SIMPLE STRAIN

STRAIN
- a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body.

2 types of strain

1. Normal Strain – characterizes dimensional changes.

2. Shear Strain – describes distortion (changes in angles).

AXIAL DEFORMATION: STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Normal Strain
The normal strain (lowercase Greek epsilon) is defined as the elongation
per unit lengt

𝜹
𝜺=
𝑳

𝜀 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝛿 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
L = length

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STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
During tensile test of any material, the testing machine elongates the
specimen at a slow, constant rate until the specimen ruptures. During the test, continuous
readings are taken of the applied load and the elongation of the gage length. These data
are then converted to stress and strain. The stress is obtained from σ= P/A, where P is
the load and A represents the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. The strain is
computed from ε= δ/L, where d is the elongation between the gage marks and L is the
original gage length. These results, which are based on the original area and the original
gage length, are referred to as nominal stress and nominal strain.
Plotting axial stress versus axial strain results in a stress-strain diagram. If the test is
carried out properly, the stress-strain diagram (shown below) for a given material is
independent of the dimensions of the test specimen.

From the stress-strain diagram of steel shown above, its mechanical properties can be
determined.
Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law
- stress is proportional to strain
𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐
E = modulus of elasticity

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Elastic Limit
- the stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.
Permanent set – permanent deformation that remains after the
removal of the load.

Yield Point
- the point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost
horizontal.

Ultimate Stress
- the highest stress on the stress-strain diagram.

Rupture Stress
- stress on which failure occurs.

True Rupture Strength – derived by dividing the load with the actual area
of the specimen which is smaller than the original area of the steel due to
necking.

True area during rupture (necking)

Note: The ultimate strength is commonly used as the maximum stress that the
material can carry.

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Working Stress (𝝈𝒘 ) and Factor of Safety (N)
Working Stress – also called the allowable stress is the maximum safe axial
stress used in design.
For structural steel, the yield strength is the basis as the working stress
because of the permanent set consideration. Other materials are usually based on
ultimate strength.

𝝈𝒚𝒑
𝝈𝒘 =
𝑵
𝝈𝒖𝒍𝒕
𝝈𝒘 =
𝑵

Axially Loaded Bars

Axially loaded bars

From the Hooke’s Law of proportionality,
𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐
Substituting;
𝜹
𝜺=
𝑳
The formula becomes;
𝝈𝑳 𝑷𝑳
𝜹= = -------------- strain of the bar is uniform
𝑬 𝑬𝑨
𝑳𝝈
𝜹 = ∫𝟎 𝑬 𝒅𝒙 -------------- strain of the bar is not uniform

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Example 1. A flat bar of rectangular cross section, length L, and constant thickness t is
subjected to tension by forces P (see figure). The width of the bar varies linearly from b1
at the smaller end to b2 at the larger end. Assume that the angle of taper is small.(a)
Derive the following formula for the elongation of the bar: (b) Calculate the elongation,
assuming L =5 ft, t = 1.0 in., P =25,000 kips, b1= 4.0 in., b2= 6.0 in., and E =30x 106 psi.

Example 2. The compound bar containing steel, bronze, and aluminum segments carries
the axial loads shown in the figure. The properties of the segments and the working
stresses are listed in the table.
A (in.2) E (psi) σw (psi)
Steel 0.75 30 x106 20 000
Bronze 1:00 12 x106 18 000
Aluminum 0:50 10 x106 12 000
Determine the maximum allowable value of P if the change in length of the entire bar is
limited to 0.08 in. and the working stresses are not to be exceeded.

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Example 3. The structure in the figure is composed of two rigid bars (AB and CD) and
two vertical rods made of aluminum and steel. All connections are pin joints. Determine
the maximum force P that can be applied to the structure if the vertical displacement of
its point of application is limited to 6 mm. Neglect the weights of the members.

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GENERALIZED HOOKE’S LAW

Transverse deformation (change in diameter) for axially loaded bars (stretched)

Uniaxial Loading

Poisson’s Ratio (ν) – a constant ratio of the transverse strain to the axial
strain.

𝝐𝒚 = 𝝐𝒛 = −𝝊𝝐𝒙
𝝈𝒙
𝝐𝒙 =
𝑬
𝝈𝒙
𝝐𝒚 = 𝝐𝒛 = −𝝊 𝑬

Multi-axial Loading
Bi-axial Loading
𝟏
𝝐𝒙 = (𝝈 − 𝝂𝝈𝒚 )
𝑬 𝒙
𝟏
𝝐𝒚 = 𝑬 (𝝈𝒚 − 𝝂𝝈𝒙 )
𝝂
𝝐𝒛 = − 𝑬 (𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒙 )

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 Tri-axial Loading
𝟏
𝝐𝒙 = 𝑬 (𝝈𝒙 – 𝝂(𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 ) )
𝟏
𝝐𝒚 = 𝑬 (𝝈𝒚 − 𝝂(𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 ) )
𝟏
𝝐𝒛 = 𝑬 (𝝈𝒛 − 𝝂(𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 )

Shear Loading
Shear Strain (𝜸 ) – amount of distortion, always expressed in radian.

𝝉 = 𝑮𝜸

G = modulus of rigidity

𝑬
𝑮= deformation caused by shear stress
𝟐(𝟏+𝝂)

Example 4. The two sheets of soft plastic are bonded to the

central steel strip. Determine the magnitude of the largest
force P that can be safely applied to the steel strip and the
corresponding displacement of the strip. For the plastic,
use 𝝉w = 10 ksi and G =800 ksi. Neglect deformation of
the steel strip.

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Example 5. An initially rectangular element of a material is deformed into the shape
shown in the figure. Find 𝝐 x, 𝝐 y, and 𝜸 for the element.

Example 6. The rectangular block of material of length L and

cross-sectional area A fits snugly between two rigid,
lubricated walls. Derive the expression for the change in
length of the block due to the axial load P.

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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
- the number of unknown forces exceeds the number of independent
equilibrium equations.
- does not imply that the problem cannot be solved; it simply means that the
solution cannot be obtained from the equilibrium equations alone.
Compatibility Equations
- provide additional equations needed to solve the problem.

Procedure for Solving Statically Indeterminate Problems

1. Draw the required FBD and derive EE.
2. Derive CE.
3. Use Hooke’s law to express CE into EE. (deformations to stress or forces)
4. Solve EE and CE for the unknowns.

Example 7. The steel column of circular cross section is attached

to rigid supports at A and C. Find the maximum stress in the column
caused by the 25-kN load.

Example 8. The horizontal bar ABC is supported by

a pin at A and two rods with identical cross-sectional
areas. The rod at B is steel and the rod at C is
aluminum. Neglecting the weight of the bar,
determine the force in each rod when the force P =10
kips is applied. Use Est = 29 x106 psi and Eal = 10
x106 psi.

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Example 9. The horizontal bar ABC is supported by a pin at A and two rods with
identical cross-sectional areas. The rod at B is steel and the rod at C is aluminum.
Neglecting the weight of the bar, determine the force in each rod when the force
P = 10 kips is applied. Use Est = 29 x 106 psi and Eal =10 x106 psi.

THERMAL STRESS
- stress caused by changes in temperature.
Thermal Strain
- strain associated with thermal stress.

𝝐𝑻 = 𝜶(𝚫𝑻)
𝜹𝑻 = 𝝐𝑻 𝑳 = 𝜶(𝚫𝑻)𝑳
𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Example 10.Calculate the increase in stress in each segment of the compound bar if the
temperature is increased by 80˚F. Assume that the supports are unyielding and use the
following data:
A (in.2) E (psi) α (/˚F)
Aluminum 1.5 10 x106 12.8 x10-6
Steel 2.0 29 x106 6.5 x10-6

Example 11. The rigid bar AOB is pinned at O and connected to aluminum and steel
rods. If the bar is horizontal at a given temperature, determine the ratio of the areas of the
two rods so that the bar will be horizontal at any temperature. Neglect the mass of the
bar.

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