement is wrong. When we stopped the stopwatch, there was just
enough sulphur produced in the solution to ‘blot out’ the cross. The reaction
kept going to produce more sulphur.

16. (a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) OR

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
(b) A pressure sensor connected to a data-logger can be used.
(c) Flask X. This is because the initial rate of the reaction between the
magnesium ribbon and hydrochloric acid in flask X was higher. OR
More gas (hydrogen) was produced from the reaction in flask X when equal
masses of magnesium ribbons were used.
(d) About 85 seconds
(e) Hydrochloric acid was the limiting reactant. As compared to flask X, less
gas (hydrogen) was produced when the same mass of magnesium ribbons
was used.
(f) Repeat the experiment at different temperatures, but keep other
experimental conditions the same. For example, the molar concentration

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and the volume of hydrochloric acid, the mass of magnesium ribbons should
be made the same. Besides, use the same flask, pressure sensor and
data-logger in all the experiments.

17. (a) S2O32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

(b) This is the reaction temperature of the experiment. It is necessary to note it
for comparison.
(c) As the reaction proceeds, more and more sulphur forms until it is enough to
‘blot out’ the cross.
(d) The smell came from the sulphur dioxide produced.
(e) Immerse the small beaker containing sodium thiosulphate solution in an
ice-water bath. Measure the temperature of the solution until it falls to 17°C.
(f) The longer the time to ‘blot out’ the cross, the slower the reaction is. OR
The measured time in Step 5 is inversely proportional to the rate of the
reaction.
(g)
Rate of chemical reaction (s−1)

Temperature (°C)

As the temperature increases, the reactant particles have more energy and
move faster. As a result, the reactant particles will collide with each other
more frequently. Besides, more reactant particles have sufficient energy to
react when temperature increases. Thus, the number of effective collisions
per unit time increases. The rate of reaction increases.

18. (a) Carbon dioxide

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(b)

Decrease in mass of the

reaction mixture (g)

Time (min)
(c) Repeat the experiment at different temperatures, but keep other
experimental conditions the same. For example, the mass and the state of
division (i.e. surface area) of calcium carbonate, the molarity and volume of
hydrochloric acid should be made the same. Besides, use the same flask and
electronic balance in all the experiments.
(d)
Decrease in mass of the
reaction mixture (g)

60°C

45°C
25°C

Time (min)

19. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) OR

CaCO3(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
10.0
(b) Number of moles of CaCO3 = mol = 0.100 mol
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0  3
150.0
Number of moles of HCl = 2.0 × mol = 0.3 mol
1000
Since 0.100 mole of CaCO3 required only 0.100 × 2 mole = 0.200 mole of
HCl for complete reaction, CaCO3 was the limiting reactant.
(c) When 10.0 g of limestone was used, the total mass of carbon dioxide
produced was (120.0 – 116.3) g = 3.7 g

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Since limestone was the limiting reactant in the experiment, when its
amount is reduced by half, the total mass of carbon dioxide produced would
3 .7
also be reduced by half. That is g = 1.85 g
2
(d) The experiment was repeated at a higher temperature, while the mass and
the state of division (i.e. surface area) of the limestone, the molarity and
volume of the hydrochloric acid were the same. OR
The experiment was repeated using a more finely divided limestone, while
the mass of the limestone, the molarity and volume of the hydrochloric acid,
and the temperature of the reaction were the same. OR
The experiment was repeated using a more concentrated hydrochloric acid,
while the mass and the state of division (i.e. surface area) of the limestone
were the same.
(Besides, the same conical flask and electronic balance were used in both
experiments.)

20. (a) Experiment 2. The volume of the gas produced in Experiment 2 was the
same as that produced in Experiment 1. This indicates that the amounts of
acid and zinc foils used in Experiment 2 were same as Experiment 1.
Experiment 2 has a higher initial rate because the experiment was carried
out at a higher temperature.
(b)
Volume of hydrogen (cm3)

Experiment 4

Experiment 3

Time (s)

Zinc foils were the limiting reactant. As equal masses of zinc foils were
used in Experiments 3 and 4, the volume of hydrogen evolved would be the
same. However, the initial rate of Experiment 4 was twice that of
Experiment 3. This is because the concentration of acid used in Experiment
4 was doubled.

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21. To investigate the effect of surface area of solid reactant on the rate of chemical
reaction, two experiments should be done. In the experiments, equal volumes but
excess of 2 M hydrochloric acid are allowed to react with equal masses of lumps
of limestone and powdered limestone at the same temperature.
As the reaction involves the production of gaseous product, carbon dioxide, we
can collect the gas with a gas syringe and measure the volume of carbon dioxide
produced with time.
By plotting a graph of volume of carbon dioxide produced against time, we can
find the rate of carbon dioxide produced. Then we can understand the effect of
surface area of solid reactant on the rate of chemical reaction. OR
The reaction involves the production of gaseous product, carbon dioxide. We can
allow the gas to escape from the flask and measure the change in mass of the
reaction mixture with time using an electronic balance.
By plotting a graph of mass of the reaction mixture against time, we can find the
rate of change in mass of the reaction mixture. Then we can understand the effect
of surface area of solid reactant on the rate of chemical reaction.

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Chapter 38 Molar volume of gases at room temperature and

pressure (r.t.p.)

Class Practice
A38.1 (p.38-6)
(a) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
0.327
(b) Number of moles of Zn used = mol = 5 × 10−3 mol
65.4
From the equation, mole ratio of Zn to H2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of H2 produced = 5 × 10−3 mol
(c) Molar volume of H2 at room temperature and pressure
120.0
dm 3
= 1000 = 24 dm3 mol−1
−3
5  10 mol

A38.2 (p.38-8)
180
1. Number of moles of HCl molecules = mol = 7.5 × 10−3 mol
24000
Number of HCl molecules = 7.5 × 10−3 mol × 6.02 × 1023 mol−1 = 4.515 × 1021

2. (a) Volume of Ar = 0.25 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 6 dm3

2.41 10 21
(b) Volume of CH4 = mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 0.096 dm3
6.02  10 23

A38.3 (p.38-12)
1. From the equation, mole ratio of CO2 to CO = 2 : 2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of CO required = 0.20 mol
Volume of CO required = 0.20 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 4.8 dm3
From the equation, mole ratio of CO2 to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.20
∴number of moles of O2 required = mol = 0.10 mol
2
Volume of O2 required = 0.10 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 2.4 dm3

2. (a) (i) By applying Avogadro’s Law,

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
volume ratio 2 1 2
volume 15.0 cm3 ? cm3 ? cm3

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1
∴volume of O2 required = 15.0 × cm3 = 7.5 cm3
2
1
(ii) Volume of SO3 formed = 15.0 × cm3 = 15.0 cm3
1
(b) By applying Avogadro’s Law,
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
volume ratio 2 1 2
3 3
volume ? cm ? cm 24.0 cm3
1
∴volume of SO2 required = 24.0 × cm3 = 24.0 cm3
1
1
Volume of O2 required = 24.0 × cm3 = 12.0 cm3
2

3. In 100 dm3 of town gas, volume of H2 = 49.0 dm3, volume of CH4 = 28.5 dm3
and volume of CO = 3.0 dm3.
For H2 and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
volume ratio 2 1 −
volume 49.0 dm3 ? dm3
1
∴volume of O2 required to burn H2 = 49.0 × dm3 = 24.5 dm3
2
For CH4 and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
volume ratio 1 2 2 −
volume 28.5 dm3 ? dm3
∴volume of O2 required to burn CH4 = 28.5 × 2 dm3 = 57.0 dm3
For CO and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
volume ratio 2 1 2
3 3
volume 3.0 dm ? dm
1
∴volume of O2 required to burn CO = 3.0 × dm3 = 1.5 dm3
2
∴total volume of O2 required = (24.5 + 57.0 + 1.5) dm3 = 83.0 dm3

A38.4 (p.38-14)
0.464
1. Number of moles of N2 = mol = 0.0193 mol
24.0
Mass of N2 = 0.0193 × (14.0 × 2) g = 0.540 g

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1.204  10 21
2. (a) Number of moles of O2 = −1
= 2 × 10−3 mol
6.02  10 mol
23

Volume of O2 = 2 × 10 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 0.048 dm3

− 3

(b) Mass of O2 = 2 × 10−3 mol × (16.0 × 2) g mol−1 = 0.064 g

A38.5 (p.38-16)
(a) (i) Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2 used
5.6
= mol = 0.017 mol
207.2 + 2  (14.0 + 3  16.0)
From the equation, mole ratio of Pb(NO3)2 to NO2 = 2 : 4 = 1 : 2.
∴number of moles of NO2 formed = 0.017 × 2 mol = 0.034 mol
Theoretical volume of NO2 formed
= 0.034 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 0.816 dm3
(ii) From the equation, mole ratio of Pb(NO3)2 to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.017
∴number of moles of O2 formed = mol = 8.5 × 10−3 mol
2
Theoretical volume of O2 formed
= 8.5 × 10−3 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 0.204 dm3
Theoretical total volume of gases formed
= (0.816 + 0.204) dm3 = 1.02 dm3
(b) This is probably because:
− the lead(II) nitrate used is impure.
− not all the gases formed go into the gas syringe.

A38.6 (p.38-17)
1. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2.43
Number of moles of Mg = mol = 0.1 mol
24.3
30
Number of moles of HCl = 2.0 × mol = 0.06 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to HCl = 1 : 2.
∴HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant.
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to H2 = 2 : 1.
0.06
∴number of moles of H2 formed = mol = 0.03 mol
2
Volume of H2 formed = 0.03 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 0.72 dm3

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100
2. (a) Number of moles of C6H5N2+ used = 0.5 × mol = 0.05 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of C6H5N2+ to N2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of N2 formed = 0.05 mol
Volume of N2 formed = 0.05 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 1.2 dm3
300
(b) Number of moles of N2 formed = mol = 0.0125 mol
24000
From the equation, mole ratio of N2 to C6H5N2+ = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of C6H5N2+ needed = 0.0125 mol
Concentration of aqueous solution of C6H5N2+ ions
0.0125
= mol dm–3 = 0.05 mol dm–3
250
1000

3. Number of moles of C3H5N3O9 used

3  1000
= mol = 13.2 mol
12.0  3 + 1.0  5 + 14.0  3 + 16.0  9
From the equation, C3H5N3O9 to N2, CO2, H2O and O2 = 4 : 6 : 12 : 10 : 1.
6
∴number of moles of N2 formed = 13.2 × mol = 19.8 mol
4
Volume of N2 formed = 19.8 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 475.2 dm3
By applying Avogadro’s Law,
C3H5N3O9(l) → 6N2(g) + 12CO2(g) + 10H2O(l) + O2(g)
volume ratio 6 12 − 1
volume 475.2 dm3 ? dm3 ? dm3
(At room temperature and pressure, H2O is in the liquid state.)
12 3
Volume of CO2 formed = 475.2 × dm = 950.4 dm3
6
1
Volume of O2 formed = 475.2 × dm3 = 79.2 dm3
6
∴total volume of gases formed = (475.2 + 950.4 + 79.2) dm3 = 1504.8 dm3

Self-test
Self-test 38.2 (p.38-7)
2.8
(a) Number of moles of CO2 = mol = 0.12 mol
24.0
480
(b) Number of moles of Cl2 = mol = 0.02 mol
24000

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Self-test 38.3 (p.38-8)

(a) Volume of N2 = 0.55 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 13.2 dm3
(b) Volume of Cl2 = 1.65 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 39.6 dm3
(c) Volume of Br2 cannot be determined by multiplying the number of moles of Br2
and 24.0 dm3 mol−1 together. This is because bromine is a liquid at room
temperature and pressure. (Density of bromine at r.t.p. is 3.11 g cm−3. Molar
79.9  2 g mol −1
volume of bromine = −3
= 51.4 cm3 mol−1. Volume of 3.4 mol Br2 =
3.11 g cm
3.4 mol × 51.4 cm3 mol−1 = 174.76 cm3)

Self-test 38.4 (p.38-11)

(a) 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(b) Number of moles of NaHCO3 used
2.00
= mol = 0.0238 mol
23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 16.0  3
From the equation, mole ratio of NaHCO3 to CO2 = 2 : 1.
0.0238
∴number of moles of CO2 formed = mol = 0.0119 mol
2
Volume of CO2 formed = 0.0119 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 0.286 dm3

Self-test 38.5 (p.38-12)

(a) 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(l)
mole ratio 2 13 8 10
volume ratio 2 13 8 –
3 3 3
volume 150 cm ? cm ? cm
8
∴volume of CO2 formed = 150 cm3 = 600 cm3
2
13 3
(b) Volume of O2 needed = 150 cm = 975 cm3
2
975 cm3
Volume of air needed = = 4643 cm3
21%

Self-test 38.6 (p.38-14)

4.60
(a) Number of moles of NO2 molecules = mol = 0.1 mol
14.0 + 16.0  2
1.204  1022
(b) Number of moles of O3 molecules = mol = 0.02 mol
6.02  1023

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Number of moles of atoms in 0.02 mol of O3 molecules

= 3 × 0.02 mol = 0.06 mol
1.44
(c) Number of moles of CO molecules = mol = 0.06 mol
24.0
500
(d) Number of moles of K2CO3 = 0.5 × mol = 0.25 mol
1000

Self-test 38.7 (p.38-15)

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
1.40
Number of moles of CO = mol = 0.05 mol
12.0 + 16.0
1.28
Number of moles of O2 = mol = 0.04 mol
16.0  2
From the equation, mole ratio of CO to O2 = 2 : 1.
∴CO is the limiting reactant.
From the equation, mole ratio of CO to CO2 = 2 : 2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of CO2 formed = 0.05 mol
Volume of CO2 formed = 0.05 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 1.2 dm3

Self-test 38.8 (p.38-17)

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
0.37
Number of moles of Mg = mol = 0.0152 mol
24.3
80
Number of moles of H2SO4 = 0.50 × mol = 0.04 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to H2SO4 = 1 : 1.
∴Mg is the limiting reactant.
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to H2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of H2 formed = 0.0152 mol
Volume of H2 formed = 0.0152 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol–1 = 0.365 dm3

Think about
Think about (p.38-2)
1. No. According to the Avogadro’s Law, gases with the same number of molecules
will roughly have the same volume at the same temperature and pressure. 1 mole
of all gases will have the same volume at the same temperature and pressure.
2. Yes. The molar volumes of all gases depend very much on temperature and
pressure. For example, at r.t.p. (25C and 1 atmospheric pressure), the molar

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volume of all gases is 24.0 dm3 mol–1, while at s.t.p. (0C and 1 atmospheric
pressure), molar volume of all gases is 22.4 dm3 mol–1.
3. The use of molar volume enables us to estimate the number of molecules in a gas
by measuring the volume of the gas at certain conditions.

Chapter exercise (p.38-21)

1. molar
2. dm3 mol–1
3. room temperature; pressure
4. Avogadro’s
5. volume
6. B
180
Number of moles of H2S = mol = 0.0075 mol
24000

7. A
Volume of Cl2 = 1.5 mol × 24 dm3 mol–1 = 36 dm3 = 36 000 cm3

8. A
0.75
Number of moles of C2H4 = mol = 0.0268 mol
12.0  2 + 1.0  4
∴volume occupied by the gas = 0.0268 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.643 dm3 = 643 cm3

9. B
480
Number of moles of N2 = mol = 0.02 mol
24000
Number of atoms in 480 cm3 of N2 = 0.02 × 6.02 × 1023 × 2 = 2.4 × 1022

10. A
2  1022
Number of moles of N2 molecules = mol = 0.0332 mol
6.02  1023
∴volume occupied by the gas = 0.0332 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.797 dm3 = 797 cm3

11. D
According to Avogadro’s Law, the greater the number of molecules that a gas has,
the larger is the volume occupied by the gas, compared under the same
conditions. Thus, the gas with the greatest number of moles of molecules will
occupy the largest volume.

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22.4
(A): number of moles of N2 = mol = 0.8 mol
14.0  2
4.21 1023
(B): number of moles of CO2 = = 0.699 mol
6.02  1023
12
(C): number of moles of Cl2 = mol = 0.5 mol
24
(D): number of moles of H2 = 1.3 mol (given)

12. C
From the equation, mole ratio of CH2=CHCH=CH2 to H2 = 1 : 2. By applying
Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of CH2=CHCH=CH2 to H2 = 1 : 2.
Hence, volume of H2 needed = 100 × 2 cm3 = 200 cm3

13. D
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
16.0
Number of moles of CH3CH2OH burnt = mol = 0.35 mol
12.0  2 + 1.0  6 + 16.0
From the equation, mole ratio of CH3CH2OH to CO2 = 1 : 2.
∴number of moles of CO2 formed = 0.35 × 2 mol = 0.7 mol
Volume of CO2 formed = 0.7 × 24.0 dm3 = 16.8 dm3

14. C
Molar mass of (NH4)2Cr2O7
= [2 × (14.0 + 1.0 × 4) + 2 × 52.0 + 7 × 16.0] g mol–1 = 252.0 g mol–1
35.0
Number of moles of (NH4)2Cr2O7 used = mol = 0.139 mol ≈ 0.14 mol
252.0
From the equation, mole ratio of (NH4)2Cr2O7 to Cr2O3 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of Cr2O3 formed = 0.14 mol
From the equation, mole ratio of (NH4)2Cr2O7 to N2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of N2 formed = 0.14 mol
Volume of N2 formed = 0.14 × 24.0 dm3 = 3.36 dm3
From the equation, mole ratio of (NH4)2Cr2O7 to H2O = 1 : 4.
∴number of moles of H2O formed = 0.14 × 4 mol = 0.56 mol
Number of H2O molecules formed = 0.56 mol × 6.02 × 1023 mol–1 = 3.37 × 1023

15. D
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

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0.2
Number of moles of Ca used = mol = 5 × 10–3 mol
40.0
From the equation, mole ratio of Ca to H2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of H2 formed = 5 × 10–3 mol
Volume of H2 formed = 5 × 10−3 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.12 dm3 = 120 cm3

16. D
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
25
Number of moles of NaHCO3 = 0.25 × mol = 6.25 × 10–3 mol
1000
30
Number of moles of HCl = 0.1 × mol = 3 × 10–3 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of NaHCO3 to HCl = 1 : 1.
∴HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant.
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to CO2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of CO2 formed = 3 × 10–3 mol
Volume of CO2 formed = 3 × 10–3 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.072 dm3 = 72 cm3

17.
Number of moles Volume of gas at Number of
Gas
(mol) r.t.p. (dm3) molecules
(a) H2 0.02 0.48 1.20 × 1022
(b) Cl2 0.01 0.24 6.02 × 1021
(c) H2O 3 72.0 1.81 × 1024
(d) C2H6 0.1 2.40 6.02 × 1022
(e) NH3 0.15 3.60 9.03 × 1022
(f) O2 4.00 96 2.41 × 1024
(g) HCl 2.51 60.24 1.51 × 1024
(h) SOCl2 1.20 28.8 7.22 × 1023

18. (a) Weigh the gas cylinder before and after the butane evaporated into the gas
syringe.
0.11
(b) (i) Number of moles of liquid butane used = mol
12.0  4 + 1.0  10
= 1.90 × 10–3 mol

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(ii) Molar volume of butane at r.t.p.

45.0
= 1000 −3 dm3 mol–1 = 23.7 dm3 mol–1
1.90  10
(c) − The liquid butane is not pure. Chemicals with special odour may have
been added to warn consumers of gas leakage (if any).
− The temperature of the butane gas in the gas syringe may not be at 25C
because butane absorbs heat when it evaporates.
− Not all butane gas released from the gas cylinder goes into the gas
syringe.
− The gas syringe may not be airtight.

750
19. Number of moles of N2 = mol = 0.03125 mol
24000
500
Number of moles of O2 = mol = 0.02083 mol
24000
Total number of moles of gases = (0.03125 + 0.02083) mol = 0.05208 mol

20. (a) Since each formula unit of C3Hx produces 3 moles of CO2, mole ratio of
C3Hx to CO2 = 1 : 3.
By Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of C3Hx to CO2 = 1 : 3.
1310 3
Volume of C3Hx used = cm = 437 cm3
3
437
(b) Number of moles of C3Hx used = mol = 0.0182 mol
24000
0.8
Molar mass of C3Hx = g mol–1 = 44.0 g mol–1
0.0182
Relative molecular mass of C3Hx = 44.0 = 12.0 × 3 + 1.0 × x
x=8
(c) C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

4.5
21. Number of moles of water electrolysed = mol = 0.25 mol
1.0  2 + 16.0
From the equation, mole ratio of H2O to O2 = 2 : 1.
0.25
∴number of moles of O2 formed = mol = 0.125 mol
2
Volume of O2 formed = 0.125 mol × 24.0 dm3 mol−1 = 3 dm3

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22. The three gases burn separately with oxygen.

For methane and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
volume ratio 1 2
volume 100 cm3 ? cm3
∴volume of O2 required = 100 × 2 cm3 = 200 cm3
For hydrogen and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
volume ratio 2 1
3
volume 200 cm ? cm3
200 3
∴volume of O2 required = cm = 100 cm3
2
For carbon monoxide and by applying Avogadro’s Law,
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
volume ratio 2 1
3
volume 250 cm ? cm3
250 3
∴volume of O2 required = cm = 125 cm3
2
Total volume of O2 required = (200 + 100 + 125) cm3 = 425 cm3

23. By applying Avogadro’s Law,

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
volume ratio 4 5 4 −
volume 40 cm3 ? cm3 ? cm 3

5
∴volume of O2 required = 40 × cm3 = 50 cm3
4
Volume of NO formed = 40 cm3.
By applying Avogadro’s Law,
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
volume ratio 2 1 2
volume 40 cm3 ? cm3 ? cm3
40 3
∴volume of O2 required = cm = 20 cm3
2
Total minimum volume of O2 required = (50 + 20) cm3 = 70 cm3

50
24. (a) (i) Number of moles of HCl used = 1.0 × mol = 0.05 mol
1000

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600
(ii) Number of moles of H2 produced = mol = 0.025 mol
24000
(b) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to Zn = 2 : 1.
0.05
∴number of moles of Zn reacted = mol = 0.025 mol OR
2
From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to Zn = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of Zn reacted = 0.025 mol
Mass of Zn reacted = 0.025 × 65.4 g = 1.635 g
(c) Number of Zn atoms reacted = 0.025 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.505 × 1022
(d) From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to ZnCl2 = 2 : 1.
0.05
∴number of moles of ZnCl2 formed = mol = 0.025 mol
2
0.025
Molarity of the ZnCl2 solution formed = mol dm–3 = 0.5 mol dm–3
50
1000
(40 − 0) cm 3
25. (a) Initial rate of the reaction = = 40 cm3 min–1
(1 − 0) min
(b) 55.0 cm3
55.0
(c) Number of moles of N2 formed = mol = 2.29 × 10–3 mol
24000
From the equation, mole ratio of N2 to C6H5N2Cl = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of C6H5N2Cl used = 2.29 × 10–3 mol
Mass of C6H5N2Cl used
= 2.29 × 10–3 × (12.0 × 6 + 1.0 × 5 + 14.0 × 2 + 35.5) g = 0.322 g

26. (a) The volume of gas (carbon dioxide) formed.

(b) MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(c)

gas syringe

CO2(g)

HCl(aq)

MgCO3(s)

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1.5
(d) Number of moles of MgCO3 = mol = 0.0178 mol
24.3 + 12.0 + 16.0  3
50
Number of moles of HCl = 0.1 × mol = 5 × 10–3 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of MgCO3 to HCl = 1 : 2.
5  10 −3
Since 5 × 10–3 mol of HCl requires only mol = 2.5 ×10–3 mol of
2
MgCO3 for reaction, HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant.
(e) From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to CO2 = 2 : 1.
5  10 −3
∴number of moles of CO2 formed = mol = 2.5 × 10–3 mol
2
Theoretical volume of CO2 collected = 2.5 × 10–3 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.06 dm3
(f) The actual volume of CO2 collected (56.0 cm3) is smaller than the
theoretical volume (60.0 cm3). This is probably because:
− the magnesium carbonate used is impure. OR
− some carbon dioxide leaks from the reaction flask or the gas syringe. OR
− some carbon dioxide formed has dissolved in the aqueous solution.

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Part IX Rate of Reaction

Part exercise (p.38-26)

1. C
Rate of reaction is defined as the change in concentration of a reactant or a
product per unit time.

2. B
As the concentration of A decreases with time, A is the reactant. When 4.0 moles
of A are consumed, 2 moles of B are produced. Hence, the mole ratio of A to B is
2 : 1.

3. C
(1): reaction rate decreases with a decrease in concentration of reactant.
(2) and (3): reaction rate decreases with a decrease in temperature.

4. B
Curve B is a typical curve showing the rate of formation of a product in a
reaction. The curve is very steep (very fast reaction) at first because the
concentrations of reactants are high at the beginning of reaction. Then, the curve
becomes less steep (reaction is slower) with time because the concentrations of
reactants decrease as reaction proceeds. Finally, the curve becomes horizontal
(reaction stops) because the limiting reactant has been used up.

5. A
The volume of carbon dioxide produced depends on the number of moles of
HCl(aq) used because HCl(aq) is the limiting reactant.
Number of moles of HCl in Solutions A, B, C and D are 0.01 mole, 0.02 mole,
0.02 mole and 0.01 mole respectively. The volume of carbon dioxide produced
shown by curves III and IV are relatively smaller. Hence, these curves should be
produced by Solutions A or D. Moreover, curve III is steeper than curve IV at
first. This suggests that curve III should be produced by a more concentrated
HCl(aq), i.e. Solution A.

6. D

7. C

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The total volume of carbon dioxide produced shown by curve Q is about half that
of shown by curve P. This suggests that about 1.0 g magnesium carbonate is
used. Besides, curve Q is steeper than curve P at first. This suggests that the
reaction takes place at a temperature higher than 40°C.

8. D
MnO2(s) enables H2O2(aq) to decompose to O2(g) and H2O(l) in a shorter period
of time. That is, to speed up the reaction. Hence, more oxygen forms in a shorter
period of time. However, MnO2(s) will not increase the total volume of oxygen
formed in the reaction.

9. C
200
(A): number of atoms in 200 cm3 of H2O(g) = × 3 × L = 0.025L
24000
200
Number of atoms in 200 cm3 of NH3(g) = × 4 × L = 0.0333L
24000
1
(B): number of atoms in 1 dm3 of CO2(g) = × 3 × L = 0.125L
24.0
1
Number of atoms in 1 dm3 of SO3(g) = × 4 × L = 0.167L
24.0
100
(C): number of atoms in 100 cm3 of CH4(g) = × 5 × L = 0.0208L
24000
500
Number of atoms in 500 cm3 of Ne(g) = × L = 0.0208L
24000
50
(D): number of atoms in 50 cm3 of H2(g) = × 2 × L = 4.17 × 10−3L
24000
50
Number of atoms in 50 cm3 of H2S(g) = × 3 × L = 6.25 × 10−3L
24000
(L = 6.02 × 1023)

10. A
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
0.08
Number of moles of Mg reacted = mol = 3.29 × 10−3 mol
24.3
From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to H2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of H2 formed = 3.29 × 10−3 mol
Volume of H2 formed = 3.29 × 10−3 × 24.0 × 1000 cm3 = 78.96 cm3

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78.96 cm3
Average rate of the production of H2(g) = = 31.6 cm3 min−1
2.5 min

11. C
(A): total volume of gases = (5 + 2.5) dm3 = 7.5 dm3
7.5
Total number of moles of gas molecules = mol = 0.3125 mol
24.0
(B): total volume of gases = (5 + 5) dm3 = 10 dm3
10
Total number of moles of gas molecules = mol = 0.417 mol
24.0
4
(C): number of moles of F2 molecules = mol = 0.105 mol
19.0  2
4
Number of moles of CO2 molecules = mol = 0.0909 mol
12.0 + 16.0  2
Total number of moles of gas molecules = (0.105 + 0.0909) mol = 0.196 mol
3
(D): number of moles of Cl2 molecules = mol = 0.0423 mol
35.5  2
3
Number of moles of CH4 molecules = mol = 0.188 mol
12.0 + 1.0  4
Total number of moles of gas molecules = (0.0423 + 0.188) mol = 0.230 mol

12. B
Number of moles of C6H5N≡NCl used
1.2
= mol = 8.54 × 10−3 mol
12.0  6 + 1.0  5 + 14.0  2 + 35.5
From the equation, mole ratio of C6H5N≡NCl to N2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of N2 formed = 8.54 × 10−3 mol
Volume of N2 formed = 8.54 × 10−3 × 24.0 dm3 = 0.205 dm3 = 205 cm3

13. A
30.0
Number of moles of propane = mol = 1.25 × 10−3 mol
24000
200.0
Number of moles of oxygen = mol = 8.33 × 10−3 mol
24000
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
From the equation, mole ratio of C3H8 to O2 = 1 : 5.
∴propane is the limiting reactant.
Mass of oxygen reacted = 1.25 × 10−3 × 5 × (16.0 × 2) g = 0.2 g

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From the equation, mole ratio of C3H8 to CO2 = 1 : 3.

∴number of moles of CO2 produced = 1.25 × 10−3 × 3 mol = 3.75 × 10−3 mol
Mass of CO2 produced = 3.75 × 10−3 × (12.0 + 16.0 × 2) g = 0.165 g

14. C
Copper does not react with dilute sulphuric acid.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
100
Number of moles of H2 formed = mol = 4.17 × 10−3 mol
24000
From the equation, mole ratio of Zn to H2 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of Zn reacted = 4.17 × 10−3 mol
Mass of Zn reacted = 4.17 × 10−3 × 65.4 g = 0.2727 g
0.2727 g
Percentage by mass of Zn in the sample = ×100% = 77.9%
0.35 g

15. C
Let the chemical formula of Z be YnOm.
Y2(g) O2(g) YnOm(g)
Volume (cm3) 50 25 50
Volume ratio 2 1 2
By applying Avogadro’s
2 1 2
Law, the mole ratio
Equation for the reaction: 2Y2(g) + O2(g) → 2YnOm(g)
By comparing the number of atoms, n = 2, m = 1.
∴the chemical formula of Z is Y2O.

16. (a) (i) 10.0 cm3 pipette

(ii) This is to quench the reaction in the small portions of reaction mixture
withdrawn. This allows enough time for doing the titrimetric analysis.
(iii) Phenolphthalein
(b) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
3.70
Number of moles of HCl used = 0.10 × mol = 3.7 × 10–4 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of HCl to NaOH = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of NaOH = 3.7 × 10–4 mol
Concentration of NaOH(aq) at the 5th minute

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3.7  10 −4
= mol dm–3 = 0.037 mol dm–3
10.0
1000
(c)Concentration of NaOH(aq) in
the reaction mixture (mol dm–3)

Time (min)

(d) At the beginning, the curve is very steep because the concentration of
NaOH(aq) is very high at that time. As time passes, the curve becomes less
steep. This is because the concentration of NaOH(aq) gradually decreases as
reaction proceeds. Finally, the curve becomes horizontal as all the NaOH(aq)
is consumed. The reaction stops.
(e) (i) Average rate of reaction from the 25th min to the 40th min with respect
to sodium hydroxide solution
(0.0100 − 0.0116) mol dm −3
=– = 1.07 × 10–4 mol dm–3 min–1
(40 − 25) min
(ii) From the equation, mole ratio of NaOH to CH3COONa = 1 : 1.
Average rate of formation of sodium ethanoate solution is numerically
equal to the average rate of the consumption of sodium hydroxide
solution.
∴average rate of reaction from the 25th min to the 40th min with
respect to sodium ethanoate solution
= 1.07 × 10–4 mol dm–3 min–1

17. (a) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) OR

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
1
(b) Number of moles of Zn = mol = 0.0153 mol
65.4

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50
Number of moles of HCl = 2.0 × mol = 0.1 mol
1000
From the equation in (a), mole ratio of Zn to HCl = 1 : 2.
0.0153 mol of Zn requires only 0.0153 × 2 mol = 0.0306 mol of HCl for
reaction. So HCl is in excess. Zn is the limiting reactant.
(c) (i) Initial rate of reaction in experiment 2 is higher than that in experiment
1 because of larger surface area of Zn in the form of powder.
(ii) The volume of H2 formed is the same because the same mass of Zn
was used.
(d)
Volume of H2(g) (cm3)

Time

18. (a) HCO3−(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(b) Initial rate of a reaction is the instantaneous rate at time t = 0 of the reaction.
(This is the highest rate for the whole course of reaction because the
concentration(s) of reactant(s) is/are the highest at time t = 0.)
(c) The reaction in experiment 3 would have a higher initial rate because for the
same concentration of acids, hydrochloric acid is a stronger acid/ionizes
more completely than ethanoic acid to give a higher concentration of H+(aq)
ions for the reaction with NaHCO3(aq).
(d) The reaction in experiment 2 would have a higher initial rate because
sulphuric acid is a dibasic acid but hydrochloric acid is a monobasic acid.
Hence, for the same concentrations of acids, sulphuric acid has a higher
concentration of H+(aq) ions for the reaction with NaHCO3(aq).
(e) As given in the question, sodium hydrogencarbonate is in excess.
From the equation in (a), mole ratio of the acid and carbon dioxide is 1 : 1.
10
Number of moles of acid used = 1 × mol = 0.01 mol
1000
Number of moles of CO2 formed = 0.01 mol
Theoretical volume of CO2 produced = 0.01 × 24 dm3 = 0.24 dm3

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(f)

Experiment 2

Pressure (kPa) Experiment 3

Experiment 1

Time (min)

(g) The data-logger can collect and store data over very short time intervals.
Experimental data can be presented in the form of graph immediately.

19. (a) This is because the carbon dioxide evolved in the reaction escaped from the
reaction mixture.
(b) At the 5.7th minute
(147.0 − 150.0) g
(c) (i) Initial rate of reaction = − = 3 g min−1
(1 − 0) min
(ii) Average rate of the reaction from the 2nd to the 6th minute
(146.3 − 147.5) g
=− = 0.3 g min−1
(6 − 2) min
(d) Mass of CO2 produced = (150.0 − 146.3) g = 3.7 g
3.7
Number of moles of CO2 produced = mol = 0.084 mol
12.0 + 16.0  2
Volume of CO2 produced = 0.084 × 24.0 dm3 = 2.02 dm3 = 2020 cm3
(e) From the equation, mole ratio of CO2 to MgCO3 = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of MgCO3 used = 0.084 mol
Mass of MgCO3 used = 0.084 × (24.3 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g = 7.08 g
(f) (i) The rate of reaction decreases if dilute hydrochloric acid is used.
Hydrochloric acid is a monobasic acid, while sulphuric acid is a
dibasic acid. There is a lower concentration of H+(aq) for the reaction
with MgCO3(s) if dilute hydrochloric acid is used.
(ii) If calcium carbonate powder is used, the initial rate of reaction
increases because calcium carbonate powder has a larger surface area
than magnesium carbonate pellets. However, the reaction rate becomes
zero quickly because an insoluble calcium sulphate would form on the

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surface of the powder, which prevents the powder from further reacting
with the acid.

20. (a) Volume of oxygen in 500 cm3 of air = 500 cm3 × 20% = 100 cm3
From the equation, mole ratio of CH3NO2 to O2 is 4 : 3.
By Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of CH3NO2 to O2 = 4 : 3.
4
∴volume of CH3NO2 needed = 100 × cm3 = 133.3 cm3
3
(b) From the equation, mole ratio of O2 to CO2, N2 and H2O = 3 : 4 : 2 : 6.
By Avogadro’s Law, volume ratio of O2 to CO2, N2 and H2O
= 3 : 4 : 2 : 6.
Volume of CO2 formed = 133.3 cm3
2
Volume of N2 formed = 100 × cm3 = 66.7 cm3
3
Volume of H2O formed = 100 × 2 cm3 = 200 cm3
∴total volume of gaseous products formed
= (133.3 + 66.7 + 200) cm3 = 400 cm3
(c) Total volume of gases consumed = (133.3 + 100) cm3 = 233.3 cm3
Overall volume change of the gases
= total volume of the gaseous products formed − total volume of gases
consumed
= (400 − 233.3) cm3 = 166.7 cm3

21. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) OR

CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(b) Perform a flame test on the eggshell. If the eggshell contains calcium ions, a
brick-red flame will be observed.
86.0
(c) Number of moles of CO2 formed = mol = 3.58 × 10−3 mol
24000
From the equation in (a), mole ratio of CO2 to CaCO3 = 1 : 1.
Number of moles of CaCO3 present in the eggshell = 3.58 × 10−3 mol
Mass of CaCO3 present in the eggshell
= 3.58 × 10−3 × (40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3) g = 0.358 g
0.358 g
Percentage by mass of CaCO3 in the eggshell = ×100% = 71.6%
0.5 g
(d) As CO2(g) was produced in the reaction, we can measure (Any TWO):
1. the volume of CO2(g) collected by a gas syringe at regular time
intervals.

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2. the increase in pressure of the reaction system at regular time intervals

using a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger, if the reaction
occurred in a closed container.
3. the decrease in mass of the reaction mixture over a period of time using
an electronic balance, if CO2(g) was allowed to escape from the
reaction mixture.
(e) Any TWO:
1. Use a more concentrated hydrochloric acid. This is because reaction
rate increases with the concentration of reactant.
2. Increase the surface area of the eggshell by grinding. This is because
reaction rate increases with the surface area of solid reactant.
3. Increase the temperature of the acid. This is because reaction rate
increases with temperature.

22. (a) Volume of H2 = 500.0 × x% = 5x cm3

Volume of CH4 = 500.0 × y% = 5y cm3
Volume of CO = 500.0 × z% = 5z cm3
Volume of CO2 = 500.0 × 19.5% = 97.5 cm3

For the combustion of H2:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
5x cm3 2.5x cm3 (By Avogadro’s Law)
For the combustion of CH4:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
5y cm3 10y cm3 5y cm3 (By Avogadro’s Law)
For the combustion of CO:
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
5z cm3 2.5z cm3 5z cm3 (By Avogadro’s Law)

Total volume of O2 needed = (2.5x + 10y + 2.5z) cm3 = 415.0 cm3…… (1)
Total volume of CO2 present in the reaction mixture after combustion
= (5y + 5z + 97.5) cm3 = 255.0 cm3 ……(2)
Total volume of all gases before combustion
= (5x + 5y + 5z + 97.5) cm3 = 500.0 cm3 ……(3)
By substituting (2) into (3), we get:
5x + 255.0 = 500.0
∴x = 49
Multiplying (1) by 2, we get:

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(5x + 20y + 5z) cm3 = 830.0 cm3 ……(4)

By subtracting (3) from (4), we get:
15y − 97.5 = 830.0 − 500.0
∴y = 28.5
By substituting y = 28.5 into (2), we get:
5 × 28.5 + 5z + 97.5 = 255.0
∴z = 3
∴the percentage by volume of H2, CH4 and CO in the sample of town gas
are 49%, 28.5% and 3% respectively.
(b) The water formed from the combustion of hydrogen and methane in the
town gas.
Volume of H2 burnt = 500.0 cm3 × 49% = 245 cm3
245
Number of moles of H2 burnt = mol = 0.0102 mol
24000
From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to H2O = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of H2O formed from the combustion of hydrogen
= 0.0102 mol
Volume of CH4 burnt = 500.0 cm3 × 28.5% = 142.5 cm3
142.5
Number of moles of CH4 burnt = mol = 5.94 × 10−3 mol
24000
From the equation, mole ratio of CH4 to H2O = 1 : 2.
∴number of moles of H2O formed from the combustion of methane
= 5.94 × 10−3 × 2 mol = 0.0119 mol
Total number of moles of H2O formed
= (0.0102 + 0.0119) mol = 0.0221 mol
Total mass of H2O formed = 0.0221 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) g = 0.398 g

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Chapter 39 Dynamic equilibrium

Class Practice
A39.1 (p.39-5)

(a) Yes, it is a reversible reaction. The sign ‘⇌’ shows that the reaction can proceed

in either direction.
(b) Backward reaction
(c) Forward reaction: reactants are SO2 and O2; product is SO3
Backward reaction: reactant is SO3; products are SO2 and O2

A39.2 (p.39-9)
(a) The answer is (e) because the amount/concentration of H2, I2 and HI become
constant in (e) and afterwards. (3 H2 molecules, 3 I2 molecules and 14 HI
molecules)
(b) (i)

HI
Concentration

H2, I2

Time

(ii)
Reaction rate

H2 + I2 → 2HI

2HI → H2 + I2

Time

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(c) Before equilibrium is reached, the colour intensity of the reaction mixture keeps
on decreasing with time. When the system reaches equilibrium, the colour
intensity of the reaction mixture remains constant.

A39.3 (p.39-9)
1. (a) N2O4
(b)
Concentration (M)

N2O4

NO2

Time (min)

2. (a) Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide

(b) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(c) This is probably because the decomposition was not carried out in a closed
container. Once the carbon dioxide formed, it escaped from the crucible.
When no carbon dioxide was present, the backward reaction could not occur
and the system could never reach equilibrium.

Think about
Think about (p.39-2)
1. If the two people were not passing the clubs at the same rate, one of them would
not be able to catch all the clubs passed to him/her, while another one would
need to wait for the clubs passed back to him/her.
2. Dynamic here means the clubs are being thrown between the two people.
3. Yes. There are many examples of dynamic equilibrium in the world of chemistry.
For example, the Haber process, Contact process, esterification, ionization of
weak acids in aqueous solution, etc.

Think about (p.39-6)

1. People entering and leaving a department store can be an analogy of dynamic
equilibrium. If the number of people entering the department store is equal to
that leaving, the number of people inside the department store remains constant.

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2. People moving to and leaving a certain floor of a shopping mall can be an

analogy of dynamic equilibrium. Imagine there are people shopping on different
floors of a shopping mall. If the number of people moving to a certain floor is
equal to that leaving, the number of people on that floor remains constant.

Think about (p.39-7)

If the test tube is not stoppered, both N2O4 and NO2 escape from the tube. As a result,
the reaction stops.

Chapter exercise (p.39-15)

1. Irreversible; completion
2. Reversible; forward; backward; completion
3. (a) reactants; products; concentration; unchanged
(b) equal
(c) forward; backward
(d) closed
4. D
5. C

(C): H2CO3(aq) ⇌ 2H+(aq) + CO32–(aq)

6. C
(1): at equilibrium, the rate of dissolution of AgCl(s) into Ag+(aq) and Cl–(aq),
and the rate of precipitation of AgCl(s) from Ag+(aq) and Cl–(aq) are the same.
Thus, the concentration of Ag+(aq) in the solution remains constant.
(2): at equilibrium, the amount of AgCl in the solution and the amount of AgCl in
the AgCl solid remain unchanged. However, the amount of AgCl in the solution
and that in the solid are NOT necessarily the same.

7. C
Refer to p.11 of chapter 39 for details.

8. B
Dynamic equilibrium can only be established in a closed system.

9. A
At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction is the same as the rate of backward
reaction.

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10. C
Refer to p.11 of chapter 39 for details.

11. C
(2): dynamic equilibrium is established at the 6th minute because the
concentrations of A(g) and B(g) remain constant after the 6th minute.
(3): the same chemical composition would be obtained at equilibrium no matter
which direction (forward or backward) the reversible reaction starts with.

12. (a) (i) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) and

Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) → 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)
(ii) The rates of these two reactions are equal.

(b) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) ⇌ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

(c) Yes. This is because dynamic equilibrium can be established from either the
forward or the backward direction of the reversible reaction.

13.

X(g)
Concentration

Y(g)

Time ↑ time at which equilibrium is established

14. (a) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ PCl5(g)

(b) By measuring the change in pressure of the reaction system with time using
a pressure sensor connected to a data-logger. If equilibrium is established,
the pressure of the system remains constant.

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(c)

Reaction rate
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) → PCl5(g)

PCl5(g) → PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)

time at which equilibrium is established
Time
OR

PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) → PCl5(g)

Reaction rate

PCl5(g) → PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)

time at which equilibrium is established

Time

(d) If the reaction takes place in an open container, PCl3(g), Cl2(g) and PCl5(g)
will escape from the container. As a result, the reaction stops and
equilibrium can never be established.

15. (a) Measure the change in pH of the solution with time using a pH sensor
connected to a data-logger. The pH of the solution should remain constant
when equilibrium is established.
(b) Measure the change in pressure of the reaction system with time using a
pressure sensor connected to a data-logger. The pressure of the system
should remain constant when equilibrium is established.
(c) Measure the change in colour intensity (violet colour of I2(g)) of the
reaction mixture with time using a colorimeter. The colour intensity of the
mixture should remain constant when equilibrium is established.

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Chapter 40 Equilibrium constant

Class Practice
A40.1 (p.40-6)
2
[H 2 (g)]eqm [S 2 (g)]eqm
1. (a) Kc = 2
[H 2 S(g)] eqm

[COCl 2 (g)]eqm
(b) Kc =
[CO(g)] eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

2. (a) 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

(b) 2CH4(g) → C2H2(g) + 3H2(g)

A40.2 (p.40-7)
2
[NH 3 (g)]eqm
(a) (i) Kc1 =
[N 2 (g)]eqm [H 2 (g)]3eqm

[N 2 (g)]eqm [H 2 (g)]3eqm
(ii) Kc2 = 2
[NH 3 (g)]eqm

1
(b) Kc1 =
K c2
(mol dm −3 ) 2 1
(c) Unit of Kc1 = −3 −3 3
= −3 2
= mol−2 dm6
(mol dm )(mol dm ) (mol dm )
(mol dm −3 )(mol dm −3 ) 3
Unit of Kc2 = −3 2
= (mol dm−3)2 = mol2 dm−6
(mol dm )

A40.3 (p.40-9)
(a) and (b) are heterogeneous equilibria.
For (a), Kc = [CO2(g)]eqm
For (b), Kc = [Ag+(aq)]eqm[Cl−(aq)]eqm

A40.4 (p.40-11)
(b), (c), (d), (a)

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A40.5 (p.40-14)

[CO(g)] eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

1. Kc =
[COCl 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(5.0  10 −4 mol dm −3 )(5.0  10 −4 mol dm −3 )
Kc = −6 −3
= 0.083 mol dm−3
(3.0  10 mol dm )

2. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

2.5 mol
Initial concentration of H2(g) = = 0.5 mol dm−3
5 dm 3
5.0 mol
Initial concentration of I2(g) = = 1 mol dm−3
5 dm 3
Concentration
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.5 1 0
0.934 0.934
Change − = –0.467 − = –0.467 +0.934
2 2
Equilibrium 0.5 − 0.467 = 0.033 1 − 0.467 = 0.533 0.934
2
[HI(g)] eqm
Kc =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(0.934 mol dm −3 ) 2
Kc = = 49.6
(0.033 mol dm −3 )(0.533 mol dm −3 )

A40.6 (p.40-15)

[C 2 H 2 (g)]eqm [H 2 (g)]3eqm
1. Kc = 2
[CH 4 (g)]eqm

(0.0451mol dm −3 )(0.1120 mol dm −3 ) 3

=
(0.0203 mol dm −3 ) 2
= 0.154 mol2 dm−6

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2.
Concentration
CO(g) + 2H2(g) ⇌ CH3OH(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.50 1.00 0
Change 0.15 – 0.50 = –0.35 –0.35 × 2 = – 0.7 +0.35
Equilibrium 0.15 1.00 − 0.7 = 0.3 0.35

[CH 3 OH(g)]eqm
Kc = 2
[CO(g)] eqm [H 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(0.35 mol dm −3 )
Kc =
(0.15 mol dm −3 )(0.3 mol dm −3 ) 2
= 25.9 mol−2 dm6

4.00 mol
3. Initial concentration of HI(g) = 3
= 0.8 mol dm−3
5 .00 dm
Let x mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).
Concentration
2HI(g) ⇌ H2(g) + I2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.8 0 0
Change −2x +x +x
Equilibrium 0.8 − 2x x x

[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm
Kc = 2
[HI(g)] eqm

( x)( x)
0.016 =
(0.8 − 2 x) 2
Take the square root on both sides of the equation to obtain:
x
0.126 =
0.8 − 2 x
Solving for x,
0.126 × (0.8 − 2x) = x
x = 0.0805
∴[HI(g)]eqm = (0.8 − 2 × 0.0805) mol dm−3 = 0.639 mol dm−3
[H2(g)]eqm = 0.0805 mol dm−3
[I2(g)]eqm = 0.0805 mol dm−3

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A40.7 (p.40-19)

[CH 3 COOH(l)]eqm [CH 3 CH 2 OH(l)]eqm

(a) Kc’ =
[CH 3 COOCH 2 CH 3 (l)]eqm [H 2 O(l)]eqm

1
=
Kc
1
=
4 .0
= 0.25
(b) Let V dm3 be the volume of the reaction mixture.
1 mol 1
Initial concentration of CH3COOCH2CH3(l) = = mol dm−3
V dm 3 V
1 mol 1
Initial concentration of H2O(l) = = mol dm−3
V dm 3 V
Let x mol be the change in number of moles of CH3COOH(l).
Concentration
CH3COOH(l) + CH3CH2OH(l) ⇌ CH3COOCH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)
(mol dm−3)
1 1
Initial 0 0
V V
x x −x −x
Change + +
V V V V
x x 1− x 1− x
Equilibrium
V V V V

[CH 3 COOCH 2 CH 3 (l)]eqm [H 2 O(l)]eqm

Kc =
[CH 3 COOH(l)]eqm [CH 3 CH 2 OH(l)]eqm

1− x 1− x
)(( )
4.0 = V V
x x
( )( )
V V
Take the square root on both sides of the equation.
1− x
2= V
x
V
1− x
2=
x
Solving for x, x = 0.333

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Thus, numbers of moles of CH3COOH(l) and CH3CH2OH(l) at equilibrium are

both 0.333 mol. Numbers of moles of CH3COOCH2CH3(l) and H2O(l) at
equilibrium are both = (1 − 0.333) mol = 0.667 mol.

Self-test
Self-test 40.1 (p.40-5)

[N 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm
(a) Kc = 2
[NO(g)] eqm

4
[CS 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm
(b) Kc = 2
[SO 3 (g)]eqm [CO 2 (g)]eqm

[CH 3 COOCH 3 (l)]eqm [H 2 O(l)]eqm

(c) Kc =
[CH 3 COOH(l)]eqm [CH 3 OH(l)]eqm

Self-test 40.2 (p.40-12)

0.0070
[N2(g)]eqm = mol dm−3 = 1.4 × 10−3 mol dm−3
5
0.0022
[Cl2(g)]eqm = mol dm−3 = 4.4 × 10−4 mol dm−3
5
0.9500
[NCl3(g)]eqm = mol dm−3 = 0.19 mol dm−3
5
2
[NCl 3 (g)]eqm
Kc =
[ N 2 (g)]eqm [Cl 2 (g)]3eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(0.19 mol dm −3 ) 2
Kc =
(1.4  10 −3 mol dm −3 )(4.4  10 −4 mol dm −3 ) 3
Kc = 3.03 × 1011 mol−2 dm6

Think about
Think about (p.40-2)
1. Temperature
2. Yes. This ratio remains constant no matter what the initial concentrations of
reactants or products are, provided that the temperature of the equilibrium system
does not change.

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Think about (p.40-9)

The volume of a certain amount of a pure solid or liquid is fixed whatever size of
container it is in. Hence, the concentration of a pure solid or liquid is a constant.

Think about (p.40-12)

(mol dm −3 ) 2 1
Unit of Kc = −3 2 −3
= −3
= mol−1 dm3
(mol dm ) (mol dm ) (mol dm )

Try it now
Try it now (p.40-13)
1.00 mol
(a) Initial concentration of COCl2(g) = = 1 mol dm−3
1 dm 3
Concentration
COCl2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + Cl2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 1 0 0
Change −0.028 +0.028 +0.028
Equilibrium 0.972 0.028 0.028
∴[CO(g)]eqm = 0.028 mol dm−3 ; [COCl2(g)]eqm = 0.972 mol dm−3.

[CO(g)] eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

(b) Kc =
[COCl 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(0.028 mol dm −3 )(0.028 mol dm −3 )
Kc =
(0.972 mol dm −3 )
= 8.07 × 10−4 mol dm−3

Try it now (p.40-14)

0.15 mol
Initial concentration of H2(g) = = 0.03 mol dm−3
5 dm 3
0.15 mol
Initial concentration of I2(g) = = 0.03 mol dm−3
5 dm 3
Let x mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).
Concentration
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.03 0.03 0
Change −x −x +2x
Equilibrium 0.03 − x 0.03 − x 2x

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2
[HI(g)] eqm
Kc =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

( 2 x) 2
50.0 =
(0.03 − x)(0.03 − x)
Take the square root on both sides of the equation.
2x
7.07 =
0.03 − x
Solving for x,
7.07 × (0.03 − x) = 2x
0.212 − 7.07x = 2x
x = 0.02337
∴[H2(g)]eqm = (0.03 − 0.02337) mol dm−3 = 6.63 × 10−3 mol dm−3
[I2(g)]eqm = (0.03 − 0.02337) mol dm−3 = 6.63 × 10−3 mol dm−3
[HI(g)]eqm = 2 × 0.02337 mol dm−3 = 0.0467 mol dm−3

Chapter exercise (p.40-23)

[C ]ceqm [ D]eqm
d
1. a
; equilibrium constant; concentrations
[ A]eqm [ B]beqm

2. temperature; initial
3. Homogeneous
4. Heterogeneous; concentrations
5. extent; rate
6. large; small

7. (a) 2HCl(g) + F2(g) ⇌ 2HF(g) + Cl2(g)

(b) CO(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ CH4(g) + H2O(g)

(c) CS2(g) + 4O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) + CO2(g)

4
[ NO(g) ]eqm [H 2 O(g)]6eqm
8. (a) Kc = 4
[NH 3 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]5eqm

[CO 2 (g)]eqm [H 2 (g)]eqm

(b) Kc =
[CO(g)] eqm [H 2 O(g)]eqm

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2
[ N 2 O(g) ]eqm
(c) Kc = 2
[N 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm

[ Ni(CO) 4 (g)]eqm
(d) Kc = 4
[CO(g)] eqm

[ NH 4 + (aq) ]eqm [OH − (aq) ]eqm

(e) Kc =
[NH 3 (aq)]eqm

1
(f) Kc =
[Ag (aq)] eqm [Cl − (aq)] eqm
+

9. C

10. B

11. D
(mol dm −3 ) 1
Unit of Kc = −3 −3 2
= −3 2
= mol−2 dm6
(mol dm )(mol dm ) (mol dm )

12. A
2
[SO 3 (g)]eqm [SO 3 (g)]eqm
K1 = 2
; K1 = 1
[SO 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm 2
[SO 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm

1
2
[SO 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)] eqm 1 [SO 3 (g)]eqm
K2 = ; = 1
[SO 3 (g) ]eqm K2 2
[SO 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)] eqm

1
∴ K1 =
K2

13. C
An equilibrium in which two or more phases are present is a heterogeneous
equilibrium. Here, CO, I2 and CO2 are in gaseous phase while I2O5 is in solid
phase.

14. D

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[CaCO3(s)]eqm and [H2O(l)]eqm do not appear in the expression for Kc because

concentrations of pure solids or liquids remain constant throughout the reaction.

15. B
The larger the value of equilibrium constant, the higher is the tendency of the
reaction to proceed towards completion.

16. C
Refer to p.10 and 11 of chapter 40 for details.

17. C
Kc= [CO2(g)]eqm = 0.548 M

18. A
(1): at equilibrium, concentrations of all species in a system remain constant.
Thus, the colour intensity of the system will also remain constant.
(2): the numbers of moles of gases on both sides of the equation are different.
Hence, we can follow the progress of the reaction by measuring the pressure of
the system with time. At equilibrium, the pressure of the system remains
constant.

19. B

Concentration (M) N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)

Initial 0.125 0
Change 0.075 – 0.125 = – 0.05 +0.05 × 2 = +0.1
Equilibrium 0.075 0.1
2
[NO 2 (g)]eqm
Kc =
[ N 2 O 4 (g)]eqm

( 0 .1 M ) 2
=
(0.075 M)
= 0.133 M

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20. B
Let x M be the change in concentration of H2(g).

Concentration (M) H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

Initial 0 0 0.08
Change +x +x −2x
Equilibrium x x 0.08 − 2x
2
[HI(g)] eqm
Kc =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

(0.08 − 2 x) 2
50 =
( x)( x)
Take the square root on both sides of the equation.
0.08 − 2 x
7.07 =
x
Solving for x,
7.07x = 0.08 − 2x
x = 8.82 × 10−3
∴[HI(g)]eqm = (0.08 − 2 × 8.82 × 10−3) M = 0.06 M

21. C
It is not necessary to know the volume of the container as it will all be deleted in
the expression for Kc in this reaction. However, in order to help students
understand, it is included in the calculation below.
Let V dm3 be the volume of the container and y mol be the number of moles of C
in the equilibrium mixture.
Concentration
A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g) + D(g)
(mol dm−3)
1 1
Initial 0 0
V V
y y y y
Change − − + +
V V V V
1− y 1− y y y
Equilibrium
V V V V

[C (g)]eqm [ D(g)]eqm
Kc =
[ A(g)]eqm [ B(g)]eqm

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y y
( )( )
4= V V
1− y 1− y
( )( )
V V
Take the square root on both sides of the equation.
y
2= V
1− y
V
y
2=
1− y
2
y=
3
∴number of moles of B present in the equilibrium mixture
2 1
= (1 − ) mol = mol.
3 3

2
[SO 3 (g)]eqm
22. Kc = 2
[SO 2 (g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(2.25 mol dm −3 ) 2
Kc =
(1.75 mol dm −3 ) 2 (1.50 mol dm −3 )
Kc = 1.10 mol−1 dm3

1.87 mol
23. (a) (i) Concentration of HI(g) at equilibrium = 3
= 0.935 mol dm−3
2.0 dm
(ii) From the equation, mole ratio of H2 to I2 = 1 : 1.
∴[H2(g)]eqm = [I2(g)]eqm
Let the [H2(g)]eqm be y mol dm−3.
( y mol dm −3 ) 2
Kc = 0.0198 =
(0.935 mol dm −3 ) 2
y = 0.132
∴the equilibrium concentrations of H2(g) and I2(g) are both 0.132 mol
dm−3.
(iii) From the equation, 2 moles of HI(g) are consumed for every mole of
H2(g) and I2(g) form.
∴change in concentration of HI(g)

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= −2 × 0.132 mol dm−3 = −0.264 mol dm−3

Concentration of HI(g) initially introduced into the container
= (0.935 + 0.264) mol dm−3 = 1.20 mol dm−3
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm
(b) Kc = 2
[HI(g)] eqm

2
[HI(g)] eqm
K1=
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

1 1
K1 = = = 50.5
K c 0.0198

0.001 mol
24. Initial concentration of CO2(g) = = 0.001 mol dm−3
1.0 dm 3
Concentration
2CO2(g) ⇌ 2CO(g) + O2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.001 0 0
1
Change −1 × 10−4 +1 × 10−4 + × (1 × 10−4)
2
0.001 − 1 × 10−4
Equilibrium 1 × 10−4 0.5 × 10−4
= 9 × 10−4

2
[CO(g) ]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm
Kc = 2
[CO 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(1 10 −4 mol dm −3 ) 2 (0.5  10 −4 mol dm −3 )
Kc =
(9  10 − 4 mol dm −3 ) 2
= 6.2 × 10−7 mol dm−3

25. (a) N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)

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(b) Let y mol dm−3 be the initial concentration of N2O4(g).

Concentration
N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial y 0
−3
3.0  10
Change − +3.0 × 10−3
2
3.0 10 −3
Equilibrium y− 3.0 × 10−3
2
(3.0  10 −3 ) 2
2
[ NO 2 (g)]eqm
Kc = = 0.2=
[ N 2 O 4 (g)]eqm 3.0  10 −3
(y − )
2
y = 1.545 × 10−3
∴the initial concentration of N2O4(g) is 1.545 × 10−3 mol dm−3.

4.0 mol
26. (a) Initial concentration of H2(g) = 3
= 2 mol dm−3
2.0 dm
4.0 mol
Initial concentration of Br2(g) = 3
= 2 mol dm−3
2.0 dm
Let y mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).
Concentration
H2(g) + Br2(g) ⇌ 2HBr(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 2 2 0
Change −y −y +2y
Equilibrium 2−y 2−y 2y

2
[HBr(g)]eqm (2 y ) 2
Kc = =12.0 =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [Br2 (g)]eqm (2 − y ) 2

y = 4.73 (rejected) or y = 1.268

∴[H2(g)]eqm = [Br2(g)]eqm = (2 − 1.268) mol dm−3 = 0.732 mol dm−3
[HBr(g)]eqm = 2 × 1.268 mol dm−3 = 2.536 mol dm−3
6.0 mol
(b) Initial concentration of H2(g) = = 3 mol dm−3
2.0 dm 3
4.0 mol
Initial concentration of Br2(g) = = 2 mol dm−3
2.0 dm 3

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Let r mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).

Concentration
H2(g) + Br2(g) ⇌ 2HBr(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 3 2 0
Change −r −r +2r
Equilibrium 3−r 2−r 2r
2
[HBr(g)]eqm ( 2r ) 2
Kc = = 12.0 =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [Br2 (g)]eqm (3 − r )(2 − r )

r = 6 (rejected) or r = 1.5
∴[H2(g)]eqm = (3 −1.5) mol dm−3 = 1.5 mol dm−3
[Br2(g)]eqm = (2 − 1.5) mol dm−3 = 0.5 mol dm−3
[HBr(g)]eqm = 2 × 1.5 mol dm−3 = 3.0 mol dm−3

0.20 mol
27. Initial concentration of COCl2(g) = 3
= 0.025 mol dm−3
8.0 dm
Let y mol dm−3 be the change in the concentration of COCl2(g).
Concentration
CO(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ COCl2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0 0 0.025
Change +y +y –y
Equilibrium y y 0.025 − y

[COCl 2 (g)]eqm
Kc =
[CO(g)] eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

0.025 − y
Kc = 4.7 × 109 =
y2
Since Kc is very large, 0.025 − y ≈ 0.025.
0.025
4.7 × 109 = 2
y
y = 2.3 × 10−6
[CO(g)]eqm = 2.3 × 10−6 mol dm−3
[Cl2(g)]eqm = 2.3 × 10−6 mol dm−3
[COCl2(g)]eqm = (0.025 − 2.3 × 10−6) mol dm−3 = 0.025 mol dm−3

2
[F(g) ]eqm
28. (a) Kc =
[F2 (g)]eqm

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(b) Let y mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of F2(g).

Concentration
F2(g) ⇌ 2F(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.2 0
Change −y +2y
Equilibrium 0.2 − y 2y
2
(2 y )
Kc = 1.2 × 10−4 =
(0.2 − y )
y = −2.46 ×10−3 (rejected) or y = 2.43 × 10−3
[F2(g)]eqm = (0.2 − 2.43 × 10−3) mol dm−3 = 0.198 mol dm−3
[F(g)]eqm = 2 × 2.43 × 10−3 mol dm−3 = 4.86 × 10−3 mol dm−3
2.43  10−3 mol dm −3
(c) Percentage of F2(g) dissociated = ×100% = 1.22%
0.2 mol dm −3

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Chapter 41 The effect of changes in concentration and

temperature on chemical equilibria

Class Practice
A41.1 (p.41-5)
(a) The yellowish brown colour of the equilibrium mixture becomes deeper.
(b) The equilibrium position will shift to the right.

A41.2 (p.41-10)
(a) N2O4(g) has been added to the equilibrium mixture.
(b) When the system is disturbed at X, [NO2(g)] increases while [N2O4(g)] decreases
until a new state of equilibrium is established. This suggests that the equilibrium
position has shifted to the right/product side.
(c) When N2O4(g) is added to the equilibrium mixture at X, [N2O4(g)] increases and
the reaction quotient, Qc decreases. As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position shifts to
the right/product side.

A41.3 (p.41-12)
0.0320 mol
1. (a) Concentration of Fe3+(aq) = = 0.016 mol dm–3
2.0 dm 3
0.0600 mol
Concentration of SCN–(aq) = = 0.03 mol dm–3
2.0 dm 3
0.1020 mol
Concentration of FeSCN2+(aq) = = 0.051 mol dm–3
2.0 dm 3

[FeSCN 2+ (aq) ]
Qc =
[Fe 3+ (aq) ][SCN − (aq)]

(0.051 mol dm −3 )
=
(0.016 mol dm −3 )(0.03 mol dm −3 )

= 106.25 mol–1 dm3

As the reaction quotient, Qc and the equilibrium constant, Kc are not equal,
the system is not at equilibrium.
(b) As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position will shift to the right/product side.

[C 2 H 4 (g)]
2. (a) Qc =
[C 2 H 2 (g)][ H 2 (g)]

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(3.2  10−4 mol dm −3 )

=
(0.4 mol dm −3 )(0.02 mol dm −3 )

= 0.04 mol–1 dm3

(b) As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position has to shift to the right/product side in
order to establish equilibrium.
(c) Let x mol dm–3 be the change in concentration of C2H4(g).
Concentration
C2H2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ C2H4(g)
(mol dm–3)
Initial 0.4 0.02 3.2 × 10–4
Change –x –x +x
Equilibrium 0.4 – x 0.02 – x 3.2 × 10–4 + x

[C 2 H 4 (g)]eqm
Kc =
[C 2 H 2 (g)]eqm [H 2 (g)]eqm

(3.2  10 −4 + x)
0.072 =
(0.4 − x)(0.02 − x)
Solving for x,
3.2  10 −4 + x
0.072 =
8  10 −3 − 0.42x + x 2
0.072x2 – 1.03x + 2.56 ×10–4 = 0
x = 14.3 (rejected) or x = 2.49 × 10–4
∴[H2(g)]eqm = (0.02 – 2.49 × 10–4) mol dm–3 = 0.0198 mol dm–3

0.40 mol
3. (a) Initial concentration of HI(g) = 3
= 0.04 mol dm–3
10 dm
Let x mol dm–3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).
Concentration
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
(mol dm–3)
Initial 0 0 0.04
Change +x +x –2x
Equilibrium x x 0.04 – 2x
2
[HI(g) ]eqm
Kc =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

(0.04 − 2 x) 2
49.5 =
x2
Take the square root on both sides of the equation.

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0.04 − 2 x
7.036 =
x
Solving for x,
7.036x = 0.04 − 2x
x = 4.43 × 10–3
∴[H2(g)]eqm = 4.43 × 10–3 mol dm–3
[I2(g)]eqm = 4.43 × 10–3 mol dm–3
[HI(g)]eqm = (0.04 – 2 × 4.43 × 10–3) mol dm–3 = 0.0311 mol dm–3
(b) After adding 0.10 mol of HI to the reaction vessel, concentration of HI(g)
(0.0311 10 + 0.10) mol
= 3
= 0.0411 mol dm–3
10 dm

[HI(g) ] 2
Qc =
[H 2 (g)][ I 2 (g)]

(0.0411mol dm −3 ) 2
=
(4.43  10−3 mol dm −3 )(4.43  10−3 mol dm −3 )

= 86.07
As Qc > Kc, the equilibrium position will shift to the left/reactant side.
(c) Initial concentration of HI(g) = 0.0411 mol dm–3
Let y mol dm–3 be the change in concentration of H2(g).
Concentration
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
(mol dm–3)
Initial 4.43 × 10–3 4.43 × 10–3 0.0411
Change +y +y –2y
Equilibrium 4.43 × 10–3 + y 4.43 × 10–3 + y 0.0411 – 2y
2
[HI(g) ]eqm
Kc =
[H 2 (g)]eqm [I 2 (g)]eqm

(0.0411− 2 y) 2
49.5 =
(4.43  10−3 + y)(4.43  10−3 + y)

Take the square root on both sides of the equation.

(0.0411 − 2 y )
7.036 =
(4.43  10 −3 + y )
Solving for y,
y = 1.09 × 10–3
∴[H2(g)]eqm = (4.43 × 10−3 + 1.09 × 10−3) mol dm–3 = 5.52 × 10−3 mol dm–3

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[I2(g)]eqm = (4.43 × 10−3 + 1.09 × 10−3) mol dm–3 = 5.52 × 10−3 mol dm–3
[HI(g)]eqm = (0.0411 – 2 × 1.09 × 10–3) mol dm–3 = 0.0389 mol dm–3
(d) No. This is because the concentration of HI(g) at the new state of
equilibrium (0.0389 mol dm–3) is still higher than that before the
disturbance (0.0311 mol dm–3).

A41.4 (p.41-15)
(a) The equilibrium position shifts to the right/product side.
(b) The equilibrium position shifts to the left/reactant side.

A41.5 (p.41-18)
(a) (i) The mixture becomes more blue in colour.
(ii) The mixture becomes more pink in colour.
(b) The value of Kc increases. An increase in temperature favours an endothermic
reaction. As the forward reaction is endothermic, the equilibrium position shifts
to the right when the temperature increases. More CoCl42–(aq) would form and
this leads to an increase in the Kc value.

A41.6 (p.41-23)

(a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

(b) Since there are a greater number of moles of gases on the left-hand side of the
equation, a decrease in pressure will cause the equilibrium position to shift to the
left/reactant side.
(c) As temperature increases, the percentage of NH3 in the reaction mixture
decreases. This suggests that the formation of NH3 from H2 and N2 is not
favoured when temperature increases. Since increasing temperature favours
endothermic reaction, formation of NH3 from H2 and N2 should be exothermic.
(d) As the formation of NH3 from N2 and H2 is exothermic, too high a temperature
causes the equilibrium position to shift very much to the reactant side. This
greatly reduces the yield of NH3.
Too low a temperature causes the system to take a long time to reach the
equilibrium. This wastes time and resources such as fuel and electricity.

Think about
Think about (p.41-2)
1. The decrease in concentration of oxygen causes the equilibrium position of the
above reaction to shift to the left.

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2. To maintain the same equilibrium constant, Kc, for the above reaction, the heart
and lungs have to work harder, raising the pulse rate and breathing rate in order
to get more oxygen and shift the equilibrium position to the right. Moreover,
more red blood cells are made with more haemoglobin and this will also shift the
equilibrium position to the right.

Think about (p.41-7)

No. The system can only remove some of the added HI(g) in order to restore the value
of equilibrium constant. When a new state of equilibrium is established, the
concentration of HI(g) is still higher than before.

Think about (p.41-21)

When NO(g) is removed, [NO(g)] decreases. The reaction quotient, Qc will be smaller
than the equilibrium constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position shifts to the right. As
a result, more NO(g), together with HNO3(aq) would form.

Chapter exercise (p.41-27)

1. (a) product
(b) reactant
2. position
3. reaction quotient; equilibrium constant
(a) will not
(b) product/right-hand
(c) reactant/left-hand
4. constant; position
5. endothermic; exothermic
6. counteract
7. yield
8. (a) The equilibrium position shifts to the right/product side.
When ZnSO4(aq) is added, [Zn2+(aq)] increases. This makes the reaction
quotient, Qc smaller than the equilibrium constant, Kc. Hence, the
equilibrium position shifts to the right.
(b) The equilibrium position shifts to the left/reactant side.
When NaOH(aq) is added, it neutralizes the H+(aq) present. As a result,
[H+(aq)] decreases. This makes the reaction quotient, Qc larger than the
equilibrium constant, Kc. Hence, the equilibrium position shifts to the left.
(c) The equilibrium position shifts to the left/reactant side because there is a
smaller number of moles of gas on the left-hand side of the equation.

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(d) The equilibrium position shifts to the right/product side.

The forward reaction is endothermic. As an increase in temperature favours
endothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the right.

9. (a) Fe3+(aq) is yellow, SCN–(aq) is colourless and FeSCN2+(aq) is dark red in

colour. When the mixture becomes dark red, the equilibrium position has
shifted to the right. When the mixture becomes pale yellow, the equilibrium
position has shifted to the left.
(b) CrO42–(aq) is yellow and Cr2O72–(aq) is orange in colour. When the mixture
becomes more orange in colour, the equilibrium position has shifted to the
right. When the mixture becomes more yellow in colour, the equilibrium
position has shifted to the left.
(c) NO2(g) is brown in colour and N2O4(g) is colourless. When the brown
colour of the mixture becomes paler, the equilibrium position has shifted to
the right. When the brown colour of the mixture becomes deeper, the
equilibrium position has shifted to the left.

10. D
(2): the concentrations of reactants and products may not necessarily be the same
at equilibrium.
(3): the value of Kc will not be affected by the change in concentration of
reactant or product at a given temperature.

11. C

[SO 3 (g)]2
Qc =
[SO 2 (g)]2 [O 2 (g)]

Change in
Denominator Numerator Qc
concentration
(A) [SO2(g)] increases increases – decreases
(B) [O2(g)] increases increases – decreases
(C) [SO3(g)] increases – increases increases
(D) [SO3(g)] decreases – decreases decreases

12. B
(A): the unit of Kc of this system is mol–1 dm3.

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(B): at equilibrium, both reactants and products are present and their
concentrations remain unchanged. Hence, there is no colour change for the
system.
(C): addition of Fe3+(aq) shifts the equilibrium position to the right, forming
more FeSCN2+(aq). Hence, the orange-yellow equilibrium mixture becomes dark
red in colour.
(D): when the equilibrium position shifts to the left, the colour of the equilibrium
mixture becomes pale yellow.

13. C
For graphs in (B) and (C), a sudden increase in the concentration of H2(g) at time
Y indicates the addition of H2 to the equilibrium mixture. From the equation,
when the equilibrium position shifts to the right, 1 mole of H2 and 1 mole of I2
are consumed, and 2 moles of HI form. But the graph in (B) shows that 1 mole of
HI forms when 2 moles of H2 and 1 mole of I2 are consumed.

14. B
(1): removing Cl2(g) shifts the equilibrium position to the left, consuming more
PCl5(g).
(2): decreasing the volume of the container causes an increase in pressure of the
mixture. The equilibrium position shifts to the right, forming more PCl5(g).
(3): decreasing the pressure of the mixture shifts the equilibrium position to the
left, consuming more PCl5(g).

15. D
(A): the equilibrium position shifts to the reactant side because there is a smaller
number of moles of gas on the left-hand side of the equation.
(B) and (C): a change in pressure has no effect on the equilibrium positions of
these reactions because these reactions have the same number of moles of gases
on both sides of the equation.
(D): the equilibrium position shifts to the product side because there is a smaller
number of moles of gases on the right-hand side of the equation.

16. A
When the volume of container decreases, the pressure of the system increases.
An increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift to the right. This
is because there is a smaller number of moles of gas on the right-hand side of the
equation.

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17. D
(A): refer to p.11 of chapter 39 for details.
(B): adding NH4+ (from NH4Cl) shifts the equilibrium position to the left. This
results in a decrease in [OH–(aq)]. Hence, the pH of the solution decreases.
(C): adding HCl(aq) can remove OH–(aq) in the system, which causes the
equilibrium position to shift to the right. As a result, more ammonia molecules
ionize in water.
(D): pressure change has no effect on the equilibrium position as the system does
not involve any gaseous species.

18. A
(1): the backward reaction is exothermic. A decrease in temperature favours an
exothermic reaction. Hence, the equilibrium position shifts to the left.
(2): when the concentration of oxygen decreases, the reaction quotient, Qc
increases. When Qc > Kc, the equilibrium position shifts to the left.
(3): a decrease in volume of the container increases the pressure. Since there is a
smaller number of moles of gas on the right-hand side of the equation, an
increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium position to the right.

19. B
The forward reaction is exothermic. As a decrease in temperature favours an
exothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the right. More products
would form. This leads to an increase in the Kc value.

20. C
(B): the forward reaction is endothermic. As an increase in temperature favours
an endothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the right, forming
more NO2(g). As a result, the value of Kc increases.
(C): as the forward reaction is endothermic, the rate of forward reaction increases
more than the rate of backward reaction, until a new state of equilibrium is
established, at which the rates of both forward reaction and backward reaction
are equal.

21. D
(1): oxidation number of N is +4 in NO2, +5 in HNO3 and +2 in NO. As NO2 is
oxidized and reduced at the same time. This reaction is a disproportionation.

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(2): when NO(g) is removed, [NO(g)] decreases and the reaction quotient, Qc
decreases. As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position shifts to the right, forming more
NO(g) and HNO3(aq).
(3): when NO2(g) is added, [NO2(g)] increases and the reaction quotient, Qc
decreases. As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium position shifts to the right, forming more
NO(g) and HNO3(aq).

22. C
(1): the backward reaction is endothermic. As an increase in reaction temperature
favours an endothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the left. As a
result, less NH3(g) would be produced.
(2): increasing the pressure of the reaction mixture shifts the equilibrium position
to the right because there is a smaller number of moles of gas on the right-hand
side of the equation. As a result, more NH3(g) forms.
(3): when [H2(aq)] increases, the reaction quotient, Qc decreases. As Qc < Kc, the
equilibrium position shifts to the right, forming more NH3(g).

23. (a) K2 is greater than K1.

(b) From equation (3), a higher concentration of O2 shifts the equilibrium
position to the right. Thus, CO is released from haemoglobin. At the same
time, more HbO2 forms.
(c) Air contains 21% of oxygen, while pure oxygen contains 100% oxygen. A
high concentration of oxygen can cause the equilibrium position to shift
very much to the right.

[CO(g)][H 2 O(g)]
24. (a) Qc =
[CO 2 (g)][H 2 (g)]
(4.0 mol dm −3 )(2.0 mol dm −3 )
=
(4.0 mol dm −3 )(2.0 mol dm −3 )
=1
As Qc > Kc, the equilibrium position shifts to the left/reactant side.
(b) Since there are equal numbers of moles of gases on both sides of the
equation, an increase in pressure has no effect on the equilibrium position of
the reaction.
(c) The Equilibrium Law states that Kc is a constant value for a reaction at
equilibrium at a given temperature, no matter what the initial concentrations
of reactant(s) or product(s) are. Hence, an increase in concentration of
CO2(g) has no effect on the value of Kc.

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25. (a)
Concentration
SO2Cl2(g) ⇌ SO2(g) + Cl2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.02 0 0
Change −0.012 +0.012 +0.012
Equilibrium 0.02 − 0.012 = 8 × 10−3 0.012 0.012

[SO 2 (g)]eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

Kc =
[SO 2 Cl 2 (g)]eqm

Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression for Kc.

(0.012 mol dm −3 )(0.012 mol dm −3 )
=
(8  10 −3 mol dm −3 )
= 0.018 mol dm−3
(b)
Concentration (mol dm–3)

(b)
Cl2(g)

SO2Cl2(g)

Time (s)
X

26. (a) Measure the change in colour intensity of the mixture with time by using a
colorimeter. At equilibrium, the concentration of the coloured species (i.e.
the yellowish brown Br2(aq)) remains constant. Thus, the colour intensity of
the mixture also remains constant. OR
Measure the change in pH of the mixture with time by using a pH sensor
connected to a data-logger. At equilibrium, the concentration of H+(aq)
remains constant. Thus, the pH of the mixture also remains constant.
(b) When sulphuric acid is added to the equilibrium mixture, the concentration
of H+(aq) increases. This makes the reaction quotient, Qc smaller than the
equilibrium constant, Kc. Hence, the equilibrium position shifts to the right.
As more Br2(aq) forms, the yellowish brown colour of the mixture becomes
deeper.
(c) The backward reaction is endothermic. As an increase in temperature
favours an endothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the left.

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As a result, more products (Br2(aq) and H2O(l)) are consumed and more
reactants (Br–(aq), H2O2(aq), H+(aq)) form. Hence, the value of Kc
decreases.

27. (a) Kc = [H+(aq)]eqm[OH−(aq)]eqm

(b) Since 1 mole of H2O ionizes to give 1 mole of H+(aq) and 1 mole of
OH−(aq), [H+(aq)]eqm = [OH−(aq)]eqm.
Let y mol dm–3 be the equilibrium concentration of H+(aq).
At 75°C, Kc = 1.94 × 10−13 = y2.
y = 4.40 × 10−7
∴the equilibrium concentration of H+(aq) is 4.40 × 10−7 mol dm–3.
(c) (i) pH = −log[H+(aq)]
= −log (4.40 × 10−7)
= 6.36
(ii) Water is neutral at 75°C. This is because the concentrations of H+(aq)
and OH−(aq) are still equal at this temperature (i.e. 4.40 × 10−7 mol
dm–3).
(d) The Kc value increases with the temperature. This suggests that the
ionization of water is favoured at high temperature. The ionization of water
should be an endothermic reaction because a high temperature favours an
endothermic reaction.

28. (a) CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO−(aq) + H+(aq)

(b) CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

25.0
Number of moles of CH3COOH present = 0.1 × mol = 2.5 × 10−3 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of CH3COOH to NaOH = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of NaOH required = 2.5 × 10−3 mol
(Although 25.0 cm3 of 0.1 M ethanoic acid ionizes slightly in water to give
only 3.22 × 10−5 mol of H+(aq) ions, the acid requires 2.5 × 10−3 mol of
NaOH(aq) for complete neutralization. This is because addition of
NaOH(aq) to the acid removes the H+(aq) ions. The equilibrium position of
the process in (a) shifts to the right to replenish the H+(aq) ions consumed
until the CH3COOH has completely ionized/been neutralized.)

29. (a) Finely divided iron

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(b) The forward reaction (production of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen)
is favoured by decreasing temperature. Since a decrease in temperature
favours an exothermic reaction, the forward reaction should be exothermic.
(c) (i) A high pressure favours the side with a smaller number of moles of gas.
As there is a smaller number of moles of gas on the right-hand side of
the equation, the equilibrium position shifts to the right when a high
pressure is applied. This results in forming more ammonia.
(ii) Too high a pressure is expensive to maintain. Besides, the maintenance
cost of the pipelines that can withstand high pressure is high.

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Part X Chemical Equilibrium

Part exercise (p.41-33)

1. C
Nickel is a pure solid. Its concentration is a constant. Thus, the equilibrium
concentration of nickel can be incorporated into the equilibrium constant.

2. C
1
The value of Kc for NO(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ NOCl(g)
2
1
= −3
= 6.25 mol–1 dm3
2  0.08 mol dm

3. B
Kc = [Ag+(aq)]eqm[Br–(aq)]eqm
3.3 × 10–13 = [Ag+(aq)]eqm × 5.0 × 10–6
[Ag+(aq)]eqm = 6.6 × 10–8

4. D
A change in volume of the container causes a change in pressure of a system. For
reactions having the same number of moles of gases on both sides of the
equation, the change in pressure will not cause any shift of the equilibrium
position.

5. D

[Ni(NH 3 ) 62+ (aq)] eqm

Kc =
[ Ni 2+ (aq) ]eqm [NH 3 (aq)]6eqm

(0.046 mol dm −3 )
=
(0.003 mol dm −3 )(0.055 mol dm −3 ) 6

= 5.54 × 108 mol–6 dm18

6. A
As the system contains only CH3CH(OH)CH3(g) at the start, its concentration is
the highest. Hence the rate of backward reaction is the highest at that time.
Meanwhile, the rate of forward reaction is zero because initially there is no

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CH3COCH3(g) and H2(g) in the system. The rates of both forward and
backward reaction become equal when a state of equilibrium is established.

7. C
Since there is a smaller number of moles of gas on the right-hand side of the
equation, an increase in pressure shifts the equilibrium position to the product
side. The forward reaction is exothermic. As a decrease in temperature favours
an exothermic reaction, the equilibrium position shifts to the right. As a result,
more CH3CH(OH)CH3 can be produced.

8. A
(1): an increase in temperature shifts the equilibrium position to the right because
the forward reaction is endothermic.
(2): NO2(g) is brown in colour and N2O4(g) is colourless. When more NO2(g)
forms, the brown colour of the reaction mixture becomes deeper.
(3): the mass of the reaction mixture is a constant because the reaction occurs in
a closed container. No chemicals leave or enter the system.

9. (a)

[COCl 2 (g)]eqm
(b) Kc =
[CO(g)] eqm [Cl 2 (g)]eqm

Let y mol dm–3 be the equilibrium concentration of COCl2(g).

y
2.9 × 1010 =
(1.8  10 )(7.3  10 −6 )
−5

y = 3.8
∴the equilibrium concentration of COCl2(g) is 3.8 mol dm−3.
Mass of COCl2 in the equilibrium mixture
= 3.8 mol dm–3 × 6 dm3 × (12.0 + 16.0 + 35.5 × 2) g mol–1 = 2257 g

10. (a) Number of moles of lactic acid

2.25
= mol = 0.025 mol
(12.0  3 + 1.0  6 + 16.0  3)

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0.025
Concentration of lactic acid = mol dm−3 = 0.1 mol dm−3
250.0
1000
(b) Let y mol dm–3 be the change in concentration of H+(aq).
Concentration
CH3CH(OH)COOH(aq)⇌CH3CH(OH)COO−(aq) + H+(aq)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.1 0 0
Change −y +y +y
Equilibrium 0.1 − y y y

[CH 3 CH(OH)COO − (aq)] eqm [H + (aq)] eqm

Kc =
[CH 3 CH(OH)COOH (aq)] eqm

y2
1.4 × 10−5 =
0.1 − y
y = −1.19 × 10−3 (rejected) or y = 1.18 × 10−3
∴the concentration of H+(aq) ions in the standard solution is 1.18 × 10−3
mol dm−3.
(c) pH = −log[H+(aq)]
= −log (1.18 × 10−3)
= 2.93
(d) Number of moles of H+ formed
250.0
= 1.18 × 10−3 × mol = 2.95 × 10−4 mol
1000
From the equation, mole ratio of CH3CH(OH)COOH to H+ = 1 : 1.
∴number of moles of lactic acid ionized = 2.95 × 10−4 mol
Mass of lactic acid ionized
= 2.95 × 10−4 × (12.0 × 3 + 1.0 × 6 + 16.0 × 3) g = 0.0266 g
0.0266 g
Percentage of ionization of lactic acid = ×100% = 1.18%
2.25 g

11. (a) Concentration of ethanol in mol dm−3

110 g dm −3
= −1
= 2.39 mol dm−3
(12.0  2 + 1.0  6 + 16.0) g mol

[RCOOC 2 H 5 (l)]eqm [H 2 O(l)]eqm

(b) Kc =
[RCOOH(l) ]eqm [C 2 H 5 OH(l)]eqm

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(c) From the equation, 1 mole of RCOOH and 1 mole of C2H5OH are
consumed when 1 mole of the ester forms.
[RCOOH(l)]eqm = (0.10 − 0.027) mol dm−3 = 0.073 mol dm−3
[C2H5OH(l)]eqm = (2.39 − 0.027) mol dm−3 = 2.363 mol dm−3

(0.027 mol dm −3 )(60.0 mol dm −3 )

(d) Kc = = 9.39
(0.073 mol dm −3 )(2.363 mol dm −3 )

12. (a) Addition of hydrochloric acid increases the concentration of Cl–(aq) ions in

[Cu(H 2 O) 4 2+ (aq)][Cl − (aq)] 4

the system. Reaction quotient, Qc = will be
[CuCl 4 2− (aq)]

larger than the equilibrium constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position
shifts to the left. As more CuCl42–(aq) ions are produced, the colour of the
system changes from green to yellow.
(b) Addition of silver nitrate solution removes the Cl–(aq) ions in the system by
precipitation with Ag+(aq) ions.
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
As the concentration of Cl–(aq) ions decreases, reaction quotient, Qc

[Cu(H 2 O) 4 2+ (aq)][Cl − (aq)] 4

= will be smaller than the equilibrium
[CuCl 4 2− (aq)]

constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position shifts to the right. As more
Cu(H2O)42+(aq) ions are produced, the colour of the system changes from
green to blue.

4
[CH 2 O(g)]eqm [O 2 (g)]eqm
13. (a) Kc = 2 2
[C 2 H 4 (g)]eqm [O 3 (g)]eqm

[CH 2 O(g)]4 [O 2 (g)]

(b) Qc =
[C 2 H 4 (g)]2 [O 3 (g)]2

(c) (i) An increase in [C2H4(g)] will make the reaction quotient, Qc smaller
than the equilibrium constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position shifts
to the right/product side.
(ii) An increase in [O3(g)] will make the reaction quotient, Qc smaller than
the equilibrium constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position shifts to
the right/product side.

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(iii) An increase in [O2(g)] will make the reaction quotient, Qc larger than
the equilibrium constant, Kc. Thus, the equilibrium position shifts to
the left/reactant side.

[HbO 2 (aq) ]eqm

14. (a) Kc =
[Hb(aq) ]eqm [O 2 (aq) ]eqm

(b) This is because there is less oxygen in air at high altitude. When the
concentration of oxygen is low, the equilibrium position of the above
reaction shifts to the left. As a result, less oxyhaemoglobin forms.
(c) Pure oxygen contains 100% oxygen. A high concentration of oxygen shifts
the equilibrium position of the above equilibrium very much to the right. As
a result, more oxyhaemoglobin forms.

15. (a) To give the object a gold-like appearance/to improve the appearance of the
object/to make the iron-made object more resistant to rusting.
(b) Cu+(aq) + e– → Cu(s)
(c) The very large value of K1 shows that the equilibrium position lies almost
on the product side. Hence, a low concentration of Cu+(aq) ions can be
maintained in plating solution all the time. This can ensure a good quality of
coating during the electroplating process.
(d) When KOH(aq) is added, the concentration of OH–(aq) ions in the solution
increases. This makes the reaction quotient, Qc larger than the equilibrium
constant, Kc. The equilibrium position shifts to the left and thus the
formation of HCN(aq) is prevented.

16. (a) Since all the reactants and product are in the same phase (i.e. gaseous phase),
the system is a homogeneous equilibrium.
(b) When the pressure of the system decreases, the equilibrium position shifts
to the left/reactant side.

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HKDSE CHEMISTRY ⎯ A Modern View (Second Edition) Coursebook 4A

(c)

CH3OH(g)
Concentration (M)

H2(g)

Y Time (s)

17. (a) The rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction.
Both reactants and product are present and their concentrations remain
unchanged.
2
[H 2 (g)]eqm [S 2 (g)]eqm
(b) Kc = 2
[H 2 S(g)] eqm

(c) The unit of the equilibrium constant is mol dm−3.

0.2 mol
(d) Initial concentration of H2S(g) = = 0.2 mol dm−3
1 dm 3
Let y mol dm−3 be the change in concentration of S2(g).
Concentration
2H2S(g) ⇌ 2H2(g) + S2(g)
(mol dm−3)
Initial 0.2 0 0
Change −2y +2y +y
Equilibrium 0.2 − 2y 2y y
2
(2 y ) ( y )
4.2 × 10−6 =
( 0. 2 − 2 y ) 2
Since the equilibrium constant is very small, it is expected that the value of
y to be very small. Thus, 0.2 − 2y ≈ 0.2.
(2 y ) 2 ( y )
4.2 × 10−6 =
( 0 .2 ) 2
y = 3.48 × 10−3
[H2(g)]eqm = 2 × 3.48 × 10−3 mol dm−3 = 6.96 × 10−3 mol dm−3
[S2(g)]eqm = 3.48 × 10−3 mol dm−3

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HKDSE CHEMISTRY ⎯ A Modern View (Second Edition) Coursebook 4A

(e) Since there is a smaller number of moles of gas on the left-hand side of the
equation, an increase in pressure at constant temperature shifts the
equilibrium position to the left/reactant side.

18. (a)

(b) Polystyrene can be used to make transparent containers such as measuring

cups/sample bottles or cups/compact disc cases.
Expanded polystyrene can be used to make disposable foam cups or food
boxes/lightweight ceiling tiles.
(c) To increase the area of catalytic surface so that the rate of reaction can be
increased greatly.
(d) (i) The forward reaction is endothermic. A high temperature favours an
endothermic reaction. As a result, more styrene can be produced.
(ii) At a low pressure, the equilibrium position shifts to the right because
there is a greater number of moles of gases on the right-hand side of
the equation. As a result, more styrene can be produced.

19. At A, there should be a sudden decrease in pressure or an increase in volume of

the system. This change favours the formation of more gas molecules by shifting
the equilibrium position to the left, producing more C2H4 and H2.
At B, there is an increase in temperature of the system. The lines show that both
[C2H4(g)] and [H2(g)] increase while [C2H6(g)] decreases. The equilibrium
position has shifted to the left which is an endothermic change. An increase in
temperature favours an endothermic change.
At C, C2H6(g) is added to the system. This makes the reaction quotient, Qc
greater than the equilibrium constant, Kc. i.e. Qc > Kc. The equilibrium position
shifts to the left. This lowers [C2H6(g)] and increases [C2H4(g)] and [H2(g)].

[CO(g)] eqm [H 2 (g)]3eqm

20. (a)
[CH 4 (g) ]eqm [H 2 O(g)]eqm

(b) The catalyst has no effect on the value of equilibrium constant, Kc.
(The catalyst will increase both forward and backward reactions to the same
extent.)

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HKDSE CHEMISTRY ⎯ A Modern View (Second Edition) Coursebook 4A

(c) (i) More CO(g) and H2(g) are produced when the temperature increases.
This suggests that the forward reaction is favoured by increasing
temperature. As an increase in temperature favours an endothermic
reaction, the forward reaction should be endothermic.
(ii) When the temperature increases, [CO(g)] and [H2(g)] increase. As the
value of the nominator of the Kc expression increases, the value of Kc
also increases.
(d) (i) Decreases. Since there are a smaller number of moles of gases on the
left-hand side of the equation, an increase in pressure shifts the
equilibrium position to the left. As a result, less hydrogen would be
produced.
(ii) Increases. When carbon monoxide is removed, the concentration of
carbon monoxide decreases. This makes the reaction quotient, Qc
smaller than the equilibrium constant, Kc. As Qc < Kc, the equilibrium
position shifts to the right. As a result, more hydrogen would be
produced.

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