Mechanics of Materials - Stress and Strain

STRESS AND STRAIN

Types and System of Forces
Types of Stresses

→ Normal Stress

→ Shear Stress

→ Flexural Stress
Types of Stresses
 Normal Stress

F P
 = lim  ave =
A→0 A A
Shear Stress

P
 ave =
A

P P
 ave = =
A 0.25d 2
Bearing Stress
Corresponding average
force intensity is called the
bearing stress, b

P P
b = =
A td
Resume (Axial Stresses)
Resume (Bending/Flexural Stresses)
Resume (Shear/Transverse Stresses)
Strain

P
 = = stress
A


= = normal strain
L
Tension Test of Steel
Stress-Strain Curve

40 ksi ≈ 276 MPa ; 60 ksi = 414 MPa

Stress-Strain Curve
 Stress-Strain Curve

Schematic representation of stress-strain curve of

structural steel (illustrate elastic and plastic range).
 Stress-Strain Curve

The slope of the straight line from O to A (linear AND

©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

proportional region) → Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s

modulus.
 Stress-Strain Curve
• Point A = Proportional limit.

• Point B = Yield stress (yield strength).

• From A to B: strain increases more rapidly for

each stress increment.

• From B to C → yielding (deform without noticeable

increase in applied load).

• From C to D → Strain hardening (material undergoes

changes in its crystalline structure).

• Point D = Ultimate stress (ultimate strength).

• From D to E → Necking

• Point E = Fracture
 Hooke’s Law
• Below the yield stress

 = E
E = Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity

• Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Stress-strain diagrams for iron
Elasticity) is not.
and different grade of steel.
 Normal Stress and Strain Relationship
• From Hooke’s Law:
P
 = E = =
E AE

• From the definition of strain: =
L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
=
AE
• With variations in loading, cross-section or material properties,

Pi Li
 =
i Ai Ei
 Stiffness and Flexibility

• EA is known as axial rigidity.

• The change in length of a member is normally very

small when compared to its length.

• The stiffness k and flexibility f of a prismatic bar

are defined in the same way as for a spring.

• Stiffness k = force required to produce a unit

elongation (k = P/), while

• Flexibility f = elongation produced by a unit load

(f =  / P).
 Stiffness and Flexibility

• What is the stiffness k and flexibility f for a

prismatic bar?

P
Stiffness  k=

PL P EA
• Now use: =  =
EA  L

P
EA
 k= =
 L
 Stiffness and Flexibility

• Flexibility  f =
P
PL  L
• Now using: =  =
EA P EA

L
 f = =
P EA
• Again, stiffness k and flexibility f are reciprocal to
each other.
1 1
 k= and f =
f k
Poisson Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
x
x = y =z = 0
E
• The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),

y = z  0
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y z
= =− =−
axial strain x x
 Six Independent Components of Stresses

Generally, there are 6 independent components of

stress at each point in the body namely are normal
stress σx, σy, σz (normal stresses) and xy, yz, xz
(shear stresses).
Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,

the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
x = + − −
E E E
 x  y  z
y = − + −
E E E
 x  y z
z = − − +
E E E
 Shearing Strain

• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will

deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
 xy = f ( xy )

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the

previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy = G  xy  yz = G  yz  zx = G  zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

Relation Among E, , and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will

elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E
= (1 +  )
2G
 Thermal Stress

• A temperature change results in a change in length or

thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
 T =  (T )L P =
AE
 = thermal expansion coef.
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
 = T +  P = 0  = T +  P = 0
P = − AE (T )
PL
( )
 T L + =0 P
AE = = − E (T )
A
 Allowable Stresses

Factors of Safety
• Strength → Ability of a structure to resist loads.
• Strength may be measured by:
(1) Load-carrying capacity of a structure.
(2) Stress in a material.

• The actual strength of a structure must exceed

the required strength
(actual strength > required strength).
 Allowable Stresses

• The expression for factor of safety (n):

Actual strength
n=
Required strength

• Avoid failure → n > 1.0

 Allowable Stresses

Allowable stresses
• Avoid permanent deformations → Material remains
within the linear elastic
region.

• Allowable stress → Yield stress (yield strength)

over the factor of safety n.
• The expression for allowable stress (allow):

Yield strength
 allow =
n
 Allowable Stresses
• Allowable stress → Also known as working
stress.
• Allowable stress (allow) can also expressed in
terms of ultimate stress (U) instead of yield
stress (y).
• This method is suitable for brittle materials (eg.
Concrete).
• The expression for allowable stress (allow):

Ultimate stress
 allow =
n
Allowable Stresses

©2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
 Allowable Loads

Allowable loads
• Allowable load → Also known as permissible
load or safe load.
• For uniformly distributed stress → Allowable
load is equal to the allowable stress times the
area.
• The expression for allowable load (Pallow):
Allowable load = (Allowable stress)(Area)
 Allowable Loads

• For bars in tension and compression:

Pallow = allow A
where
A = Net cross-sectional area
 Factor of Safety
Factor of safety considerations:
• Uncertainty in material properties
• Uncertainty of loadings
• Uncertainty of analyses
• Number of loading cycles
• Types of failure
• Maintenance requirements and deterioration
effects
• Importance of member to structures integrity
• Risk to life and property
• Influence on machine function
 Factor of Safety
Structural members must be designed such that the working
stresses are less than the ultimate strength of the material.

FS = Factor of safety
u ultimate stress
FS = =
 all allowable stress
Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed
from lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or
polymers embedded in a resin matrix.

• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s

Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
 y z
Ex = x Ey = Ez =
x y z

• Transverse contractions are related by directionally

dependent values of Poisson’s ratio, e.g.,
y 
 xy =−  xz = − z
x x

• Materials with directionally dependent mechanical

properties are anisotropic.
Elastoplastic Materials

• Previous analyses based on assumption of

linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations occur
• Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material
• Deformations of an elastoplastic material
are divided into elastic and plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress
 Example 1
A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected to an axial
tensile force. The measured elongation is d = 1.5 mm. Calculate the
tensile stress and strain in the bar.

Solution → Assuming the axial force act at the centroid of the

end cross section, then the stress is:
 Example 1
The strain is:

m/m

= 0.000428 mm/mm
 Example 2
A stainless steel tube with outside diameter of 50 mm and a wall
thickness of 5 mm is used as a compression member. If the axial
stress in the member must be limited to 500 MPa, determine the
maximum load that the member can support.
Solution:
t= 5mm
A=

4
(d o
2
− di
2
)
di = 50 – 2(5) = 40mm

A=
4
(50 2
− 40 2 )
d = 50mm = 707mm2
= 7.07 x 10-4 m2.
 Example 2

N
6 -4 2
P = 500 x 10 (7.07 x 10 ) m
m2
= 353.5 kN
Axial Stress and Strain Relationship for An Element
Subjected Bi-Axial and Tri-Axial Stresses

• The most general state of stress at a point may

be represented by 6 components,
 x , y , z normal stresses
 xy ,  yz ,  zx shearing stresses
(Note :  xy =  yx ,  yz =  zy ,  zx =  xz )

• Same state of stress is represented by a

different set of components if axes are rotated.
 Plane Stress

• Plane Stress - state of stress in which two faces of

the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
 x ,  y ,  xy and  z =  zx =  zy = 0.

• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

to forces acting in the midplane of the plate.

• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

of a structural element or machine component, i.e.,
at any point of the surface not subjected to an
external force.
Transformation of Plane Stress

• Consider the conditions for equilibrium of a

prismatic element with faces perpendicular to
the x, y, and x’ axes.
 Fx = 0 =  xA −  x (A cos  ) cos  −  xy (A cos  )sin 
−  y (A sin  )sin  −  xy (A sin  ) cos 
 Fy  = 0 =  xy A +  x (A cos  )sin  −  xy (A cos  ) cos 
−  y (A sin  ) cos  +  xy (A sin  )sin 

• The equations may be rewritten to yield

 x + y  x − y
 x = + cos 2 +  xy sin 2
2 2
 x + y  x − y
 y = − cos 2 −  xy sin 2
2 2
 x − y
 xy = − sin 2 +  xy cos 2
2
Principal Stresses
• The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,

( x −  ave )2 +  x2y = R 2
where
2
 x + y  x − y 
 ave = R =   +  xy
2
2  2 

• Principal stresses occur on the principal

planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.
2
 x + y  x − y 
 max, min =    +  xy
2
2  2 
2 xy
tan 2 p =
 x − y
Note : defines two angles separated by 90o
Maximum Shearing Stress
Maximum shearing stress occurs for  x =  ave

2
 x − y 
 max = R =   +  xy
2
 2 
 x − y
tan 2 s = −
2 xy

Note : defines two angles separated by 90o and

offset from  p by 45o
 x + y
  =  ave =
2
 Stress Analysis using Mohr’s Circle
Mohr’s can be constructed in a variety of ways, depending upon
which stresses are known and which are unknown. Let us assume
that we know the stresses σx, σy, and xy acting on the x and y
planes of an element in plane stress. Then, with the circle drawn, we
can determine the stresses σx1, σy1, and x1y1 acting on an inclined
element. We can also obtain the principal stresses and maximum
shear stresses from the circle.
 Stress Analysis using Mohr’s Circle

With σx, σy, and xy known, the procedure for constructing Mohr’s
circle is as follows:
1. Draw a set of coordinate axes with σx1 as abscissa (positive to the
right) and x1y1 as ordinate (positive downward).
2. Locate the center C of the circle at the point having coordinates
σx1 = σave and x1y1 = 0.
3. Locate point A, representing the stress conditions on the x face of
the element, by plotting its coordinates σx1 = σx and x1y1 = xy.
Note that point A corresponds to  = 0. Also, note that the x face
of the element is labeled “A” to show its correspondence with
point A in the diagram.
 Stress Analysis using Mohr’s Circle
4. Locate point B, representing the stress conditions on the y face of
the element, by plotting its coordinates σx1 = σy and x1y1 = -xy.
Note that point B corresponds to  = 90o. In addition, the y face of
the element is labeled “B” to show its correspondence with point
B in the diagram.
5. Draw a line from point A to point B. This line is a diameter of the
circle and passes through the center C. Points A and B,
representing the stresses on planes at 90o to each other, are at
opposites ends of the diameter (and therefore are 180o apart on
the circle).
6. Using point C as the center, draw Mohr’s circle through points A
and B. The circle drawn in this manner has radius R, as shown in
the next explanation.
 Stress Analysis using Mohr’s Circle

Now that we have drawn the circle, we can verify by geometry that
lines CA and CB are radii and have length equal to R.
 Stress Analysis using Mohr’s Circle

We note that the abscissas of points A and C are σx and (σx - σy)/2,
respectively. Also the ordinate of point A is xy. These two values
gives the radius R.

 x − y 
2

R =   +  xy2
 2 
 Example 3

For the state of plane stress shown,

(a) construct Mohr’s circle, determine
(b) the principal planes, (c) the SOLUTION:
principal stresses, (d) the maximum • Construction of Mohr’s circle
shearing stress and the corresponding
 ave =
x + y
=
(50) + (− 10) = 20 MPa
normal stress.
2 2
CF = 50 − 20 = 30 MPa FX = 40 MPa
R = CX = (30)2 + (40)2 = 50 MPa
Example 3
• Principal planes and stresses
 max = OA = OC + CA = 20 + 50
 max = 70 MPa
 max = OB = OC − BC = 20 − 50
 max = −30 MPa

FX 40
tan 2 p = =
CP 30
2 p = 53.1
 p = 26.6
 Example 3

• Maximum shear stress

 s =  p + 45  max = R   =  ave

 s = 71.6  max = 50 MPa   = 20 MPa