MODULE 1: NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

INTRODUCTION

Teaching and learning include a lot of instructional decisions to enhance and increase
student learning, hence, quality of instruction is strongly connected to the structure of information on
which these instructional decisions are made. Therefore, the most important point is the
determination of the way in which good, valid, and reliable information about student learning can
be provided (O'Neil, et al., 2004).

Linn (2003) stated that student learning requires the use of a number of techniques for
measuring achievement. In order for effective teaching to take place in the classroom, teachers
must use different techniques of assessment to correlate with the goals they have set for their
students. If the wrong method of assessment is used, the teacher risks the appropriate
measurement of their students' achievement on the learning goals for the specific unit. Teaching
students in classrooms ensures teachers' professional development and leads them to learn,
construct and find out new knowledge on how best students can be assessed.

Cizek (2001) emphasized that it is necessary to improve the quality of student thinking by
including the learners into assessment process so they become integral part of it. Therefore, the
teacher needs to encourage them to become independent learners who can take responsibility for
their own learning. In this context, learners must be aware of the importance of critical thinking as a
learning practice. The use of formative assessment activities as a tool could achieve this (Downing
and Haladyna, 2006).

This module will introduce you to the different concepts of the nature and purposes of
assessment. The first part will discuss the rationale, definition of terms, classroom assessment
defined, four essential components of implementing classroom assessment, purposes and functions
of assessment, importance of assessment, scope of assessment, principles of assessment, recent
trends in classroom assessment, non-testing, portfolio. The second part will also illustrate the roles
of assessment in making instructional decisions, commonly used assessments in the classroom,
norm- and criterion-referenced interpretation, comparison of norm- and criterion-referenced
assessments, and its nature of measurement
MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

In this module, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the importance of assessment in classroom instruction;
2. differentiate test, measurement, and assessment from evaluation;
3. enumerate the sound principles of assessment in education; and
4. cite examples of norm and criterion-referenced evaluation.

PRE-ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Complete the table below with the desired information.

What I Know about this What I want to know about What do I Learned from this
lesson? this lesson? lesson?
LESSON MAP
CONTENT

ENGAGE ENGAGING ON THE NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Activity No. 1 – DID YOU KNOW?

Instruction: Write your thoughts about the following terms.

1. Student Learning
2. Nature of Assessment
3. Purposes of Assessment

EXPLORE DELVING ON THE NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Activity No. 2 – Read Me!

Instruction: Closely read the text below.

Rationale
Internationally, studies have confirmed teacher quality to be
one of the most important school factors influencing student
achievement (Cuttance, 2001; Darling-Hammond, 2000, 2003;
Darling-Hammond, LaFors & Snyder, 2001; Rowe, 2003). In a similar
vein, assessing and reporting students' performance is found to be an
essential skill (Australia's Ministerial Council on Education, Employment
Training and Youth Affairs [MCEETYA], 2003). In the Philippines, the
Department of Education, in its National Competency Based Teachers
Standards (NCBTS), includes planning, assessing, and reporting as
parts of an important domain.

As presented in Figure 1.1, NCBTS emphasizes the need for a

teacher to be competent in assessing student learning to ensure
quality instruction.

Based on the NCBTS, planning, assessing, and reporting refer to the alignment of assessment and
planning activities. In particular, the domain focuses on (1) the use of assessment data to plan and revise
teaching learning plans, (2) the integration of assessment procedures in the plan and implementation of
teaching-learning activities, and (3) the reporting on the learner's actual achievement and behavior.

Specifically, the set of competencies expected of a would-be-teacher are (1) to develop and use a
variety of appropriate assessment strategies to monitor and evaluate learning, and (2) to regularly monitor
and provide feedback on the learner's understanding of the content.

Definition of Terms

Measurement

Thorndike and Hagen (1986) define measurement as "the process of quantifying observations and/or
descriptions about a quality or attribute of a thing or person." The process of measurement involves three
steps:
 1. Identifying and defining the quality or attribute that is to be measured;

2. Determining a set of operations by which the attribute may be made manifest and perceivable; and

3. Establishing a set of procedures or definitions for translating observations into quantitative

statement of degree or amount.

Methods of Data Collection

Data are generally collected through one or more of the following methods:

1. Paper and pencil. Collection of data through self-reports, interviews, questionnaires, tests or other
instruments.

2. Systematic observation. Researcher looks for specific actions or activities, but is not involved in the
actions being observed.

3. Participant observation. Researcher is actively involved in the process being described and writes
observations at a later time.

4. Clinical Data are collected by specialists in the process of treatment McMillan (1997) stated that
measurement involves using observation, rating scales, or any other non-test device that secures
information in a quantitative form. The term measurement can refer to both the score obtained and
the process used.

Uses of Educational Measurement (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1991),

1. Direct Instructional Decisions. Observing, measuring, and drawing classrooms are ongoing activities in
most classrooms. Teachers not only test students to see what they have learned (diagnosing), but they also
observe the learning process.

2. Instructional Management Decisions. Classification and placement decisions or counseling and guidance
decisions.

3. Entry-Exit Decisions. Tests are used to help educators decide (1) who should enter particular educational
institutions or programs of study (selection decisions) and (2) who has completed the requirements to leave
that program (certification decisions).

4. Program, Administrative, and Policy Decisions. Decisions that affect educational programs, curricula, and
systems.

5. Decisions Associated with Expanding Our Knowledge Base. Testing for educational research.

Measurement is the process of making empirical observations of some attribute, characteristic, or

phenomenon and translating those observations into quantifiable or categorical form according to clearly
specified procedures or rules (Gredler, 1997). Educational measurement, then, refers to the process of
determining a quantitative or qualitative academic attribute of an individual or group of individuals.

Evaluation
Evaluation is a process of summing up the results of measurements or tests, giving them some
meaning based on value judgments (Hopkins and Stanley, 1981); while educational evaluation is the process
of characterizing and appraising some aspect or aspects of an educational process. It is a systematic
determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of
standards.

Through the process of evaluation, teachers can interpret evidence of learning, make judgments, and
give value to the results gathered through assessment in the form of a score or grade for reporting purposes.
If a picture of student achievement is required, evaluation reports are needed. There are two common
purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. Educational institutions
usually require evaluation data:

1. To demonstrate effectiveness; and

2. To provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes.

Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if
they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

An educational evaluation is an assessment of reading, written language, spelling and mathematics

Evaluation is…

1. the means used to determine the worth or value of a training program.

2. the process of improving a training process or deciding whether or not to continue it.

3. the process of delineating, collecting, and providing information useful for judging training decision
alternatives.

Evaluation involves making judgments about the correctness of the strategy (including means
adopted) and particularly about the outcomes or specific benefits that the strategy delivers. "Worth" is more
than just monetary worth, it answers the questions of:

"Is training achieving the results that it was set up to achieve?"

"Are the actual results worth having?"

"Were the results achieved by the most cost-effective methods?" (Pershing, 2001).

In assessment of student learning, the following are important:

1. Feedback provides quality control over the design and delivery of activities. Some important
"evaluation for feedback" questions include:
a. Are the objectives met?
b. Were pertinent topics and learning events covered?
c. Is there evidence of before and after learning?
d. Is there evidence of transfer of learning back to the workplace?
e. Do we know for whom the program was most and least beneficial?
f. What is good and what is not so good assessment of student learning?

2. Control relates training policy and practice to organizational goals (productivity, cost-benefit
analysis). Some important "evaluation for control" questions include:
a. What is the value of the training to the organization?
b. Are measures of worth compared to measures of cost?
 c. Was consideration given to different combinations of interventions for tackling the problem
(were options besides training considered)?

3. Research is to add to knowledge of training principles to improve techniques. Some important

"evaluation for research questions include:

a. Internal validity: To what extent can particular conclusions justly be drawn from the data
collected?

b. External validity: To what extent can information gained from a training program be
applicable generally to other situations?

4. Intervention is the process of using evaluation to affect the way the program being evaluated is
viewed, and subsequently using this to redefine the sharing of learning between trainers, trainees,
and employing managers. Some important "evaluation for intervention" questions include:

a. Are line managers involved in pre/post training activities?

b. Is management an extension of training?

c. Are changes made in the work environment to support use of new skills learned during
training?

d. Does training cause the training department to continually rethink and adjust deployment
of trainers to functions that strengthen the role of training?

5. Power is to use evaluation information for a political agenda. Some important "evaluation for
power" questions include:

a. Is evidence gathered and used via evaluation based upon sound evidence?

b. Is it presented fairly and ethically?

c. Is it reported to appropriate stakeholders?

Assessment

Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational programs
undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning and development. Assessment is a formative
process that focuses on student learning. Assessment involves.

1. Setting explicit student learning goals or outcomes for an academic program;

2. Evaluating the extent to which students are reaching those goals; and

3. Using the information for program development and improvement.

The purpose of assessment is to understand how educational programs are working and to determine
whether they are contributing to student growth and development. In most schools, assessment is
considered an important tool that facilitates discussion about academic and student programs and provides
useful information to guide continuous program improvement (Quellmalz, 1991). Oosterhof (2001) defined
assessment as "a related series of measures used to determine complex attribute of an individual or group of
individuals. Assessment is the process of observing and measuring learning. It provides the teachers with a
better understanding of what students are learning and engage students more deeply in the process of
learning.

By using assessment strategies that draw students into the assessment process it is more likely that
they will leam more of the content that the teachers want them to learn as well as get the added benefits of
the learning skills that will be useful to them in the future.

Assessment must be:

1. Fair, balanced, and grounded in the art and science of learning and teaching

2. Reflective of curricular and developmental goals and representative of the content that students
have had an opportunity to learn;

3. Used to inform and improve instruction;

4. Designed to accommodate students with special needs; and

5. Valid, reliable, and supported by professional, scientific, and ethical standards designed to fairly
assess the unique and diverse abilities and knowledge-base of all students.

The following are the six assessment and grading practices for effective learning (Gronlund, 1985):

1. Show criteria and models in advance Rubrics and multiple models showing both strong and weak
points help learners judge their own performances.

2. Assess before teaching

3. Offer appropriate choices. While keeping goals in mind, options judiciously offered enable students’
different opportunities for best demonstrating their learning.

4. Provide feedback early and often. Learners will benefit from opportunities to act on the feedback-to
refine, revise, practice, and retry.

5. Encourage self-assessment and goal setting.

6. Allow new evidence of achievement to replace old evidence.

Use summative assessments to frame meaningful performance goals. To avoid the danger of viewing
the standards and benchmarks as inert content to cover, educators should frame the standards and
benchmarks in terms of desired performances and ensure that the performances are as authentic as
possible. Present those tasks at the beginning of a new unit.

In the field of testing, the terms test, measurement, assessment, and evaluation are often used
interchangeably. Identifying the nuances in their meaning may aid test developers and test users to design
and construct effective tests and use the results appropriately.

Table 1.1 COMPARATIVE MATRIX ON THE FOUR MOST COMMONLY USED TERMS IN TESTING
TEST MEASUREMENT ASSESSMENT EVALUATION
● A set of items ● Establishes the ● Any of the variety of ● Involves a broader process
or questions characteristics of procedures used to that includes examining
measuring a sample individuals or groups obtain information about several components of a
behavior or tasks of individuals student performance whole and making
from a specific through the (Linn & Gronlund, 2000) instructional decisions
domain of assignment of ● Systematic, continuous (Gredler, 1996)
knowledge or skill; numerals according process of monitoring the ● The process of delineating,
designed to be to rules that give various pieces of learning obtaining and providing
presented to one or these numerals to evaluate student useful information for
more examinees quantitative meaning achievement and judging decision alternatives
under specific (ASEAN Seminar instructional effectiveness (Popham, 1993)
conditions, with Workshop on Test (Hewitt-Gervais & Baylen, ● The process of summing up
definite boundaries Item Writing/ 1998) the results of measurements
and limits (UP Open Construction and ● Answers the questions or tests and giving them
University). Development, 1998) "how much of a given some meaning based on
● Consists of ● A process of skill does a student value judgments (Hopkins &
questions, exercises obtaining a possesses before, during Stanley, 1981)
or other devices to numerical and after instruction" and ● A holistic way of looking at
measure the description of the "how much change has the effectiveness of the
outcomes of degree to which an occurred" learning process by
learning. individual possesses considering both the learner
a particular and the learning product and
characteristic applying quantitative and
qualitative judgments.

Whenever a teacher engages in instruction, he/she must always keep in mind the complete cycle of
evaluation. He/She should remember that the ultimate purpose of any educational endeavor is to improve
instruction to further motivate learners in exceeding their past performance. As such, the four concepts are
interrelated. This can be further seen in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 THE GENERAL PROCEDURES IN THE EVALUATION PROCESS (Linn & Gronlund, 2000;
Measurement and Evaluation in the Secondary Schools, 1990; Popham, 1993).

Classroom Assessment Defined

 Classroom assessment can be defined as the collection, interpretation, and use of information to help
teachers make better decisions. Thus, assessment is more than testing and measurement (McMillan, 1997).

Four Essential Components of Implementing Classroom Assessment

There are four essential components of implementing classroom assessment. These are purpose,
measurement, evaluation, and use. Regardless if assessment has already been done before, during, or after
instruction, clarifying the specific purpose of gathering information is still needed. Why is the assessment
being done?

Possible reasons of doing assessment are (1) to monitor student learning measure what students
have and have not learned and grade them; (2) to provide feedback of students' performance, and (3) to
motivate the students by giving them positive reinforcement.

Measurement, as defined in Table 1.1, is a systematic process of obtaining a numerical description of

the degree to which an individual possesses a particular characteristic. Also, measurement is the process by
which attributes, traits, behavior, or characteristics are determined and differentiated

A variety of techniques such as tests, ratings, observations and interviews can be used to measure a
defined trait or learning target.

After gathering information through varied techniques, value judgment on said information needs to
be given. This process is called evaluation. Evaluation involves the interpretation of what has been gathered
through measurement, in which value judgments are made regarding performance.

The final stage of implementing assessment is the use of the evaluation. The use of test scores and
other information is closely tied to the decisions one must make to provide effective instruction, and to the
needs of students and parents.

Purposes and Functions of Assessment

There are four purposes of assessment according to Wyatt (1988). These are:
1. to inform the teacher about a student's progress; to inform the students about their progress,
2. to inform others about the students' progress (parents and future teachers); and
3. to provide information for the public.

These purposes can be summed up into three: assessment for learning. assessment of learning, and
assessment as learning (Earl, 2005).

In assessment for learning, teachers use the students' prior knowledge as a starting point of
instruction. The results of assessment are communicated clearly and immediately to the students to
determine effective ways to teach and learn.

Assessment of learning or summative assessment is done after instruction. It is used to identify what
students know and can do and the level of their proficiency or competency. Its results reveal whether or not
instruction have successfully achieved the desired curriculum outcome. The information from assessment of
learning is usually expressed as grades and is made known to the students, parents, and other stakeholders
for better decision making.
Assessment as learning is done for teachers to understand and perform well their role of assessing
for and of learning. It requires teachers to undergo training on how to assess learning and be equipped with
the competencies needed in performing their work as assessors. To assess for and of learning, teachers
should have the needed skills in assessment. This could be made possible through the different forms of
capacity building.
The purposes of assessment lead to development and improvement, and accountability and
confidence. In this context of assessment and accountability, Eisner (1993) listed five functions of
assessment.
● Temperature-taking function: describes the educational health of the country rather than individual
students or systems.
● Gate-keeping function: directs students along certain paths of based on the view that the school has
a social selection function.
● Feedback-to-teachers function: provides information to teachers about the quality of their work.
● Objectives-achievement function: determines whether the course objectives have been achieved.
● Appraisal-of-program function: provides an indication of the quality of the program.

Beyond the relationship of assessment and accountability, assessment serves valuable functions for
students in the classroom.
● It concentrates attention on specific aspects of a subject.
● It provides necessary feedback.
● It redirects attention to particular areas to increase mastery.
● It necessitates the consolidation of learning/practice of skills.
● It facilitates the student's self-assessment of his/her progress.

The Functions of Assessment

1. Formative assessment provides diagnostic feedback to students and instructors at short-term
intervals (e.g., during a class or on a weekly basis).

2. Summative assessment provides a description of students' level of attainment upon completion of

an activity, module, or course.

3. Evaluative assessment provides instructors with curricular feedback (e.g.. the value of a field trip or
oral presentation technique).

High-quality assessment must rest on strong educational foundations. These foundations include
organizing schools to meet the learning needs of their students, understanding how students learn,
establishing high standards for student learning, and providing equitable and adequate opportunity to learn.
Assessment plays a positive role in improving education for all students (Ascher, 1990).

Importance of Assessment

Assessment serves specific purposes. The results of assessment are generally used to:

1. provide essential guide for planning, implementing, and improving instructional programs and
techniques:
2. monitor student progress;
3. promote learning by providing positive information like knowledge of results, knowledge of tasks
well done, good grades and praises:
4. measure the outcomes of instruction; and 5. provide the parents with information on how well
their children are doing in school.

Scope of Assessment
 The chief purpose of assessment is the improvement of the student. Specifically, it assesses the
learning outcomes of instruction which are:
1. cognitive behaviors (knowledge and information gained, intellectual abilities);
2 affective behaviors (attitudes, interests, appreciation, and values); and
3. psychomotor behaviors (perceptual and motor skills and abilities in performing tasks).

Principles of Assessment

Assessment is an integrated process for determining the nature and extent of student learning and
development. This process will be most effective when the following principles are taken into consideration
(Gronlund, 1995):

1. Specifying clearly what is to be assessed is prioritized in an assessment. The effectiveness of an

assessment depends as much on a careful description of what needs to be assessed as it does on the
technical qualities of the assessment procedure that was used. Thus, the specification of the
characteristics to be measured should precede the selection or development of assessment
procedures.

2. An assessment procedure should be selected because of its relevance to the characteristics or

performance to be measured. Assessment procedures are frequently selected on the basis of their
objectivity, accuracy or convenience. These criteria are important; however, they are only secondary
to the major question asked before the assessment, which is whether the chosen procedure is the
most effective method of measuring the learning or development that needs to be assessed.

3. A comprehensive assessment of student achievement and development requires a variety of

procedures. No single type of instrument or procedure can assess the vast array of learning and
development outcomes emphasized in a school program.

4. Proper use of assessment procedures requires an awareness of their limitations for them to be
used more effectively. No test or assessment is composed purely of questions or problems that might
be presented in a comprehensive coverage of the knowledge, skills, and understanding relevant to
the objectives of a course. On the other hand, limitations of assessment procedures do not negate
the value of tests and other types of assessments.

5. Assessment is a means to an end, not an end in itself. The use of assessment procedures implies
that some useful purpose is being served and that the user is clearly aware of this purpose.
Assessment is best viewed as a process of obtaining information on which to base educational
decisions.

Numerous principles for effective assessment have been suggested by the New South Wales (NSW)
Board of Studies, 1996; NSW Department of School Education, 1996: Brady, 1995; Eisner, 1993; Broadfoot,
1991; and Griffin and Nix, 1991. The following is a selection of those principles considered by the authors to
have the most value:

1. Assessments should be a continuous and an integral part of teaching and learning. Continuous
assessment is necessary to provide regular feedback to students. This information can also be used
to modify the purpose of teaching.

2. Assessments should be varied to give students multiple opportunities to demonstrate what they
know. The strategies should be as diverse as the scope of outcomes, and provisions should be made
to assess more than a solo performance.
 3. Assessments should be valid. They should accurately assess what they are designed to assess.
Problems of invalidity usually arise when assessment is based on imprecise statements of educational
intent.

4. Assessments should engage the learner. An effective assessment involves a democratic relationship
between the teacher and the student. It should enhance the students' abilities of being self-critical
and taking responsibility for their own learning.

5. Assessments should be diagnostic. The strategies used to assess students should indicate not only
the result but also the processes that resulted in an acceptable performance. Thus, the assessment
should show the students' needs, strengths, and weaknesses.

6. Assessments should value teacher judgment. Teacher judgment based on well-defined outcomes
and classroom experiences is a rich form of student assessment that should not be considered
secondary to formal testing.

7. Assessments should be situated. The strategies used to assess students should be reflections of
what they might encounter in the outside world.

8. Assessments should require students to display sensitivity to the "wholes" rather than to discrete
elements. Methods of assessment should allow the students to see the larger picture rather than a
series of small, finite steps.

9. Assessments should have the same meaning for all teachers, parents, and students. Teachers need
to compare their interpretation of student performance, and the assessment information should be
communicated in such a way that it is understood by all stakeholders.

Reganit, Reyes, and Marquez (2004) listed the following principles for effective classroom assessment:

1. Assessment must be based on a previously accepted set of objectives. Assessment takes place only
in relation to the objectives that have been previously set up.

2. Assessment should be a continuous, cumulative process and must be operative throughout the
entire teaching and learning process.

3. Assessment must recognize that the total individual personality is involved in learning.

4. The assessment process should encourage and give opportunity to the student to become
increasingly independent in self-appraisal and self-direction.

5. Assessment must be done cooperatively.

6. Assessment is positive in nature and promotes action. It includes planning for improvement and
overcoming weaknesses.

7. Assessment is governed by true democratic principles.

8. Assessment should include all significant evidences from every possible source.
 9. A comprehensive record of the evidences gathered in the process of assessment is necessary to
assure an intelligent interpretation of the data.

10. Assessment should take into consideration the nature of the opportunities and limitations of the
educational experiences provided by the school.

Criteria for Describing Assessments

When describing assessments, the distinction is often made between proficiency tests, intended for
administrative purposes, and achievement tests, intended for assess ment of instructional results (Cohen,
1994). Administrative, instructional, and research purposes are:

General Purposes Specific Reason for the Assessment

Administrative general assessment, placement, exemption, certification, promotion

Instructional diagnosis, evidence of progress, feedback to the respondent, evaluation

of teaching or curriculum

Research evaluation, experimentation, knowledge of language learning and

language use

Alternative Assessment (Chase, 1999)

Alternative assessment is any type of assessment in which students create a response to a

question or task (In traditional assessments, students choose a response from a given list, such as
multiple-choice, true or false, or matching) Alternative. assessments can include:

1. short-answer questions,

2. says,

3. performance assessment;

4. oral presentations:

5. demonstrations, exhibitions, and

6. portfolios

Performance assessment is the direct, systematic observation of an actual student performance

and the rating of that performance according to previously established performance criteria. In this type of
assessment, students are asked to perform a complex performance task or to create a product

They are assessed, both the process and the end result of their work. Performance assessments may
be used for individuals or groups They often include real-life tasks that call for higher-order thinking skills.

A performance task is a goal-directed assessment exercise. It consists of an activity or assignment

that is completed by the student and then judged by the teacher or other evaluator on the basis of specific
performance criteria.
 An exhibition is a public performance during which a student showcases learning and competence in
particular area(s). Exhibitions typically are judged by a trained panel of adults and peers (eg, teachers,
parents, community members, employers, students).

Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment

Recent trends in classroom assessment have emerged. Heavy objective testing at the end of an
instruction is being replaced by alternative assessments that may be done during the teaching process.
Alternative assessments include authentic assessment, performance-based assessment, portfolios,
exhibitions, demonstrations, journals, and other forms of assessment that allow students to construct their
original responses.
These recent trends of classroom assessment are summarized in Table 1.2 (McMillan, 1998).

Table 1.2 TRENDS OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

From To
1. Sole emphasis on outcomes 1. Assessment of processes
2. Isolated skills 2. Integrated skills
3. Isolated facts 3. Application of knowledge
4. Paper-and-pencil tasks 4. Authentic tasks
5. Decontextualized tasks 5. Contextualized tasks
6. A single correct answer 6. Several correct answers
7. Secret standards 7. Public standards
8. Secret criteria 8. Public criteria
9. Individuals 9. Groups
10. After instruction 10. During instruction
11. Little feedback 11. Considerable feedback
12. Objective tests 12. Performance-based tests
13. Standardized tests 13. Informal tests
14. External evaluation 14. Students' self-evaluation
15. Single assessment 15. Multiple assessments
16. Sporadic 16. Continual
17. Conclusive 17. Recursive

Non-testing is an alternative assessment in the sense that it diverts from the paper-and-pen test.
There are two major non-testing techniques: performance-based assessment and portfolio assessment.

A performance-based assessment is a method to measure skill and product learning targets, as well
as knowledge and reasoning targets. In contrast to paper-and-pen tests, a performance-based assessment
requires students to construct an original response to a task scored through teacher judgment Students
provide explanations, and so there is no single correct answer. Authentic assessment involves a
performance-based task that approximates what students are likely to do in a real-world setting. It integrates
instruction with an evaluation of student achievement and is based on the constructivist learning theory. Like
the performance-based assessment, it is most frequently used with reasoning, skill, and product learning
targets. The scoring criteria are the basis for evaluating student performances.

Portfolio

A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student's efforts, progress, and
achievements in one or more areas of the curriculum. The collection must include the following:
 1. student participation in the selection of contents;

2. criteria for selection:

3. criteria for judging merits; and 4. evidence of a student's self-reflection.

Portfolios should represent a collection of student's best work or best efforts, student-selected
samples of work experiences related to outcomes being assessed, and documents showing the growth and
development of mastering identified outcomes (Paulson & Meyer, 1991).

Portfolios, in classrooms today, are derived from the visual and performing arts tradition in which they
serve to showcase artists' accomplishments and personally favored works. It may be a folder containing a
student's evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of his/her works. It may also contain one or more
works-in-progress that illustrate the creation of a product, such as an essay evolving through various stages
of conception, drafting, and revision.

Purposes of Using a Portfolio

Portfolios can enhance the assessment process by revealing a range of skills and understanding of
students; supporting instructional goals; reflecting change and growth over a period of time; encouraging
student, teacher, and parent reflection; and providing for continuity in education from one year to the next.
Instructors can use portfolios for specific purposes, including:

1. encouraging self-directed learning;

2. giving a comprehensive view of what has been learned;

3. fostering learning about learning;

4. demonstrating progress toward identified outcomes;

5. creating an intersection for instruction and assessment,

6. providing a way for students to value themselves as learners; and

7. offering opportunities for peer-supported growth.

Recent changes in education policies, which emphasize greater teacher involvement in designing
curriculum and assessing students. have been an impetus to increased portfolio use. Portfolios are valued as
an assessment tool because, as representations of classroom-based performance, they can be fully
integrated into the curriculum, and unlike separate tests, they supplement rather than take time away from
instruction. Moreover, many teachers, educators, and researchers believe that portfolio assessments are
more effective than "old style" tests for measuring academic skills and informing instructional decisions.

Characteristics of an Effective Portfolio

According to George (1995), portfolio assessment is a multi-faceted process characterized by the

following recurrent qualities:
 1. It is continuous and ongoing, providing both formative (ongoing) and summative (culminating)
opportunities for monitoring students' progress toward achieving essential outcomes.

2. It is multidimensional as it reflects a wide variety of artifacts and processes various aspects of the
students learning

3. It provides for collaborative reflection, including ways for students to think about their own
thinking processes and metacognitive introspection as they monitor their own comprehension, reflect upon
their problem-solving and decision-making approaches, and observe their emerging understanding of
subjects and skills.

Although approaches to portfolio development may vary, all the major researches and literature on
portfolios reinforce the following characteristics:

1. They clearly reflect stated learner outcomes identified in the core or essential curriculum that
students are expected to study.

2. They focus the students’ performance-based learning experiences, as well as their acquisition of
key knowledge, skills. and attitudes.

3. They contain samples of work that stretch over an entire marking period, rather than single points
in time.

4. They contain works that represent a variety of different assessment tools.

5. They contain a variety of work samples and its evaluations by the student, peers and teachers,
even reactions from parents.

Incorporating Portfolio Assessment (Gronlund, 2003)

An assessment portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work designed to showcase a student's

progress toward, and achievement of, course-specific learning objectives. Portfolios are considered authentic
assessment as they provide evidence of what a student can actually do. Typically, a portfolio includes
evidence of learning selected by the student, self-reflections on the learning process, and criteria for
selecting portfolio entries.

Portfolios have the advantage over traditional assessments and tests in that they allow instructors to
monitor the growth and development of student understanding. In addition, they encourage students' active
participation in the assessment process as students' self-assessments and reflections are documented as part
of the portfolio. With the emphasis on student involvement, a portfolio is a collaborative process between the
student and instructor.

Advantages of Using Portfolio in Assessment

1. Provides structure for involving students in developing standards for quality performance

2 Improves students metacognitive ability to understand their own learning processes les

3. Promotes integration of various learning activities and assessments.

 4. Enhances awareness of strategies for thinking and producing work Promotes an integrated
assessment process

6. Allows assessment of process and progress.

7. Documents time, effort, and improvement in student understanding.

8. Creates documentation to submit to authentic audiences and/or reviewers.

9. Increases student accountability for their own learning.

10. Promotes assessment of a wider range of learning styles 11. Encourages students' active
involvement in the assessment process.

12. Enhances motivation due to the visibility of the final portfolio.

13. Promotes self-assessment.

14. Encourages the effective use of formative assessment.

15. Promotes creativity, individuality, and uniqueness in the assessment of learning.

16. Shifts instructors focus from comparative ranking to improving understanding via feedback.

17. Promotes authentic assessment of valued knowledge and skills.

Disadvantages of Using Portfolio in Assessment

1. Require additional time for planning instructional activities.

2. Demands considerable time for assessment.

3. Time-intensive for instructors to implement since students lack familiarity with portfolios.

4. Requires considerable storage space to maintain portfolios.

5. May require special equipment.

6. Often does not meet requirements for state or national standards.

7. Subjective nature of grading may be less reliable.

8. May have limited acceptance by parents or administrators.

9. Does not provide standardized numerical scores that are often needed for institutional reports or
accreditation.

10. Students may need traditional scores or evidence of learning for admission criteria, job
placement, or similar events.
 11. Development of grading rubrics or criteria takes a considerable amount of time.

12. Performance data from portfolios is difficult to analyze or aggregate.

Thus, portfolios are particularly effective for examining the integration of knowledge, enlarging the
scope of understanding, and fostering metacognitive reflection. In contrast to assessments that provide a
snapshot of student understanding at a single point in time, portfolio assessment provides a reliable, valid
source of information concerning students’ ability to master course-specific learning objectives.

What are the Different Types of Portfolios?

There are many different types of portfolios, each of which can serve one or more specific purposes
as part of an overall school or classroom assessment program. The following is a list of the types of portfolios
most often cited in literature:

1. Documentation Portfolio

Also known as the working portfolio, this type involves a collection of work done over time showing
growth and improvement on the students' learning of identified outcomes The documentation portfolio can
include everything, from brainstorming activities to drafts to finished products. The collection becomes
meaningful when specific items are chosen to focus on particular educational experiences or goals. It can
include the best and the weakest of the student's works.

2. Process Portfolio

This type documents all facets of the learning process. The process portfolio is particularly useful in
documenting the students' overall learning process. It can show how students integrate specific knowledge
or skills and progress toward both basic and advanced mastery. In addition, the process portfolio emphasizes
the students' reflection of their learning process, including the use of reflective journals, think logs, and
related forms of metacognitive processing.

3. Showcase Portfolio

This type of portfolio is best used for a summative evaluation of the students' mastery of key
curriculum outcomes. It should contain the students' best works, determined through a combination of
student and teacher selection. Only completed work should be included. It should also consist of the
students' written analyses and reflections on the decision-making process(es) used to determine which works
should be included. The showcase portfolio is especially compatible with audio visual artifact development,
such as photographs, videotapes, and electronic records of the students completed work.

Stages of Portfolio Development

1. Planning. Initially, instructors need to determine the function, type and design of the portfolio. During the
planning stage, instructors communicate to the students the purpose of the portfolio and the assessment
criteria.

2. Collection. In the collection stage, students are responsible for assembling meaningful artifacts that
reflect their own educational progress. While it is not possible for students to collect and/or document. All
their course work, collection can be facilitating by remembering the purpose of the portfolio, students'
personal goals, content of the course, and evaluation criteria.
3. Selection. The selection stage is a decision-making process in which collected artifacts are sorted and
selected for inclusion in the portfolio. The purpose of the assessment and the kind of portfolio being
developed guide selection decisions. While students are typically responsible for selecting their own work,
instructor or peer reviewers may assist them. The selection process is facilitating by ensuring that course
requirements produce a wide variety of learning artifacts.

4. Reflection. The reflection stage is often considered the most important step in portfolio development, the
metacognitive process of students reflecting on their own learning differentiates a portfolio from a simple
collection. During the reflection process, students justify their selections, highlight important learning gains,
explain relevant skills and knowledge, and identify areas for improvement. To be most effective, students
should be responsible for their own reflections Reflections may be communicated via learning logs journals,
or documented discussions.

5. Connection. In the connection stage, students expand on their reflections to connect acquired
knowledge and skills with course goals and learning objectives. The purpose of the connection stage is to
gain an understanding of the value of learning within the broader curriculum and the real world. A key
aspect of portfolio assessment is the presentation of portfolios to outside reviewers. This type of external
evaluation promotes the integration of classroom-based knowledge with valuable life skills

Elements of a Portfolio

The following components are viewed as central to most portfolio assessments

1. Personal Statement (or Cover Letter). The personal statement should include one or two paragraphs
highlighting relevant personal goals and experiences of the student in relationship to the goals and purposes
of the portfolio. The personal statement should also summarize evidence of a students’ learning and progress
in understanding.

2. Table of Contents. To ensure the portfolio is functional and readable, include a table of contents with
numbered pages

3. Entries. The type and purpose of the portfolio will provide guidance in determining the entries to be
included. Core or required entries should be selected based on portfolio guidelines and assessment criteria
Core items provide a common base for the comparison of various portfolios.

If appropriate optional entries may also be included to highlight students’ uniqueness and creativity.
Since selection is a key factor in the development of a portfolio, optional entries should only be included if
portfolio guidelines specifically request them. Each entry should include dates and related feedback.

4. Reflections. These may either appear with each entry or following all entries. Depending on the type of
portfolio, reflections can highlight students’ thoughts in relation to their own learning, identify
strengths/weaknesses, examine progress, provide self-assessment, or explain a rationale for including each
entry.

Characteristics of an Effective Portfolio (McMillan, 1997)

1. Effective portfolios are continuous and ongoing providing and summative opportunities for monitoring
student’s progress toward both formative and summative opportunities for monitoring students’ progress
toward achieving learning objectives. Quality portfolios will highlight growth and development over time. In
addition, portfolios should reflect the interactive nature of learning that occurs through feedback and
revision.

2. Portfolios should be multidimensional and reflect a wide variety of artifacts. The range of entries should
highlight various learning processes, skills, and abilities. Essentially, a good portfolio will provide a
comprehensive profile of the students' abilities.

3. Reflections are an essential part of an effective portfolio. Quality reflec tions include insight on individual
thinking processes, metacognitive introspection, thoughts on problem-solving decision-making skills, and
observations on intellectual strengths and weaknesses.

4. Portfolios should clearly reflect learning objectives as identified in the course curriculum. In addition,
portfolios should provide a match between instructional activities, student experiences, and assessment.

5. Effective portfolios provide evidence of performance-based learning experiences as well as students'

understanding of course-specific knowledge and skills.

6. Portfolios are a targeted selection of student work; avoid haphazard collections without purpose, rationale,
or justification. The selection process is as important as the quality of the selected entries.

7. Quality portfolios must contain an element of self-assessment. By reflecting on their own learning
experiences, students can identify their personal strengths and weaknesses. The self-assessment process can
be used as a basis for forming personal improvement goals.

8. Evaluation criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio contents, as well as the overall portfolio goal,
must be clear to both the instructor and students prior to developing the portfolio.

9. Portfolios should highlight the depth of a student's knowledge and skills. In contrast to a traditional test,
portfolios showcase the quality of work that can be accomplished with adequate resources, and without
pressure or time constraints.

10. While portfolios should be structured to ensure they meet the goals and purposes of the assessment, it is
important to allow a degree of freedom for students to express their own individuality and personal
strengths.

Tips for Utilizing Porfolios as a Means of Classroom Assessment

1. While instructors provide the portfolio guidelines and requirements, the student should complete the bulk
of portfolio development. Essentially, portfolio development is a collaborative process with instructors serving
as consultants or mentors to assist students in selecting and assembling their portfolio.

2. Items for inclusion in the portfolio are limited only by the creativity and ingenuity of the student. Possible
portfolio entries may include examples of written work, journals, learning logs, standardized tests, videotapes
of student performances or presentations, audiotapes of student presentations, cognitive maps, group
reports, quizzes, charts, graphs, readings list, peer review, artwork, instructor feedback, self-evaluations,
among others.

3. The reiterative nature of portfolio development can be facilitated through peer-reviews, self-assessment,
or instructor-student dialogues. Feedback is essential to the development of a quality portfolio.
4. Encourage students to actively reflect on their own work by providing structured guidelines for
self-evaluation. Once students are comfortable with the process of reflecting on their own learning, they can
be given more freedom in the form of self-assessments.

5. Keep portfolios in a location that is easily accessible to both instructor and students. Recent advances in
technology are allowing the efficient use of electronic portfolios that can be accessed via the Internet.

6. Since most students are not familiar with portfolio assessment, provide clear guidelines as well as ongoing
assistance in portfolio development. Be prepared to modify portfolio requirements to match the demands of
both learning objectives and student preferences.

Portfolio Checklist
Yes No Do portfolio requirements reflect learning objectives and instructional strategies?
Are portfolio entries selected by the student?
Does the portfolio include student reflections and self-assessment?
Is a range of student work represented in the portfolio?
Does the portfolio document the process of learning over time?
Is the portfolio organized and structured to meet learning objectives?
Do portfolio requirements allow for some freedom in students' selection of learning evidence?

Polakowska (1993) describes the three portfolio management techniques she uses concurrently for
instruction and individualized assessment:

1. Teacher-directed-timed centers through which small groups of students rotate for equal amounts of
time.

2. Child-directed-timed centers that children choose for the allotted time.

3. Child-selected-timed centers that include some "must do" tasks. Using such techniques, a teacher is
able to engage in one-to-one assessment conferences or instructional conversations and collect products for
assessment purposes.

Relationship Between Instruction and Assessment

According to Gronlund (1998), in preparing for any type of instructional program, the teacher's main concern
is how to effectively bring about student learning. Hence, there is a need to that learning outcomes be
specified to be achieved by students.

Instruction is most effective when:

1. Directed toward a clearly defined set of intended learning outcomes.

2 The methods and materials of instruction are congruent with the outcomes to be achieved.

3. The instruction is designed to fit the characteristics and needs of the students.

4. Instructional decisions are based on information that is meaningful, dependable, and relevant.
5. Students are periodically informed concerning their learning progress.

6. Remediation is provided for students not achieving the intended learning.

7. Instructional effectiveness is periodically reviewed and the intended learning outcomes and instruction are
modified as needed.

Assessment is most effective when:

1. Designed to assess a clearly defined set of intended learning outcomes.

2. The nature and function of the assessments are congruent with the outcomes to be tested.

3. The assessments are designed to fit the relevant student characteristics and are fair to everyone.

4. Assessments provide information that is meaningful, dependable, and relevant.

5. Provision is made for giving the students early feedback of assessment results.

6. Specific learning weaknesses are revealed by the assessment results.

7. Assessment results provide information useful for evaluating the appropriateness of the objectives, the
methods, and the materials of instruction.

Matching Items to Specific Learning Outcomes (Gronlund, 1998)

Specific Learning Outcome: Define terms in student's own words.

Directions: Define each of the following in a sentence or two.

1. Cognitive 3. Measurement

2. Evaluation 4. Taxonomy

Specific Learning Outcome: Identify the hierarchical order of the categories in the cognitive domain of
the taxonomy.

Example:
1. Which of the following categories in the taxonomy indicates the highest level of learning?

a. Analysis c. Application

b. Comprehension d. Synthesis
Roles of Assessment in Making Instructional Decisions

Tests and other evaluative procedures can be classified in terms of their functional roles in classroom
instruction. One such classification system follows the sequence in which assessment procedures are likely to
be used in the classroom. These categories classify the assessment of the students' performance in the
following manner:
1. Placement Assessment

This is used to determine the students' entry behavior and performance at the beginning of the
instruction. The goal of placement evaluation is to determine the position in the instructional sequence and
the mode of evaluation that is most beneficial for each student.

2. Formative Assessment

This category determines the learning progress of the students. It is the gathering of data during the
time a program is being developed for the purpose of guiding the progress. It is likewise used to monitor the
learning progress during instruction, as well as provide continuous feedback to both the students and the
teacher concerning learning success and failure.

3. Diagnostic Assessment

This is used to diagnose the students’ learning difficulties during instruction. It is concerned with
recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective prescriptions of the formative
evaluation.

4. Summative Assessment

This category is used to determine mastery and achievement at the end of the course. It is the
process of making an overall assessment or decision about the program. It is designed to determine the
extent to which the instructional objectives have been achieved and is used primarily for assigning course
grades or certifying student mastery of the intended learning outcome.

Commonly Used Assessments in the Classroom

The two commonly used assessments during instruction are formative and summative assessments.
Table 1.3 differentiates formative assessment from a summative one.

Table 1.3 COMPARISON OF FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS

Formative Assessment Summative Assessment
● Students are given the opportunity to improve ● The outcome of the task can neither be repeated
their performance on the same task. nor improved.
● Students expect feedback on their performance, ● The final grade is released on the assessment task.
enabling them to improve their performance on ● Assessment is done at the end of systematic and
the same task. incremental learning activities that have formative
● Although diagnostic in nature, the students' assessment tasks.
knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses is
categorized as formative.

It is suggested that formative assessment be made compulsory since students might just focus on
getting good grades and forget about their learning progress. Teachers may adopt the useful concept of
scaffolding. Scaffolding makes formative assessment tasks provide bases for a course's teaching and learning
activities, which in turn will ultimately lead to a summative assessment.

Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Interpretation

 The different purposes of assessment also call for different approaches to make the process
comprehensive. In general, there are two approaches useful for instructional purposes: (1) the
norm-referenced and (2) the criterion referenced evaluations. A test score, to be meaningful, should be
related to both norms and criteria.

Norm-referenced assessment is a type of assessment designed to provide a measure of performance

that is interpretable in terms of an individual's standing in some known group. It is the comparison of an
individual's progress with the performance of a specified group. If the score of a student is interpreted by
comparing his/her score to those of other individuals (a norm group), this would be norm-referencing. The
standards used for comparison are rankings and percentages derived from the performance of the class as a
whole. Hence, an individual is judged as below average, average, above average, third from the top, or the
best in class.

The norm-referenced evaluation is used in the following cases:

1. for subject matter that is not cumulative and students do not need to reach some specified level of
competency;

2. for selection purpose if the institution is constrained of enrollment; and

3. for predicting degrees of success.

Criterion-referenced assessment, on the other hand, is a type of assessment designed to provide a

measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of a clearly defined and delimited domain of learning
tasks. It is the comparison of the individual's performance with a particular standard, usually with a mastery
or competency point. This is used in subject areas that demand mastery and are cumulative and
progressively complex. This is also used in subjects that are included in licensure examinations.

To polarize the distinction, it can be said that the focus of a normative score is on how many of a
certain students' peers do not perform as well as he/she does; the focus of a criterion-referenced score is on
what a particular student can do.

Comparison of Norm- and Criterion-Referenced Assessments

Norm- and criterion-referenced assessments require specifications of the achievement domain that
needs to be measured, as well as a relevant, representative sample of test items. Both use the same types of
test items and the same rules for writing, except for item difficulty. Their tests are judged by their validity
and reliability. The differences between the two reference assessments are shown in Table 1.4.

TABLE 1.4 DIFFERENCES OF NORM- AND CRITERION-REFERENCED ASSESSMENTS

Norm-Referenced Assessment Criterion-Referenced Assessment
● Covers a large domain of learning tasks. ●Focuses on a delimited domain of learning tasks
● Emphasizes discrimination among individuals in with a relatively large number of items measuring
terms of relative levels of learning. each task.
● Favors items of average difficulty and usually omits ●Emphasizes descriptions of what learning tasks
easy items. individuals can and cannot perform.
● Used primarily, but not exclusively, for survey ●Matches item difficulty to learning tasks without
testing. altering item difficulty or omitting easy items.
● Interpretation requires a clearly defined group
 ●Used primarily, but not exclusively, for mastery
testing.
●Interpretation requires a clearly defined and
delimited achievement domain.

Nature of Measurement

Often, when teachers are given a set of scores of their students, they have difficulty in determining
the meaning of those scores. If educators are going to use data successfully in decision making, they must
have some knowledge on describing and synthesizing them. Data differ in terms of what properties of the
real number series (order, distance or origin) is attributed to the scores. The most common-though not the
most refined-classifications of scores are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

The nominal scale is the simplest scale of measurement. It involves the assignment of different
numerals into categories that are quantitatively different. The ordinal scale has the order property of a real
number series and gives indication of rank order. Interval scale, on the other hand, can interpret the distance
between scores, and finally, with the ratio scale, the ratio of the scores has meaning because there is a
meaningful zero point.

EXPLAIN EXPLAINING MY THOUGHTS ABOUT THE NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Activity No. 3- Let Me Share!

Instruction: From the concepts presented above, illustrate clearly the interdependence and
interrelationship among instructional objectives, educational experiences, and assessments. You
may share your answers during the online synchronous class schedule.

EXTEND EXTENDING ON THE NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Activity No. 4- Let’s Observe!

Instruction: Observe a teacher and identify if the recent trends in assessment are evident in
his/her classroom.
EVALUATE EVALUATING THE NATURE AND PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

Activity No. 5- Discuss Me!

Instruction: Discuss the implications of having a teacher who has a poor grasp of the assessment
process and its principles.

TOPIC SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that:

● Assessing and reporting students' performance is found to be an essential skill (Australia's
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment Training and Youth Affairs [MCEETYA], 2003).
 In the Philippines, the Department of Education, in its National Competency Based Teachers
Standards (NCBTS), includes planning, assessing, and reporting as parts of an important
domain.
● There are four most commonly used terms in testing. These are: test, measurement,
assessment, and evaluation.
● There are four essential components of implementing classroom assessment. These are
purpose, measurement, evaluation, and use.
● There are purposes of assessment. These are summed up into three: assessment for
learning, assessment of learning, and assessment as learning.
● The chief purpose of assessment is the improvement of the student. Specifically, it assesses
the learning outcomes of instruction which are: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
behaviors.
● A portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts,
progress, and achievements in one or more areas of the curriculum.
● There are many types of a portfolio, most often cited in literature are: documentation
portfolio, process portfolio, and showcase portfolio.
● There are categories in classifying the assessment of the student’s performance. These are:
placement assessment, formative assessment, diagnostic assessment, and summative
assessment.

POST-ASSESSMENT

Instruction: Complete the table below with the desired information.

What I Know about this What I want to know about What do I Learned from this
lesson? this lesson? lesson?

REFERENCES

● Aschet, C (1990). Can performance-based assessments improve urban schooling? ERIC

Digest http://www.eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ ERICServlet?accno-ED327612
● Buendicho, Flordeliza C 2005 Assessment of Student Learning Modules General Santos City:
KEJJO Printers. Chase CL 1999. Contemporary Assessment New York Longman.

● Cizek, G.J. 2001. Standard Setting Concepts, Methods, and Perspectives. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Cohen, AD 1994 Assessing Language Ability in the Classroom: Boston:
Heinle and Heinle

● Cronbach, LJ. 1988. Five Perspectives on the Validity of Argument, In H. Wainer and HI.
Braun (Eds.) Test Validity Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

● Downing S.M. and Haladyna, T. M 2006. Handbook of Testing Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence,
Earlbaum

● Gredler, M.E 1997 Classroom Assessment and Learning. New York Longman. Gronlund, NE
2000 Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company,
Inc.

● Gronlund, Norman E 2003 How to Write and Use Instructional Objectives, 5th ed. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

● Gronlund, Norman E 2003. Assessment of Student Achievement. London: Allyn and Bacon

● Hopkins, H and Stanley, L. 1981. Taking Assessment Matters into Our Own Hands. In M.
Dalheim (Ed), Student Portfolios (NEA Professional Library Teacher-to Teacher Series).
Washington DC: Bookshelf (Editorial Projects in Education).

● Linn, RL 2000 Assessments and Accountability. Educational Researcher, Vol. 2, p. 29.

● Boston: Allyn and Bacon Linn, RL 2003. Performance Standards Utility of Different Uses of
Assessments. Educational Policy and Analysis Archives. Vol. 3, p. 11. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

● McMillan, IH 1997 Classroom Assessment: Using Portfolios to Assess Reasoning, Skills and
Products. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, LJ. 1991 Measurement and
Evaluation in Education and

● Psychology 4 ed. New York. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. O'Neil. T. Serici, S, and Huft, K 2004
Evaluating the Consistency of Test Content Across Educational Assessment. Boston: Kluwer
Academic.

● Oosterhuff, A. 2001 Classroom Application of Educational Measurement. NJ: Prentice Hall

Pershing, 1.A. and Pershing, JL 2001 Ineffective Reaction Evaluation Human Resource
Development Quarterly, Vol. 1. p. 12. New York Teacher College Press. Phye G.D. 1997
Handbook of Classroom Assessment. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.