~~ 2 PHYSICAL METary URGy ——ALLURGy Qu. Define crystal structure of a metal, Ans. A metal is composed of several atoms, which are arran, tra regular repeated three dimensional Pattern. This arrangement “is known as crystal structure, nt Q.2. Define space lattice, Ans. Ina crystal structure, to be points and these a1 called space lattice, » if the centre of atoms are consider re connected, the spa He ice with these Points is Q.3. Define an unit cell. Ans. The sm indefinitely in thre | an unit cell, allest grouping of atoms, whi ich is repeated e dimensions to buil id the space lattice, is called Q.4. What are the main crystal structures ? | | Ans, There are mainly seven erystal structures as follows : Sides Parameters Interaxial axis @ Triclinic — atbec Gi) Monoclinic — aybec (ii) Orthorhombic — azbee | (iv) Hexagonal = — a=bye | ) Rhombohedral — a=b=¢ (i) Tetragonal = — asbee | (vit) Cubie —a=bse NON c of EN ws | ' Q5. Define B.C.C. structure, F e is one Ans. It is body centred cubic structure, in which therE - PHYSICAL METALLURGY atom at each corner and one atom at the body centre of the cube of unit cell of the atom, Example — Sodium, potassium, molybdenum, vandium, tungsten, NO K Vv Ww alpha-iron. mo x, fen .6. Define F.C.C. structure. ‘Ans. It is face centred cubic structure, in which there is one atom at each corner and one atom at the centre of each face of the cube of unit cell. \ Example — Silver, gold, copper, strontium, aluminium, platinum, GV = AL pt lead, gamma-jron, “G AU cu Pb Q7, What is H.C.P, structure? Ans. In H.C.P, structure, there is one atom at each of twelve corner of the hexagonal prism, one atom in the centre of each of the two hexagonal faces and three atoms symmetrically arranged in the body of the unit cell of that atom. Example — Zinc, Cadmium, Magnesium, Cobalt, Antimony, ed mg. 7) $b Bis npith etc, 27 Q.8. What are the number of equivalent atoms in B.C.C., F.C.C. and H.C.P. structure of an unit cell ? Ans. B.C. corner atom. ‘Thus total number of atoms in B.C.C.= @ x8) +1(atom present in centre) =1+1=2atoms ‘ F.C.C. : In this structure, each corner atom is shared by 8 cells, The center atom of each face is shared by two cells. Thus half atom is present in face of each cell. Thus total atoms = (g x 8) + (3 x 6) =1+3 =4 HLC.P.: In this structure Number of total atoms = 3 + G x 2) . (3 x12) =3=1+2 In this structure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells. Thus } thof one atom takes part in the formation ofr METALLURGICAL ENR g | sp. What ls Co-ordination ane acm : | Qe ination number ’S ceded as the numbe Ans. The oa neighbouring atom, which each ator ae in wally sP0% structure. caren crystal st on number of B.C.C., F.C.C. and HGp, tures are a8 af and 12, athe co-ordinatl (with tio Cla = 4.699) struct the axial ratio (Cla) of H.C.P. structure of, different axial ral Q.10. Does metals may Vary A .P, packing, the axial ratio of C/a ig 8 ‘Ans. For ideal HLC. 7 Butit deviates in actual H.C.P, metals and this value varies, tors of atoms in B.C.C,, F. Gap) What are packing fac 4 F.C.0, i anal aD) structures of unit cell ? Ans, Packing factors of B.C.P, = 68% | FCC. = 74% | H.C.P. = 74%, Q.12. Define defect or imperfection in a crystal. | Ans. A crystal is an aggregate of atoms, arranged in an orderly | array in lattice points. The defect or imperfection is defined as any deviation from this arrangement, | Real crystals generally have defect. | Q.18. Define “point defect”, | : Ans. Point defect occurs, when any atom is missing at any | Point, in the lattice of the crystal structure, Q.14. What are different type of imperfections 7 | Ans. The main type of i 4 i 7 ! | surface defect (on De armperfections are point defect, line defect, 15, i ns en different causes of point defects ? 8. Poi eae | defect, impurity aoe a be due to vacancy defect, interstitial | | What is interstitial defect 7 _ Ans. This q, | Point intermediate teen when an atom is trapped at 8 crystal, ‘ween normal lattice positions in theae PHYSICAL METALLURGY 25 ° ° ° ° ont stiat o 0 ° 0 atom ° ° ° O° (Interstitial defect] Q.17. Is dislocation a point defect ? Ans. No, dislocation is a line defect. Q.18. What are positive and negative dislocations ? Ans. In positive dislocation, extra plane is in the upper part of the crystal and dislocation is denoted by symbol 1. In negative dislocation, extra plane is in the lower part of the crystal and the dislocation is denoted by symbol T. Q.19. What is Burger’s vector ? Ans. Burger’s vector is a measure-of magnitude and direction ofa slip. It is equal to the amount of dislocation. An edge dislocation is perpendicular to its Burger's vector (say b) and moves in the direction of burger’s vector (6). A screw dislocation is parallel to its Burger's vector ahd moves perpendicular to the direction of Burger's vector. Q.20. What is twin defect ? Ans. In this defect, the crystal structures to the left and right of the twin plane are mirror image of each other. Q.21. How twin defect is produced ? Ans. There are two main causes of twin formation mechanical twins (i.e. by plastic deformation) and annealing twins (ie. by annealing). Q.22. What is stacking sequence in [III) plane of a F.C.C. structure ? Ans. In F.C.C. structure, the stacking sequence of {111} plane of atoms is given by ABC ABC ABC Q.23. Does the stacking sequence ABC ABC AC ABC represent stacking fault ? : Ans. Yes. ABC sequence is not maintained here. Q.24. What is the effect of deformation on dislocation density? Ans. Dislocation density increases with the severety or increase in degree of deformation. a| 26 METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING @.26) What is the main difference between melting point of a metal and an alloy ? Ang. A pure metal melts at a particular temperature, whereas an alloy melts over a range of temperatures. .26, Define solid solution. Ans. If two metals are completely soluble in liquid and solid state both, then this alloy is called solid solution. Example : Copper-Nickel alloy forms a solid solution: The figure represents a solid solution of metals A and B, ' 8 2 5 & Al 0%A 100% A 100% 8 0% | en. Define substitutional and interstitial solid solution. Ans. Substitutional solid solution :— In this solid solution, the atoms of the solute (added metal) replace the solvent atom- fixe. parent metal) of the lattice. Interstitial solid solution : In this solid solution, the solute nm the position in between the solvent atoms, Q.28. What are the main requirements to form substitutional solid solution ? Ans. The main requirements of solvent and solute atoms form solid solutions should be as follows : () both atoms should have similar crystal lattice (6) both atoms should diffe 15%. (c)_ both atoms should be chemically similar in nature. Q.29. What is the basic requi ti | interstitial solid solutions ? eee eee eee Ans. The size of solute | fit into the spaces between | nitrogen form Fe,C, Fe,N typ r in their atomic sizes by less than atoms should be so small that they can the Parent metal atoms. Say carbon, e solid solutions respectively.We ee: =O C pHYSICAL METALLURGY 27 Q,30 What is superlattice ? Ans. Superlattice is formed when atoms of a solute and solvent have a very orderly arrangement. Both occupy particular positions in the crystal lattice. O Solvent atoms Q.31. What is dendrite structure? *Solute atoms Ans. Solidification of a metal or alloy is nucleation phenomenon, ” Small nuclei are scattered at random in cooling liquid melt. Radial arms are formed to form a fir-tree type structure, which is called dendritic structure. Dendritic structure Define equilibrium diagram of an alloy. Ans. An equilibrium diagram of an alloy is a plot or graph between its composition v/s temperature. Itis also called constitutional or thermal equilibrium diagram. Q.33. What are different types of binary systems? “ Ans. Binary systems may be classified in different categories as follows : (a) Whose components are mutually soluble in both liquid and solid states. (6) Whose components form a mechanical mixture in solid state and completely soluble in liquid state. “ : (c) Whose components are completely soluble in liquid state and form chemical compounds after solidification. Q.34. What are solidus and liquid in an equilibrium diagram? Ans, Solidus is the locus of temperature at which solidification is complete, Below solidus only solids _f are stable. Liquidus is the locus of temperatures, at which solidification starts, Abovetiquidus, only liquids are stable. A ‘Composition —— tauio(u) XMY — Liquidus XNY — SolidusMETALLURGICAL ENGINEERING 28 Ai. What are pearlite and cementite ? ‘Ans. Iron carbide (Fe,C) is called cementite. Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite (alpha iron) and cementite. 36, Dofine austenite and leduburite. ‘Ans. Austenite is solid solution of carbon in gamma-iron, Leduburite is a mixture of austenite and cementite. At 1130°C and 4.3% Carbon, austenite and cementite combine to form eutectic leduburite, $7. Define eutectic and eutectoid reactions. Ans. At eutectic point, two liquids combine to form an eutectic. An eutectic consists of two completely insoluble constituents at room temperature. Liquid, + Liquid, -COMPE> Sotid (eutectic) heating ‘At eutectoid point, “one solid decomposes to two solids as follows: / Cooling, Solid + Solidy eating SO dena In iron-carbon diagram, at 723°C and 0-8% carbon, ferrite and cementite form eutectoid mixture called pearlite. What is peritectic reaction ? Ans. In peritectic reaction, one solid and one liquid phase combine to form solid on cooling, ! Iniron carbon diagram, peritectic reaction takes place at 1490°C as follows : Coolin; 5 (iron) + liquid === Austenite eating __,, Cooling | Solidyy + Tiquid Fe Sally Define peritectoid reaction. , cn in this binary reaction, two solids combine to form another solid. . Cooling Solid, + Solid, ——— Solid, xo ® “heating Hoy Q.40. What is maximum solubility of carbon in iron? Ans. It is 2% at 1130°C.PHYSICAL METALLURGY 29 Ql. Draw.mi lcrosturotures of austenite and any eutectic ? Ans. Austenite contain: 8 only pol: whereas an eutectic microstructere paral grain Oke pure meta, ic in any matrix. oR Eutectic - Matrix Pern ustenite Eutectic What is Lever rule? Ans. With the he), i help of this rule, we can find each phase present in a binary system at any Sse percentages of aA LA 100% A 100% 8 M Say if we want to know the percentage of phases present at point ‘C’ corresponding to any particular composition and temperature, it can be given as follows : % of the solid phase present = 4g x 100 Gp of the liquid phase present = BG x 100 As per lever rule, point X represents 100% liquid phase and point Y represents 100% solid phase.METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING 30 3. What are hypo-eutectoid and hyper-qutectoid steels ? ‘Ans, Steels containin, Hypo-eutectoid and hyper- less than 0-8 and more than Q.44, Explain Widmanstattern struct on are called eutectoid steels. 1g 0-8% carb bon percentages eutectoid steels have cal 0-8 respectively. ure with an example. ‘Ans. Let us consider solidification of plain carbon steel with slow cooling rate. Firstly delta iron is solidified then coarse austenite is solidified. On further cooling this austenite is decomposed into Widmanstatten structure. Here white ferrite appears at the austenite grain boundaries and as Widmanstatten plates with the dark pearlite. Thus when a solid solution decomposes into two phases commonly having similar atomic spacing and pattern, the geometric arrangement is called widmanstattern structure. Q.45. What is ternary equilibrium diagram ? Ans. A ternary equilibrium diagram is a plot of phases present in an alloy havin; three constituents. It is the plot of composition at constant temperature and pressure. From the diagram we can know the composition: of alloy at the point in the figure (say P) > Thus composition of alloy corresponding to point P is * G,QR) . Mention few e: i pe are eens oa of any slag system, which we J Ans. Few systems of sla, ‘ g for stud a0. Mgo. Si0, system, Ca0. ALO, SiO. seston oO. oe - system by ‘ternary diagram.. ? } C20. P,0,, SiO,pHYSICAL METALLURGY 31 7. What is meant by heat treatment of metals or alloys ? Ans. Heat treatment is 4 broad term, which may involve desired number of heating or cooling. In general, heat treatment of metal/alloy consists of heating the object, to suitable temperature with suitable (or choosen) heating rate and heating the object for some time (called. soaking period), then again cooling it to desired temperature with suitable cooling rate. Aa What do we achieve by heat treatment operation ? Ans, The mechanical properties of materials like hardness, ductility are improved and metallurgical properties like modification in grain structure, stress-relieving, welding of minor crack, homogeneity of phases are achieved. . What is T.T.T, diagram of steel ? Ans. It is time, temperature and transformation diagram of steel. This is called S-Curve also, (50. What are bainite and martensite ? Ans. Bainite consists of ferrite and iron carbide. It has hardness intermediate between that of pearlite and martensite. Martensite is the supersaturated solution of carbon in alpha- iron, It has accicular or needle like structure having high hardness and low ductility. Q.51. What is Raoult’s law regarding melting point/freezing point of a pure substance ? Ans. It states that freezing point of a pure substance is lowered by the addition of a second substance, provided the latter is soluble in the original substance when liquid and insoluble when. solidified. 2, What is the purpose of annealing ? Ans. Annealing serves the following purposes : (a) relieves the internal stresses (6) softens the steel (c) improves the machinablity (d) removes the Coarseness of grains (e) refines the structure and makes it homogeneous (welds the minor cracks.32 METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING {G58 What is dono in annealing of stoo! ? Ans, Annealing of steel involves the following operations : (a) heating the steel to (30-50)°C above austenising temperature. (6) soaking at the above temperature for sufficient time (about one hour per 25 mm of thickness). (c) shutting of the power of the furnace and allowing the steel object to cool slowly. What is done in normalising operation of steel ? Ans. Normalising of steel involes mainly the following operations— (a). heating the steel object normally to (30-50)°C (above the austenising temperature. (6) soaking at the above temperature for sufficient time (about one hour per 25 mm of thickness), and (c) Taking out the steel object from the furnace and allowing it to cool in still air. . What is quenching or quench hardening of steel ? Ans. Quenching of steel consists of heating steel above (30- 50)°C above austenising temperature, soaking it for sufficient timie and then cooling rapidly enough so that all of the austenite transforms tomartensite. - 6, What is tempering ? Ans: After hardening (ie. quenching), the steel becomes too much hard and brittle. Tempering is done to overcome above defects by reheating the quench hardened steel to a temperature below AC, and then cooling at desired rate. Hardness is decreased to some extent in tempering operation, aa, lhlrr,rti‘i‘“sésOsON__ON Ans. These temperatures iti fl 7 are critical temperatures, at place transformations of one allotropie form to another takes A, = '123°0 A, — T68°¢ A; — 910°¢ A, — logBucldhesssac Ghosh» PHYSICAL METALLURGY Ans. aoc Y-Iron att ° 7¥¢ { 8 Temp. iC Xp A portion of iron- carbon'diagram 0 The critical points al ee Points along the lin i C, i eating a sa coolioe g the line AB is represented as AC, in 0-8 18. \What do we know from .T.T. diagram of 0.8% carbon __, Ans. This diagram indicates the decompositions of, austenite into pearlite, bainite or martensite. All these transformations take place due to different cooling rates. This diagram is the plot of isothermal cooling. Q.60. Do the presence of austenite grain size and inclusions in steel change the shape or nature of T.T-T, diagram? Ans. Yes, because these factors affect the solidification or transformation of phases in the material. Q.61. How the experiment is performed to draw T/T. diagram of 0.8% steel (or eutectoid steel), Ans. For this, number of specimens are heated to (30-50)°C above the austenising temperature (i.e. 723°C for eutectoid steel) soaked for sufficient time and quickly dropped into a bath maintained at different temperatures say (700°, 650°, 600°, 550°, 500°, 450°, 400°, 300°, 250°, 200°, 150°, 100°) Centigrade etc. Then plot is made for time v/s transformation for isothermal reaction and a single temperature. : What will be the main phases present, when an eutectoid steel object is heated to austenising temperature and put in a bath having temperatures 700° C, 600° C, 500° C and 220°C? Ans. At 700° C, austenite will be transformed into coarse pearlite At 600°C " » » » » * fine pearlite At 500°C een ee coarse)painite) At 220°C i Sees ucensite,34 METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING Q.63. What is spheroldising ? ‘Ans, This is an annealing process, in which cementite is converted into small round apheres called apheroidite. This operation is called spheroidising. Gonerally air hardened steels are subjected to this process, to improve its machinablity. Steels are heated to (740-760)°C, held for some time and then cooled to 600°C with cooling rate (20-26)°C per hour. Q.64. What le sub-orltioal annealing ? ‘Ans. This operation is done, to soften and. relieve internal stresses of steel. This is performed for welded objects, low carbon steel castings, cold worked or drawn rods/wires etc. Steel is heated to (600-600)°C, hold at that temperature and then furnace cooling is done. Q.65. What is homogenising ? Ans. Homogenising is done to homogenise the structure ina materials. When brass, bronze, stainless steels are rapidly cooled, cored structures are obtained. Coring causes distinct grain boundry layer, which differs in composition of the average alloy. Homogenising is done to remove the abnormalities and even to remove the denderite segregation. Q.66. What are different stages of tempering for carbon steels? ‘Ans. There are maily three stages of tempering : (a) low-temperature tempering - heated up to 200°C (6) medium.temperature tempering - heated up to (200-300)°C / © high temperature tempering - heated up to (800-850)°C Fourth stage of tempering is done for alloy steel between the temperature range of (400-600)°C. Q.67, What is martempering ? Ans. Martempering produces martensite in steel, with minimum distortion and residual stresses. It is a type of tempering process, in which steel is heated above the transformation range and soaked for sometime and then suddenly quenched in a salt bath maintained at temperature between (180-300)°C. The steel is then taken out and cooled at moderate rate, Q.68. What is austempering of steel? Ans. Austempering causes the formati ini z rmation of bainite, which has toughness and strength inferior to martensite. Bainite has ood impact resistance also. : .Se .-=« “ "__ | PHYSICAL METALLURGY 36 In this operation, stcel is heated above the critical range, soaked for some time and quenched in a salt bath maintained at the temperature (250-500)° C i.e, bainitic formation zone. It ia hold for sufficient time, so that austenite is completely transformed into bainite. Then this stec! is cooled to room temperature, Q.69. What are defects caused by heat treatment of steel 7 Ans. Main defects, which occour in annealing and normalising are overheating, burning and scale formation. The defects, which occour in quenching are distortion, warpage, cracking, insufficient hardening etc. CJjw Q.70. Define overheated steels. Ans, Overheating takes place, when steel is heated well above the critical temperature (i.e, austenising range). In this case large austenite crystals form, which causes the formation of widmanstatten structure on slow cooling. This is called over heating of steel and the structure is termed as overheated structure. This causes reduction in ductility of steel. It can be reclaimed or refined by further heating above the critical point. . Q.71. What do we mean by burnt steel ? Ans. Burning of steel takes place, when steel is heated about - to the solidus temperature. In this case incipient fusion and oxidation— takes place at the grain boundaries. This steel contains brittle iron oxide films, which cann’t be refined again as overheated steel. This causes the steel unfit for service and is used as steel scrap for only remelting purposes. Q.72. What is sub-zero treatment of steel ? Ans. Generally in hardened steel, all austenite is not transforfied to martensite but some retained austenite is available in structure. Sub-zero treatment (temperature range between -30°C fo — 120°C) of steel causes to reduce the retained austenite in steel. It tries for complete conversion of austenite into martensite. i Q.73. What are different surface hardening processes ? Ans. These include induction hardening, hardening by resistance heating, hardening by electrolytic heating, oxy-acetylene flame hardening. Q.74. What is meant by chemical heat treatment of steels? Ans, It is also called case hardening methods, which include saturation of the surface of steel with certain elements of high temperatures like carbon, nitrogen, by diffusion of these elements to steel surface.METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING ter and hardenability ? 36 a] diame! Q.75. Dofine {deal oritie: : : ‘Ans. The ideal critical diameter (D,) is the special measure of hardenability. o i diameter in inches ii Jue for steel is the diar of SC anaiialine Ce lergth ‘and 1" SE aren) thet i w i 0% martensite at the centre wi dh. Haenability js not an indication of the hardness of a steel. A How is hardenability affected with carbon content of steel ‘Ans, As the content of carbon in steel increases, its hardenability decreases. Q.77. What is meant by an ideal quench ? ‘Ans. An ideal quench medium produces 50% martensite at centre of bar specimen. Q.78. What is carburising of steel 7 Ans. Carbunising is performed to low carbon steels. It consists of saturating the surface layer of steel with carbon and is hardened by quenching. Examples : gears, bearings, Cam shafts are carburised. Q.79. What is nitriding ? Ans. In nitriding, a very hard nitride containing surface is produced on the surface of tough steel generally, alloy steel. Case depth obtained in this process is about 0-015 mm and hardness of V.ELN. 1100 is achieved. Q.80. What is cyaniding ? _ Ans. In this Process, a carbon and nitrogen containing surface is produced. It is Suitable for plain carbon and alloy steel and is hardened by quenching. Screws, nuts and bolts, small gears are generally cyanided. Q.81. What is carbonitriding ? Ans. In this process, carbon i , and nitrogen are added to thi Surface of low carbon steel (0.2% C)and hardened by quenching, " Q.82. What is flame hardening ? ‘Ans. 7 wan iron tee bardening hardens the Surface of hardenable steel herinee ee R velar ans torch and quenching. It provides bearing surfacts, nd is suitable for gear teeth andPHYSICAL METALLURGY Q.83. What is induction hardening ? Ans. The surface of steel (0-4-0.5) % iron and (0-4-0. ' 4-0-5) Yo are hardened by heating with the use of high eter electromagnetic field and then quenching it. It provides hardness valu hubs, gear teeth and bearing su 37 e of R, (60-60) and is suitable for rfaces, Q.84. What are different methods of carbunising ? Ans. Different methods of, carbunising are classified in accord with the carbon source as foll cf lassified in accordance lows : (a) Pack carbunising with solid carbonaceous mixtures, (6) Gas carbunising and (©) liquid carbunising Q.85. What are carburisers used in pack carbunising method? Ans. In pack carburising, solid carburiser charcoal, coke or peat coke is used BaCO,, Na,CO, are used to accelerate the carburising process. 626. What is carburising temperature? Ans, It is maintained between (900-930)°C. Q.87. What are reactions which take place in carburising method ? Ans. At high temperature, oxygen of air reacts with carbon of carbuniser to produce carbon monoxide. In presence of iron, carbon monoxide dissociates as follows : 200 C0,+C BaCO, or Na,CO, reacts to give carbon monoxides a follows : BaCO, — BaO +CO, co, +C+2CO Q.88. What are gas carburisers ? Ans. Gaseous carburisers are natural gas and producer gas. These gases mainly contain methane (CH,) which dissociates as follows : CH, > C+2H, Q.89. What is liquid carburising process ? i i ised is heated in Ans. In this process the object to be carburise: a salt bath containing (75-95)% sodium carbonate, (10-15)% sodium chloride, (6-10)% silicon carbide. The reaction takes place as follows :38 METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING 2Na,CO, + Si = Na, SiO, + Na, +2CO+C Mixture of (Na,SiO, + Na,O) constitutes slag. Q.90. What is principle of nitriding process 7 Ans. In this process, specimen is kept for prolonged period, at a temperature between (480-650)°C, in an atmosphere of ammonia. Nitrogen obtained after dissociation of ammonia saturates the surface of the specimen. The dissociation of ammonia takes Place as follows : 2NH, > 2N+3H, Q.91. What are different cyaniding processes ? Ans. Cyaniding consists of heating the steel in liquid or solid medium, to diffuse carbon and nitrogen elements, to the surface layer of steel. Further liquid cyaniding is accomplished in three ways as follows : , (2) low-temperature cyaniding (between 550° - 660°C) (6) medium temperature cyaniding (between 750° - 850°C) and () high temperature cyaniding (between 900° - 950°C) Q.92. What are the main constituents used in liquid eyaniding bath? Ans, Liquid cyaniding bath mainly contains, sodium cyanide, sodium carbonate and sodium chloride. Q.93. What is main difference between cyaniding and carbo- nitriding process ? Ans. In Cyaniding process, liquid or solid medium is used, where as in carbo-nitriding process gaseous atmosphere is used. In carbonitriding, a gaseous mixture of carburising gas (natural gas, gas obtained after cracking of kerosone) and (20 - 30)% ammonia is used. Q.94. What are the diffusion coating methods, which provide surface hardness of stcel ? Ans. Diffusion coating methods for such purpose include calorising (aluminium saturation), chromising (chromium saturation) siliconising (silicon saturation), boron saturation etc. Q.95. Define age-hardening with suitable example ? Ans. When duralumin alloy containing 4% copper is quenched from high temperature (500°C), it increases its hardness on keeping subsquently at roon temperature.pHYSICAL METALLURGY 39 Compound CuAl2 is precipitated as coarse particles. This penomenon of attaining hardness in an alloy is called “age- hardening”. @.98. What Js precipitation or dispersion hardening ? Ans. In precipitation or dispersion hardening the formation of finely dispersed particles of new phase takes place which increases the strength and hardness of alloy. Precipitation of finely dispersed particles, from super saturated ution is one way of producing precipitation hardening. This impedes the movement of dislocation and resists the plastic deformation behaviour under the influence of stress. (97. What are main alloying elements used in manufacturing Yalloy steels? Ans. Main alloying elements for steel are Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Mo, wW, V, To, Nb and Al. -98. What are the elements which form substitutional solid solution with iron ? ‘Ans. Boron, carbon and nitrogen form substitutional solid solution with iron. -99. What are the carbide forming elements in steel 7 ‘Ans. Main carbide forming elements are Cr, Mn, V, Mo, W, Ti and Nb. 160. What are the alloying elements, which don't form carbides in steel. ‘Ans. These elements, are Cobalt, nickel and silicon. sol Shypucture E-N-A) c-o-n] AcPF se Tee g=4 & 52h Bee [eer =2 | @ 68h : { a Fee brats xb=4] “10 qA'le HeP Pele seed 19, 74h