1

PHYSICS NOTES FOR CLASS XII

VOLUME I
ELECTROSTATICS
TO
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

V.V.S.KESAVA RAO
PGT(PHYSICS)
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA
AIR FORCE STATION
BEGUMPET
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DEDICATED TO
MY PARENTS AND
ALL TEACHERS
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FOREWORD
A few years ago, when I was a teacher, I used to prepare study material and question bank in
BIOLOLY for Secondary and Senior Secondary Level.

I am proud to inform you that one of my teachers, Mr. V.V.S. KESAVA RAO PGT (PHYSICS)
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA,BEGUMPET has prepared the study material in the subject of Physics. This book
will help all Class XII students to understand their text book in a simple language. I thoroughly appreciate
the efforts put in.

It is very much clear that he had spent enough time in simplifying the concepts of the book,
beside its contents.

I am sure that it will be very much useful to class XII students because it consists of the diagrams
and the conceptual questions with good explanation. Important numerical problems are also included.

I congratulate Mr. V.V.S.KESAVA RAO PGT(PHYSICS) for the excellent work he has done.

SRI SANKAR RAMISETTI

PRINCIPAL
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA
AIR FORCE STATION
BEGUMPET
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PREFACE
The motto of the preparing this book is to UNDERSTAND CLASS XII PHYSICS WITH A SMILE.

Many students are unable to follow the text book of class XII, even though the concepts are
given clearly. In order to make the concepts simple, I followed different reference books, study
materials. The concepts are not merely given in the form of guide. It is given topic wise on the basis of
NCERT text book. Since this book is not prepared for commercial purpose, the diagrams are directly
scanned from the different reference books. A large number of questions and numerical are also added.
Each and every point is taken with a specific objective. In certain situations, I faced difficulty to type the
symbols, formulae. But this material is prepared in such a way that the students can understand the
writer’s problems and make necessary symbolic representations in these notes.

I have tried my best to keep this material without errors. Your valuable and constructive
suggestions are welcomed with a kind heart so that they can be incorporated in the next set of the
materials.

V.V.S.KESAVA RAO
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The preparation of this book was started with an idea of keeping the below average students in
mind. In the beginning, only Minimum Learning Programme was prepared for those children.

Since then, a large number of Officers of KVS, Principals of various Vidyalayas, Teaches, Friends,
students and the Physics lovers encouraged me by giving suggestions to prepare Notes for Class XI
NCERT text book.

I thank Sri Sankar Ramisetti Principal Kendriya Vidyalaya, Air Force Station, Begumpet,
Hyderabad for going through the manuscript patiently and inaugurating the book in the school
assembly.

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to each and every one.

Finally I thank the members of my family for their support and encouragement.

I dedicate this book to my parents, my beloved teachers in my entire career.

V.V.S.KESAVA RAO
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CONTENTS

NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE NO.

01. ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD 7

02. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, CAPACITANCE OF CAPACITOR 26

03. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 48

04. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM 68

05. MAGNETISM AND MATTER 102

06. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 122

07. ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS 145

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1. ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Electric Charge: Electric charge is an intrinsic characteristic of many of the fundamental
particles of matter that gives rise to all electric and magnetic forces and interactions.
Frictional Electricity.
When two different dry substances are rubbed against each other, they acquire a new property
to attract dust particles, pieces of papers, etc. This property is called as frictional electricity.
The kinds of charges are produced on each when (i) a glass rod is rubbed with silk and (ii) an
ebonite rod is rubbed with wool
(i) Glass rod: Positive Silk: Negative
(ii) Ebonite rod: Negative Wool: Positive

RESULT FROM FRICTIONAL ELECTRICTY

a. There are two kinds of electric charges.

b. Like charges repel
c. Unlike charges attract each other

Medium: The material filling up the space between objects.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE POLARITY OF CHARGE

The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges is called the polarity of charge.
Two known combinations which have experimentally observed
A. On rubbing glass rod with silk cloth- Glass rod acquires positive charge and silk cloth gets
negative charge
B. On rubbing plastic rod (or ebonite rod) with wool (or cat’s fur)- Plastic rod acquires negative
charge and wool gets positive charge

METHODS OF CHARGING:
There are three methods of charging.
(1) Charging by Conduction
(2) Charging by Induction
(3) Friction

CHARGING BY CONDUCTION: When one substance kept in contact with another, the transfer
of charge takes place. This is called charging by conduction.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION: The process of giving one object a net electric charge without
touching it with a second charged object is called charging by induction
The phenomenon of electrification of a conductor in the presence of a charged body in which
opposite charges appear at the near end and similar charges appear at the far end of the
conductor is called electrostatic induction
 8

The phenomenon of temporary separation of charges in a conductor due to a charge in its

vicinity is called electrostatic Induction.

Properties (i)Quantization (ii) Additive (iii) Conservative (iv) Independent of speed

Quantization of electric charge:
The total charge of a body is an integral multiple of the fundamental charge e. where
the value of e = 1.6 x 10-19 C. Q = ne where n = ±1, ±2…
Additive property of a charge:
The total charge of the system is the algebraic sum of all individual charges in the system.
Conservation of the charge
In an isolated system, the total quantity of positive and negative charge is always remains
constant or remains unchanged with the time.

IMPORTANT POINTS:

1. If the protons and electrons are the only basic charges in the universe, all the observable
charges have to be integral multiples of e.
Thus, if a body contains n1 electrons and n2 protons,
the total amount of charge on the body is n2 × e + n1 × (–e) = (n2 – n1 ) e.
Since n1 and n2 are integers, their difference is also an integer.

2. If two identical charged spheres q of each, are kept in contact the charge on each remains
same.
Charge on 1st sphere= q1 = +q Charge on second sphere =q2 = +q
𝑞 +𝑞 𝑞+𝑞
Charge on each sphere after keeping them in contact = 1 2 2 = 2 = 𝑞

3. If a positive charged sphere q is kept in contact with uncharged sphere, the charge will be
shared among both. Each one will have a charge of q/2 each.
Charge on 1st sphere= q1 = +q Charge on second sphere =q2 = 0
Charge on each sphere after keeping them in contact =q/2

4. If a sphere of charge -5q is kept in contact with another sphere of charge +q, then charge on
each will be -2q.
Charge on 1st sphere= q1 = -5q Charge on second sphere =q2 = +q
Charge on each sphere after keeping them in contact = - 2q

5. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of -3.2 x 10-7 C.
Estimate the no of electrons transferred and from which to which?
Electrons are transferred from Wool to Polythene
−3.2×10−7 𝐶
The no. of electrons transferred from wool to polythene = −1.6×10−19 𝐶 = 2 × 1012
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6. Compare and contrast charge and mass.

SL. NO. CHARGE MASS
DIFFERENCES
1 Charge may be positive, negative or Mass cannot be zero
zero
2 Algebraic sum of the charge is additive Ordinary sum of the mass is additive
property property
3 Charge is independent of the speed Mass of the body increases with the speed
SIMILARITIES
1 Obeys law of conservation. Obeys law of conservation
IMPORTANT VALUES OF CHARGES
Sl. No. Particle Charge q Mass
-19
1 Electron -1.6 x 10 Coulomb 9.1 x 10-31 kg
2 Proton +1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb 1.6 x 10-27 kg
-19
3 Alpha 3.2 x 10 Coulomb 6.4 x 10-27 kg =
Particle = 2 x charge of proton Mass of two protons + mass of two neutrons
Alpha Particle = Helium nucleus. If helium atom loses two electrons, it is same as alpha particle.
Helium atom has 2 electrons, 2 protons.
Point Charge: The size of the charge is very small than the distance between two charges.
Coulomb’s law in electrostatics:
The force between two point charges at rest is directly proportional to the product of their
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force acts
along the line joining the two charges.
Let q1 and q2 be the two point-charges at rest with respect to each other separated by a
distance r. The magnitude of the force between then is given by
Force between the charges F α q1 q2 -------------------------------(1)
1
Force between the charges 𝐹𝛼 𝑟 2 ----------------------------------(2)
𝑞1 𝑞2
By combining above two equations, 𝐹𝛼 ---------------------------------(3)
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
or 𝐹=𝑘 ---------------------------(4)
𝑟2
1
In M K S System, 𝑘=
4𝜋𝜖0
where ϵₒ = Electric Permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 /N m2
1
𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜖 = 9 X 109 N m2/C2
0
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Electric force between two charges in free space = 𝐹0 = 4𝜋𝜖
0 𝑟2
Important points on the basis of Coulomb's law:
1. This holds true for two point charges.
2. Definition of 1 Coulomb(1C): 1 Coulomb(1C) is the charge that when placed at a distance of
1m from another charge of the same magnitude in vacuum experiences an electric force of
repulsion of magnitude 9 X 109 N.
Let q1 = q, q2 = q, Force between two charges = 9 X 109 N,
Distance between two charges r = 1m
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Then the magnitude of each charge = q1 = q2 = q = 1C.

3. Coulomb's law is inverse square law. Force between two charges decreases as the distance
1
between two charges increase. 𝐹𝛼 𝑟 2
4. Electrostatic force may be repulsive or attractive.
For like charges, either both are positive or both are negative, Force = Positive or repulsive
For q1 ˃ 0, positive and q2 ˃ 0, positive, or For q1 ˂ 0, negative and q2 ˂ 0, negative,
Product of two charges q1 q2 ˃ 0 Force = Positive or repulsive.
For unlike charges, one is positive and other is negative, Force = negative or attractive
For q1 ˃ 0, positive and q2 ˂ 0, negative, Product of two charges q1 q2 ˂ 0
Force = Negative or attractive.
5. Graphical treatment:
(a) Force and 1/r2 Repulsive force q1 q2 ˃0, or both charges are like

(b) Force and Distance

6. Medium between two charges: If the medium between two charges is other than vacuum,
the electrostatic force between two charges decreases.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Electric force between two charges in vacuum 𝐹0 = 2 ----------------(1)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
1 𝑞 𝑞
Electric force between two charges in medium other than vacuum F = 4𝜋𝜖 1𝑟 22 --------(2)
where ϵ = Electric permittivity in medium
𝐹0 𝜖
= 𝜖 = 𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝐾) 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜖𝑟
𝐹 0
Since the 𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝐾 )𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜖𝑟 is greater than 1,
Force between two charges in a medium decreases. F ˂ F0
7. It obeys Newton's third law.
 11

Vector form of Coulomb's law:

Let Force on first charge q1 due to second charge q2 = F12 ,
Let Force on second charge q2 due to first charge q1 = F21 ,
Then, F12 = - F21
Force on first charge q1 due to second charge q2
1 𝑞 𝑞
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹12 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟12 2 𝑟12́
0 12
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Force on second charge q2 due to first charge q1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹21 = 4𝜋𝜖 2 𝑟21́
0 𝑟21
Since 𝑟12́ = − 𝑟21́ , 𝐹⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 = − 𝐹21
8. It may be positive or negative.
9. Electrostatic force between two electron and proton is greater than the gravitational force
between electron and proton in Hydrogen atom. 𝐹𝑒 = 2.4 × 1039 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Electrostatic force between two electron and proton 𝐹𝑒 =
1 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ×𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
1.6 ×10 −19 ×1.6×10−19
𝐹𝑒 = 9 × 109 × 𝑁
𝑟2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 × 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺 2
𝑟−31
9.1×10 ×1.6×10−27
𝐹𝐺 = 6.62 × 10−11 × 𝑁 ------------(2)
𝑟2
𝐹𝑒
= 2.4 × 1039
𝐹𝐺
Questions for practice:
1. The force of attraction between two charges in a medium is F 1 when they are separated by
a distance of r1. If the distance is changed from r1 to r2 in the same medium, the electric force
between them is F2. Write the relation between them.
1 𝑭𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝐹𝛼 𝑟 2 = 𝒓𝟏𝟐
𝑭𝟏 𝟐
2. The force between two point charges in the vacuum is F o. If the vacuum is replaced by a
medium of dielectric constant k, how does the force change.
𝐹
The force decreases. 𝐹0 = 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑘 or F = Fo/k
3. Two point charges each of 1C separated by 1m distance in air experiences a force of 90 N.
How much force is experienced by them, if they are immersed in water, keeping the distance
of the separation between them same? Dielectric constant of water = 80.
Force between two charges in air medium = F0 = 90N
Dielectric constant of water = K = 80
Force between them in water = F = F0/K = 90N/80 = 1.25N
4. The electric force between two protons situated at a distance r from each other is F. What
will be the force between two electrons situated in the same distance?
The magnitude of the charge of proton is same as the charge of the electron.
The force remains same only.
5. The force between two electrons when placed in air is equal to 0.5times the weight of an
electron. Find the distance between two electrons.
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6. Compare and contrast Gravitational force and Electrostatic force

SL. NO. Electrostatic force Gravitational force
DIFFERENCES
1 Electrostatic force may be positive, Gravitational force is always positive
negative
2 Electrostatic force may be attractive or Gravitational force is always positive
repulsive
3 Electrostatic force is greater than Gravitational force is less than
gravitational force. electrostatic force.
SIMILARITIES
1 It is an inverse square law F α 1/r2 It is an inverse square law F α 1/r2
2 It obeys Newton's 3rd law. It obeys Newton's 3rd law.
7. What is the force between two small charges 2 μC and 3 μC placed 30cm apart in air?
Charge q1 = 2 μC = 2 x 10-6C Charge q2 = 3 μC = 3 x 10-6 C
Distance r = 30cm = 30 x 10-2 m
1 𝑞 𝑞
Force between two charges 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜖 1𝑟 2 2
0
9 2×10−6×3×10−6
F = 9 × 10 × (30 ×10−2 )2
9 ×2×3×109−6−6 9 ×2×3×10−3 9×2×3×10−3
F = 30×10−2×30×10−2 𝐹= = = 6 × 10−1 𝑁
900×10−4 9×102 ×10−4

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE: The Force between Two Charges is unaffected by the presence
of the other charges in a system.
When a number of charges q1 , q2 ,.......qn are placed in some region of space, then each exerts
forces on all the other charges. The resultant force on a particular charge is the vector sum of

the forces exerted on it by all the other charges. Thus, if F1 is the net force on q1 we have
F1 = F12 + F13 + ……………+ F1 n
where F12 = Force on 1st charge due to 2nd charge
F13 = Force on 1st charge due to 3rd charge

ELECTRIC FIELD: The space felt by the charge is called Electric field.
Electric Field intensity or Electric field strength E
The force between two charges per unit charge is called electric field strength.
𝐹
It is denoted by E. 𝐸=𝑞
𝑜
Unit: Newton/Coulomb or N/C.
It is a vector quantity.
If the charge is positive (q˃0), the direction of electric field is outwards.
If the charge is negative (q˂0) , the direction of electric field is outwards.
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ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE:

Consider a point charge q placed in vacuum. Assume that a charge q o is brought into the vicinity
of the charge q.
Let r be the distance between two charges.
The force on charge q due to the test charge q0 placed
𝟏 𝐪𝐪
at a distance r F= 𝟒𝛑𝛜 𝐫𝟐𝐨
𝟎
The magnitude of the electric field E at distance r due
to charge q at the site of q0 = E = F/q0
𝟏 𝐪
E =𝟒𝛑𝛜 𝐫𝟐
𝟎

The direction of E is on a radial line from q, pointing outward if q is
positive and inward if q is negative, Clearly, the field due to point
charge is spherically symmetric.
Graph between Electric field and distance (r) or (r2)

Electric Lines of Force

A line of force is a curve drawn in a field such that the tangent at each point on the curve gives
the direction of the field at that point.
The lines of force are drawn such that, i.e., they are close together where E is large and far
apart where E is small. If the field is uniform, the lines of force are parallel and equally spaced.
Properties of Electric field lines:
1. The field lines continuous curves without any breaks.
2. Tangent to the field line gives the direction of electric field at that point.
3. They start from positive charge and end at negative charge. If there is a single charge, they
may start or end at infinity.
4. Two field lines can never intersect.
5. Field lines are always normal to the surface of the conductor.
6. Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative
nature of the electric field.
7. They contract longitudinally and expand laterally.
8. If the field lines are crowded, then electric field strength is strong. If they are apart, the
magnitude of field strength is weak
9. The number of lines per unit cross-sectional area is proportional to the magnitude of E
Some Examples of Lines of Force
(a) Lines of force for a charge +q (b) Lines of force for a charge -q
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(c) Lines of force two Like charges (d) Lines of force for a electric dipole

(e) Electric field lines are uniformly spaced parallel straight lines.
Important Questions:
1. Graph between electric field and distance:

2. What is the nature of symmetry of electric field due to (i) point charge and (ii) dipole.
For a point charge, it is spherical.
For a dipole, it is cylindrical.
3. Why no two electric lines of force cross each other?
If two lines of force cross each other then at the point of intersection, there will be two
tangent s at that point of intersections, which means that there are two values of the electric
field at that point, which is not possible.
4. Why do charges reside on the surface of the conductor?
Charges lie at the ends of lines of force. The electric lines of force have a tendency to
contract in length. The lines of force pull the charges from inside the conductors to its outer
surface.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGES:
Superposition Principle should be applied.
The electric field E at a given point is the vector sum of the fields due to all the charges:
E = E1 + E2 + ……….
ELECTRIC DIPOLE: Electric dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated by
a certain distance.
Electric Dipole Moment: Electric dipole moment is defined as the product of magnitude of
one of the charges and distance between two charges. It is denoted by symbol p.
If two charges +q and -q are separated by a distance 2a, then Electric dipole moment p= 2a X q
 15

Its unit is Coulomb-meter(C-m). It is the vector. Its direction is from –q to +q .

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE AT A POINT ALONG THE AXIS
Consider a point P on the axis at a distance r from
the centre of the dipole. The electric field at P is

The electric field due to +q at point P = 𝐸1 =

1 𝑞
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟−𝑙) 2
1 −𝑞
The electric field due to –q at point P = 𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜖 (𝑟+𝑙)2
0
By superposition Principle, E = E1 + E2
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐸= ( 2
− )
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑙 ) (𝑟 + 𝑙 )2
𝑞 ( 𝑟 + 𝑙 )2 − (𝑟 − 𝑙 )2
𝐸= ( )
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑙 )2 (𝑟 + 𝑙 )2
𝑞 4𝑙𝑟
𝐸= ( 2 )
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑙 2 )2
We know that Electric dipole moment p = q X 2 l
1 2 × 𝑞 × 2𝑙 × 𝑟
𝑬= ( )
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2
𝟏 𝟐𝒑𝒓
𝑬= ( 𝟐 )
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 (𝒓𝟐−𝒍𝟐 )
𝟏 𝟐𝐩
For a short dipole, l  r. So, 𝐄 = 𝟒𝛑𝛜𝟎 𝐫 𝟑
The electric field at point on the axial line acts in the direction –q to +q i.e. along the direction
of the dipole moment.
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ALONG THE PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR OR EQUATORIAL LINE:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –q and +q separated by a distance of
2a, placed in air .Let P be a point on the equatorial line of the dipole at a distance r from o.
1 𝑞
Electric Field at point P due to charge +q = 𝐸1 = 4𝜋𝜖 × 𝑟 2+𝑎2 along BP
0
1 −𝑞
Electric field at point P due to charge –q = 𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜖 × 𝑟 2+𝑎2 along AP
0
The angle between two vectors E1 and E2 is 2θ.
The magnitude of the resultant vector E is given by
E2 = E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 cos 2θ. Since E1 = E2
The magnitude of the resultant field at P is,E= 2 E1 Cos
= 2E1 Cos
1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸 = 2 × 4𝜋𝜖 × 𝑟 2+𝑎2 × √𝑟 2 2
0 +𝑎
1 𝑝
Dipole moment p = 2a X q 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 × (𝑟 2+𝑎2 )3⁄2
0
Assume that the distance between two charges is smaller
than r
1 𝑝
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 3
0
The direction of this resultant electric field is opposite to that of the dipole moment.
 16

Electric field due to a dipole at any general point making an angle θ

P√1 + 3COS2 Θ
E =K
R3
CONCLUSIONS:
1. If the point p lies on the axis line of the electric dipole , then the angle Θ = 00
2. If the point p lies on the equatorial line of the electric dipole , then the angle Θ = 900
Torque experienced by electric dipole in uniform electric field.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +q and
–q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E
making an angle  with it.
Force on +q charge = + q E along the direction of E
Force on –q charge = -q E opposite to the direction of E
Net force on the dipole is F Net = +qE- qE =0
But the two force act at different point on the dipole.
They form a couple and exerts torque.
Torque = Force X perpendicular distance between lines of action of forces.
τ = qE X 2a Sin 
τ = pE sin 
in vector form, 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗
Under this torque, the dipole If the dipole rotates by an angle d.
So work dW is done in rotating angle by d, dW=d
dW =pE sin d
Total work done in rotating the dipole from some orientation 1 to 2 is
𝜃
𝑊 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑊 = −𝑝𝐸 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
1
Potential energy of a dipole is the amount of work done in rotating the dipole from an initial
orientation θ1= 90 to angle θ2 = θ. W = - p E cos θ
Work done is stored in the form of Potential Energy.
Potential Energy 𝑼 = −𝒑 ⃗ ∙ ⃗𝑬
Conclusions:
1. If the dipole is rotated from angle 0 o to θ, then work done is given by W= pE(l-cos).
2. If the dipole rotates by an angle 180°, the work, W= pE(l-cos 180°) = pE(l + 1) = 2pE.
3. Torque will be maximum when the dipole is held perpendicular to the electric field.
4. The torque will be minimum or zero when the dipole is parallel to the field
5. When the dipole is released, the torque on the dipole brings the dipole parallel to the
external electric field.
6. In Uniform Electric field, an electric dipole placed experiences only a torque. But when the
electric field is not uniform, it experiences both a torque and force.
Assignments:
1. What orientation of an electric dipole in a uniform field corresponds to its stable
equilibrium and unstable equilibrium?
For stable equilibrium: A dipole is said to be in stable equilibrium if the angle between dipole
moment and electric field is zero or electric field is parallel to dipole moment.
 17

Potential Energy = - p E cos 0 = -p E Torque = p E sin 0 =0

For Unstable equilibrium: A dipole is said to be in unstable equilibrium if electric field is anti
parallel to the dipole moment or angle is 180 o.
Potential Energy = -pEcos 180 = pE Torque = pE sin 180 =0
2. What is the work done when a dipole is rotated from stable eqilibrium to unstable
equilibrium?
Stable equilibrium: Dipolemoment is parallel to Electric field or θ 1 = 00
Unstable equilibrium: Dipolemoment is anti-parallel to Electric field or θ2 = 1800
𝑊 = −𝑝𝐸 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
W = -pE ( cos 1800 - cos 00)
W = -pE (-1-1) = 2pE
Electric dipole in non-uniform Electric Field:
In non-uniform electric field, the net forcé
experienced by the dipole is not zero.

If dipole moment is parallel to electric field, the

dipole has a net forcé in the direction of increasing
field.
If dipole moment is anti- parallel to Electric field, the
net forcé on he dipole is in the direction of decreasing field.
In general, the forcé depends on the orientation of dipole moment with respect to Electric field.
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS:
There are three continuous charge distributions.
1. Line Charge Distribution: The charge is distributed along a straight line or one dimension
Assume that charge Q is distributed along the line of length L
𝑄
Then, Linear charge density λ=
𝐿
2. Surface Charge Distribution: The charge is distributed over a surface of two dimension,
Assume that charge Q is distributed over the surface area A
𝑄
Then, Surface charge density σ= 𝐴
3. Volume Charge Distribution: The charge is distributed in an element of volume V in three
dimension
Assume that charge Q is distributed in an element of volume V
𝑄
Then, Volume charge density ρ= 𝑉
Electric flux (Qualitatively and quantitatively)
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the no. of field lines that pass through that
surface.
The total electric flux through a surface in an electric field may be defined as the surface
integral of the electric field over that surface.
The flux ΔФ of electric field E through a small area element ΔS = ΔФ = 𝐸⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The area element ∆𝑺 = ΔS 𝑛́ where ΔS is the magnitude of area and n is normal to the area
element. ΔФ = E. ΔS = E ΔS Cosθ
where θ is the angle between Electric field E and area vector ΔS.
 18

If the angle between E and area vector θ is acute, <900, the electric flux is positive.
If the angle between E is perpendicular to area vector θ is 900, the electric flux is zero.
The no. of electric field lines passing through the surface and leaving the surface are same.
Unit of electric flux: N m2 C-1 or J m C-1
1
Electric flux: Electric flux is defined as (∈ ) times total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
0
𝑞
𝜑=∈
0
IMPORTANT POINTS:
1. If the total charge is positive, then electric flux is positive. This means electric field lines are
leaving the surface.
2. If the total charge is negative, then electric flux is negative. This means electric field lines are
entering the surface.
3. The zero electric flux means number of electric field lines entering the surface is equal to the
number of field lines leaving the surface.

Gaussian surface: An imaginary closed surface enclosing a charge is called Gaussian surface
of that charge
Gauss’s Law: - The flux of the electric field through any closed surface S is 1/Єo times the total
charge enclosed by the surface S. ΔФ = E. ΔS = q /Єo
Importance of Gauss's Law:
1. It is applicable for closed surface.
2. If a dipole is placed inside Gaussian Surface, then the flux is zero, as the net charge is zero.

Gauss’s law is applicable only under following two conditions:

(i) The electric field at every point on the surface is either perpendicular or at any angle other
than tangential.
(ii) Magnitude of electric field at every point where it is perpendicular to the surface has a
constant value (say E).
STATEMENT AND PROOF OF GAUSS'S LAW:
Gauss’s Law: - The flux of the electric field through any closed surface S is 1/Є o times the total
𝑞
charge enclosed by the surface S. 𝜑=∈
0
Proof: Consider a point charge +q at O. The direction of the electric field due to the point
charge + q is outwards. Let S be the surface that of a sphere of radius r around the charge +q.
This sphere is called Gaussian surface.
Electric field due to the point charge q at distance r is given by
1 𝒒
E =4𝜋𝑒 𝒓𝟐 𝒓̂ where r is a unit vector along the
0
radius vector from the centre to area element.
Divide the sphere into small area elements.
Choose an element of area ΔS.
1 𝒒
The flux through area element= ΔФ = E. ΔS = 4𝜋𝑒 𝒓̂ . ΔS
0 𝒓𝟐
 19

Since the normal to a sphere at every point is along the radius vector at that point,
So, the area element vector and r have the same direction.
1 𝒒
ΔФ = E. ΔS= 4𝜋𝑒 𝒓𝟐ΔS
0
1 𝒒
The total flux through the sphere = Ф = 4𝜋𝑒 𝟐
∑ 𝚫𝐒
0𝒓
1 𝒒
= 4𝜋𝑒 4π r2
0𝒓𝟐
𝑞
𝜑=∈
0
Electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged conductor.
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor with uniform linear Charge density λ, charge per
unit length.
To calculate the electric field intensity E at point P at a distance r from the line.
Draw an imaginary cylinder which is Gaussian surface of radius r and length l around the
charged line.
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface =q = λl.
Since the field is everywhere radial, the flux through the two ends of the
cylindrical Gaussian surface is zero.
At the cylindrical part of the surface, Electric field E is normal to the
surface at every point and its magnitude is constant, since it depends
only on r.
The surface area of the curved part =2πrl
Flux through the Gaussian surface= 𝜑 = 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝑞
From Gauss law, 𝜑 = ∈
0
𝜆𝑙
𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
∈0
1 𝜆
𝐸 = 2πε 𝑟
0
The direction of electric field is out ward if charge is positive, inward if it is negative.
The electric field, due to an infinite line charge, varies as the inverse of the distance of the field
point (from the line charge). The direction of the field is, of
course, along the normal to the line charge, passing
through the field point.

The graph between the electric field and distance r

2. ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT DUE TO AN INFINETELY LONG SHEET OF CHARGE

Consider a thin infinite plane sheet of charge of charge

density  .
Consider a point P at a distance r from the sheet.
By symmetry, the electric field E points outwards
normal to the sheet .
Let  be the surface charge density. It is the charge
per unit area.
 20

Also it has the same magnitude and opposite directions at P and p’ , which are equidistant from
the sheet .
Let A be the cross section.
As the electric field is parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder, the flux through the curved
surface is zero.
Total charge q = σ X A -----------------------------------------------------(1)
Flux through both surfaces = 𝜑 = 𝐸 𝑋 2 𝐴 ----------------------------(2)
𝑞
From Gauss Law, 𝜑 = ∈ ----------------------------------------------(3)
0
σXA
𝐸 × 2𝐴 = -----------------------(4)
∈0

σ
𝐸 = 2∈
0
If σ >0, the direction of E is outward. If σ <0, the direction of E is
inward
The graph between electric field E and distance r:

3. Electric field due to a uniformly charged finite sheet.

Consider a finite uniform charge sheet of charge density σ, charge perunit area.
Let P be a point where electric field is to be determined.
Choose a Gaussian surface to be a rectangular parallelepiped of cross sectional area A.
Since the sheet is finite, only one face contributes to the flux.
Since the electric field lines are parallel to the face, it does not contribute to the flux.
Total charge q = σ X A -------------------------------------------------------(1)
Flux through both surfaces = 𝜑 = 𝐸 𝑋 𝐴 ----------------------------(2)
𝑞
From Gauss Law 𝜑 = ∈ ---------------------------------------------------(3)
0
σXA
𝐸×𝐴= ----------------------------------(4)
∈0
σ
𝐸=∈
0
If σ >0, the direction of E is outward. If σ <0, the direction of E is inward
Electric field due to uniformly charged thin spherical shell of uniform charge density.
Consider a spherical shell of radius R with the centre O having the surface charge density σ,
charge per unit area.
The Gaussian surface has spherical symmetry.
The electric filed at any point P, either out side or inside, depends only on the radius of
Gaussian spherical surface r. i.e. the radial distance from the centre of the shell to the point and
it must be along the radial vector.
Electric field outside the shell:
Consider a point P outside the shell with the radial vector r. Let P be the point on the Gaussian
surface to be a sphere of radius R with the centre O passing through P. The electric field at each
point of Gaussian surface has the same magnitude E
and is along the radius vector at each point.
Thus E and ΔS at every point are parallel . Flux = E ΔS.
The total flux over the Gaussian surface= E * 4π r2
 21

Charge q = σ X 4 πR2
𝑞
From Gauss Law 𝜑 = ∈
0
2 σ 4πR2
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 = ∈0
σ×R2
𝐸= 𝑟 2 ∈0
𝟏 𝐪
But charge q = σ 4π R2, E = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝟐
𝟎𝐫
The direction of the field is radially out ward, if the charge on the shell is +ve.
Electric field at a point on the shell:
Consider a point P on the shell with the radial vector r= radius R. Let P be the point on the
Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r with the centre O passing through P. The electric
field at each point of Gaussian surface has the same magnitude E and is along the radius vector
at each point. Thus E and ΔS at every point are parallel. Flux = E ΔS.
The total flux over the Gaussian surface= E X 4π r2
Charge q = σ X 4 πR2 = σ X 4 πr2
𝑞
From Gauss Law, 𝜑=∈
0
σ 4πr2
2
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 =
∈0
σ
𝐸=
∈0
𝟏 𝐪
But charge q = σ 4π R2 E = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝐑𝟐
𝟎
The direction of the field is radially out ward.
Electric field at a point inside the shell:

Consider a point P in side the shell with the radial vector R. Let
P be the point on the Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius
R with the centre O passing through P. The electric field at each
point of Gaussian surface has the same magnitude E and is
along the radius vector at each point.
Thus E and ΔS at every point are parallel Flux = E ΔS.
The total flux over the Gaussian surface= E * 4π R2
Since Gaussian surface doesn’t enclose any charge, Charge q = 0
𝑞
From Gauss Law 𝜑=∈
0
E * 4π R2 = 0 E= 0
Graph between Electric field E and distance r:
Electric field at a point outside the shell ,
σ × R2
𝐸= 2
𝑟 ∈0
Electric field at a point inside the shell E
E = 0 With in radius R = r
σ 𝟏 𝐪
Electric field on the shell 𝐸 = ∈ or E = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝐑𝟐
0 𝟎
 22

Two infinitely long parallel plane sheets have uniform charge densities of σ 1and σ2. Electric
field at points ( i) to the left of the sheets (ii) to the right of the sheets and (iii) between them.
What happens to them if σ1= +σ and σ2 = -σ
Assume two infinitely long plane parallel sheets of charge having
uniform charge densities σ1and σ2 with σ1> σ2> 0.
The electric field due to sheets E1 and E2 are given by
𝝈 𝝈
E1= 𝟐𝝐𝟏 , E2 = 𝟐𝝐𝟐
𝟎 𝟎
From superposition principle,
Electric field in region I : Left of the sheets: E = -(E1 + E2)
𝛔 𝛔
E= - [𝟐𝛜𝟏 + 𝟐𝛜𝟐 ]
𝟎 𝟎
Electric field in region III: Right of the sheets: E = E 1 + E2
𝝈 𝝈
E= [ 𝟏 + 𝟐 ]
𝟐𝝐𝟎 𝟐𝝐𝟎
𝜎1 𝜎2
Electric field in region II : Middle of the sheets: E = E1 - E2 E= [ − ]
2𝜖0 2𝜖0
If σ1 = - σ2 = σ,
Electric field in the region II or middle of the sheets E = E1 - E2 = σ / Єo
Electric field in region I : Left of the sheets: E = E1 + E2 =0
Electric field in region III : Right of the sheets: E = E1 + E2 =0
Coulomb’s Law by using Gauss’s Law.
Consider two charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. If first charge is assumed
at the centre, and by symmetry a spherical surface can be chosen as a Gaussian surface with
the radius r.
Consider a small area element of area dS over the sphere. The area vector is normal to the
surface and is along the direction of unit vector drawn along the radius.
In other words, angle is zero. By Gauss Theorem,
𝑞
Flux 𝜑 = ∈
0

E.ΔS = q1/Єo

E * 4πr2 = q1 /Єo
𝟏 𝒒
E = 𝟒𝝅𝒆 𝒓𝟐𝟏
𝟎
This is the electric field at point P on the surface where the charge q2 is placed.
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪
F = q2 E = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝟏𝐫𝟐 𝟐
𝟎
A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r 1 and outer radius r2 has a charge Q. A charge q is
placed at the centre of the shell. (a) What is the surface charge density on the (i) inner surface
(ii) outer surface of the shell? (b) Write the expression for the electric field at a point x is
greater than r2 from the outer shell?
−𝐪
The surface charge density on inner surface = 𝛔 = 𝟒𝛑𝐫𝟐
𝟏
𝐪+𝐐
The surface charge density on outer surface = 𝛔 =
𝟒𝛑𝐫𝟐𝟐
𝐪+𝐐
(b) E = 𝟒𝛑𝛜 𝟐
𝐨𝐱
 23

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED NON-

CONDUCTING SPHERE:
Radius of the sphere = R
𝑞
Volume charge density = = 𝜌 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑞𝑟 𝜌𝑟
a. Electric field inside sphere ( r˂R) 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑅3 = 3𝜀
0
𝑘𝑞
b. Electric field on the sphere (r=R) 𝐸 = 𝑅2
𝑞
c. Electric field outside the sphere (r˃R) 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟 2
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SOLID OR HOLLOW CONDUCTING SPHERE
Radius of the sphere = R,
Surface charge density = σ = charge /Area
a. Electric field inside the sphere (r˂R) E = 0
𝑞
b. Electric field on the sphere (r=R) 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑅2
𝑞
c. Electric field outside the sphere (r˃R) 𝐸 = 𝑘
𝑟2

ELCTRIC FIELD DUE TO A HOLLOW NON-

CONDUCTING SPHERE:
Radius = R Surface charge density σ =
charge/ Area
a. Electric field at a point inside the sphere (r˂R) E = 0
𝑞
b. Electric field on the sphere (r=R) 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑅2
𝑞
c. Electric field outside the sphere (r˃R) 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟2

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CIRCULAR RING

Radius of the ring = R

𝑄𝑥
Electric field at distance x from the centre of a ring 𝐸 = 𝑘 (𝑅2 +𝑥 2)3⁄2
a. At the centre of ring, Electric field = 0
𝑅
b. Electric field is maximum at 𝑥 = ± 2 from the centre on either side on its axis.
√
c. The ring behaves like a point charge at the center of the ring,, if the point of observation is far
away from the ring as compared to the radius of the ring.
 24

IMPORTANT NUMERICALS Take k = 1/ 4 πЄo = 9 * 109 N m2 /C2

1. Two point charges of unknown magnitude and sign are placed at a distance d apart. The
electric field intensity is zero at a point, not between the charges but on the line joining them.
Write two essential conditions for this to happen.
Two conditions:
Two charges are of opposite sign.
Two charges have different magnitude. The charge of smaller magnitude will be nearer to the
point where total electric field is zero.
2. Two identical charges Q are kept at a distance r from each other. A third point charge q is
placed on the line joining above two charges, such that all the three are in equilibrium. What
is the sign, magnitude and position of the third charge.
Let the third charge be placed at point O such distance from point A to O=AO x
For the system to be in equilibrium, net force on each charge should be zero.
If the charge q is taken as negative only, then the forces will act on it in opposite directions.
Therefore the third charge is negative in sign.
Force on charge at O due charge at A=Force on charge at O due to charge at B
𝐤𝐪𝐐 𝐤𝐐𝐪
and opposite = (𝐫−𝐱)𝟐
𝐱𝟐
By solving them x = r/2
Force on Charge at A due to charge at O = Force on charge at A due to B and opposite
𝐤𝐪𝐐 𝐤𝐐𝐐
= (𝐫)𝟐
𝐱𝟐
By substituting x = r/2, we get q = Q/4.
3. Two point charges of values q and 2q are kept at a distance d apart from
each other in air. A third charge Q is to be kept along the same line in such a way that the net
force acting on q and 2q is zero. Find the position of charge Q in terms position of q and d.
For equilibrium,
𝐤𝐪𝐐 𝐤 𝐐 𝟐𝐪
Force between q and Q = Force between Q and 2q 𝐱𝟐 = (𝐝−𝐱)𝟐
By solving, x = d/ 2.414 from charge q
4.A charge of + 1 C is placed at a distance of 0.1 m from another charge of+ 4 C in air. At what
point on the line joining the charges, is the electric field intensity zero.
Let x be the position where E = 0 from +1 C.
𝐤 (+𝟏) 𝐤 (+𝟒)
For equilibrium, 𝐱𝟐 - (𝟎.𝟏−𝐱)𝟐 = 0
By solving it, x = 3.3 cm
5. Two equal charges placed in air separated by a distance 3 m repel each other with a force
of 0.1gF. Find the magnitude of either of the charge.
Let the magnitude of charge be q. r = 3m, Force F = 0.1 gF = 0.1 x 10-3 kg x 9.8 m/s2
1 𝑞×𝑞
= 𝑚𝑔
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2
0
mg = 0.1 x 10-3 x 9.8 N
By solving it, q = O.99 x 10-6 C.
 25

6. Two similarly and equally charged identical metal spheres A and B repel each other with a
force of 2 x 10-5 N. A third identical uncharged sphere C is touched with A and then placed at
the midpoint between A and B. Find the net force on C.
1 𝑞×𝑞
F = 2 x 10-5 N = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2
0
On touching C and A, charge on each of the spheres = q /2
1 (𝑞⁄2) ×(𝑞⁄2)
Net force between C and a = F = (𝑟 ⁄2)2
4𝜋𝜖0
1 𝑞×𝑞
= = 2 x 10-5 N
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
7. Why does water have a large dielectric constant (k=80) than say mica (k=6) ?
Water molecule has a permanent dipole moment so it has a large dielectric strength
8. Find the orientation of electric dipole in a uniform electric field where it experiences a half
of maximum torque.
Torque=2 q a E sin θ
Maximum torque = 2 q a E
Θ=900
For sin 300 = 1/2
Half Maximum torque = q a E
9. If Coulomb’s law involved 𝟏/𝒓3 dependence instead of 𝟏/𝒓2 , would Gauss law be still true?
Gauss law will not be valid. Because then on R.H.S of Gauss law would not be independent of
size and shape of Gaussian surface

PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMINAITONS QUESTIONS- ELECTRIC CHARGE, ELECRIC FIELD

1. What does q1 + q2 = 0 signify in electrostatics?
It signifies that charges are algebraically additive and here q1 , q2 are equal and opposite
2. Two point charges having equal charges separated by distance experience a force of 8N.
What will be the force experienced by them, if they are held in water of dielectric constant K =
80, at the same distance ?
𝐹
Force between two charges in water medium = = 𝐹𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 Fwater = 8 N/80 = 0.1N
𝐾
3. Define electric flux. Write its S.I. unit.
Electric flux :It is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing normally through
a given surface
Unit: N-m2/C
4. Write an expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged spherical conducting shell
of radius R at a point (i) outside and (ii) inside the shell. Surface charge density σ
Plot a graph showing variation of electric field as a function
of r > R and r< R.
Radius of the spherical conducting shell = R
Radius of Gaussian surface = r
Electric field outside the shell r > R
1 𝑞
𝐸=
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝜎 𝑟2
In terms of surface charge density σ, 𝐸 =
𝜀0 𝑅 2
 26

1 𝑞
Electric field at a point on the shell 𝐸 = 4 𝜋 𝜀 2
0 𝑅
Electric field inside the shell r< R. E=0

5. Draw the variation of Electric field due to infinite long

straight uniformly charged wire with position vector r.
Linear charge density λ.
Electric field E due to infinite linear charge density at a
1 𝜆
distance r 𝐸 = 2 𝜋 𝜀
0 𝑟

6. Draw the variation of Electric filed due to uniformly

charged infinite plane sheet with position vector r
Variation of Electric filed due to uniformly charged infinite plane
sheet with position vector r
𝜎
𝐸=
2 𝜀0

6. Can two similarly charged bodies attract each other?

Yes, when the charge on one body (q1) is much greater than that on the other (q2) and they are
close enough to each other so that force of attraction between q1 and the induced charge on
the other exceeds the force of repulsion between q1 and q2. However two similar point charges
can never attract to each other because no net induction effects will take place in them.
7. A charge Q is to be distributed over into two small objects. What should be the value of the
charge on the objects so that force between the two objects becomes maximum, when they
are kept a given distance apart?
Force between two charges q and Q-q
1 𝑞 (𝑄 − 𝑞 )
𝐹=
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑑𝐹
For maximum force, = 0
𝑑𝑞
Q = 2q
8. There is an electric field of 105 N/C points due west at a certain spot. Find the magnitude and
direction of the force that acts on a charge of +𝟐𝝁𝑪 and -5 𝝁𝑪at this spot?
Force on +𝟐𝛍𝐂 = q E =2 x 10 -6 x 105 = 0.2N (due west)
Force on -5 𝛍𝐂 = 5 x 10-6 x105 = 0.5N (due east)
9. Two positive point charges q1 = 16 𝝁C and q2 = 4 𝝁C, are separated in vacuum by a distance
of 3.0 m. Find the point on the line between the charges where the net electric field is zero.
Between the charges the two field contribution shave
opposite directions, and the net electric field is zero at
a point (say P), where the magnitudes of E1 and E2
are equal.
 27

However, since, q2 q1 , point P must be closer to q2 , in order that the field of the smaller
charge can balance the field of the larger charge
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟1 𝑞1 𝑟1 2
At P, E1 = E2 𝑘 =𝑘 =√ =
𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟2 𝑞2 𝑟2 1
r1 + r2 = 3 2 r2 + r2 = 3 3 r2 = 3 r2 = 1 cm r1= 12 cm
Thus, the point P is at a distance of 2 m from q1 and 1 m from q2 .

2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL, POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CAPACITANCE OF CAPACITOR

Electric Potential: Electric Potential at a point is the work done (by external agent) in moving a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Thus, if the work done in moving a charge q 0
from infinity to a point is W,
Electric Potential at that point V = W / q0
Potential is a Scalar quantity. S.I. Unit of potential is Joule/coulomb or Volt.
Electrostatic Potential Difference:
The electrostatic potential difference between two points is define as the amount of work done
in moving a unit positive test charge from one point to another point against electrostatic force.
Charge = q,
Work done in bringing a charge from point B to a point A = WBA = q(VA - VB)
𝑊
Potential difference between A and B = VA – VB = 𝑄𝐵𝐴 = VAB
Electric Potential at a point:
The electric potential at a point is defined as the work done per unit charge in bringing from
infinity to a point.
1 Volt: If 1 joule of work is done in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to a given
point against electrostatic force, the potential at that point is 1 volt.
Relation between the Electrostatic potential difference and line integral of the electric field:
The electrostatic potential difference between Point B and A is equal to the negative of the line
integral of the electric field from point A to point B.
VB – VA= - ∫ E. dl
Line integral of Electrostatic field
The line integral of electric field is the amount of work done in moving a unit positive test
charge from one point to another point along any point.
It is also found from the negative dot product of Electric field E and the displacement vector dl
and integrating it over the entire path.
Electric potential at any point is equal to the negative of the line integral of the electric field
from infinity to that point.
Electric Potential is a conservative quantity because it is defined as the ratio of the work done
to the charge. Since work done between two points is conserved,
i.e. it depends only on the initial and final points and independent of the point of the path.
Hence potential is a conservative quantity.
Conclusions: 01. For closed loop Potential is zero.
 28

02. If two points are situated in a uniform electric field E at a distance d apart such that the line
joining them is parallel to the field, then the potential difference between them = V = E d
Electric field at any point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient at that point.
Consider a charge +q located at a point O. Let A and B be two
points lying at a distance of r and r + dr from point O. Assume that
the points are very close such that the electric field E at these two
points is same.
Let V and V + dV be the potentials at two points A and B
respectively.
Assume that a charge +qois brought from B to A against the electric force.
Work done to move the charge =dW = F.dr = q oEdr
(- indicates that angle between force and displacement is 180o)
Work done in moving a charge from B to A = dW = -qodV
From above two equations, - E dr = dV
𝐝𝐕
𝐄 = − 𝐝𝐫
Electric Potential at a distance r from a point charge Q.
Consider a point charge Q placed at the origin O.
Consider a point P be where electric potential P to be found. Let OP = r
𝟏 𝐐
Electric field at point P = E= 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝐫𝟐
𝟎
The electric field E is directed outwards from Q.
A force F = + 1 C X E has to be applied on the charge in order
to move it against the field E
The work done in moving the unit test charge +1 C from P ’ to
P through a small distance dr is, dW=F. dr
= -E dr
Total work done in moving charge +1 C from infinity to that
point P
r
W = -∫∞ E. dr
1 Q
W = 4πe
0 r
V=W/+1C
1 Q
V =4πe r
0
Electric potential at a point P due to a system of n charges
Consider a system of charges q1, q2, ….qn with the position vectors r1,r2,
……rn. relative to some origin.
𝟏 𝐪
Potential at point P due to the charge q1 = V1 =𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝐫 𝟏
𝟎 𝟏𝐩
𝟏 𝐪𝟐
Potential at point P due to the charge q2 = V2 = 𝟒𝛑𝐞𝟎 𝐫𝟐𝐩
𝟏 𝐪𝐧
Potential at point P due to the charge qn =Vn= 𝟒𝛑𝐞𝟎 𝐫𝐧𝐩

By the superposition principle, the potential v at point P due to the total charge system
 29

𝟏 𝐪
V = V1 + V2 + V3+ ……………+Vn = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 ∑𝐧𝐢=𝟏 𝐫 𝐢
𝟎 𝐢
Electric Potential due to an Electric dipole:
Consider a dipole consists of two charges +q and –q separated by a distance of 2a. Let P be a
point where electric potential is to be found, Let the distance between point P and the centre
of the dipole is r. Similarly let the distances between +q and P be r1 and –q and P be r2. The
angle between the dipole and the line joining the centre of the dipole O and point P is θ as
shown in the figure.
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪
Potential at point P is given by V = 𝟒𝛑𝐞 (𝐫 − 𝐫 )-------(1)
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐
where r1 2 = r2 +a2 – 2ar cos θ,
r2 2 = r2 +a2 – 2ar cos (180 – θ)
= r2 +a2+ 2ar cos θ from Cosine rule.
By taking r ≫ a
2ar cos θ a2 2ar cos θ
r12 = r2(1 − + 2) =r2(1 − )
r r r
1
1 1 2a cos θ −
2
By using Binomial theorem, = [1 − ]
r1 r r
1 a cos θ
= r [1 + r
] -----(2)
1 1 2a cos θ −1/2
Similarly r2
= r [1 + r
]
1 a cos θ
= r [1 − r
] ------(3)
q 2a cos θ
By substituting (1) and (2) in equation (3), Potential V = 4πe
0 r2
1 p cos θ
V = 4πe
0 r2
𝐪 𝟐𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
If r is the unit vector along the position vector OP then, V = 𝟒𝛑𝐞
𝟎 𝐫𝟐
1 𝑝 ∙𝑟́
Potential due to a dipole at a point P is given by 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖
0 𝑟2
Electric Potential due to a dipole at a point on the axial line
Consider a dipole consisting of charges +q and –q separated by a distance of 2a. Let P be a point
on the axial line which is located at a distance of r from midpoint of the dipole.
The distance from +q to point P = r - a
The distance from –q to point P = r+a
𝟏 𝐪
The potential due to +q = V1= 𝟒𝛑𝐞 𝐫−𝐚
𝟎
𝟏 −𝐪
The potential due to -q = V2= -𝟒𝛑𝐞 -
𝟎 𝐫+𝐚
𝟏 𝟐𝐚𝐪
The potential at point P = V = V1 + V2 = 𝟒𝛑𝐞
𝟎 (𝐫 𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 )
𝟏 𝐩
V =𝟒𝛑𝐞 (𝐫 ≫ 𝐚)
𝟎 (𝐫 𝟐 )
Electric potential due to a dipole at a point along equatorial line
Consider a dipole consisting of charges +q and –q separated by a distance of 2a.
Let O be the midpoint of the dipole. Let P be a point on the perpendicular bisector lying at a
distance of r from O. Let the distance from
+q and –q to point P be x and y. x = y = √r2 + a2
 30

𝟏 𝐪
Potential due to +q at point P = V1 = 𝟒𝛑𝐞𝟎 𝐱
𝟏 −𝐪
Potential due to -q at point P=V2 = 𝟒𝛑𝐞
𝟎 𝐱
Potential at a point P = V = V1 + V2 = 0
Electric potential due to a dipole at any point making an angle θ
𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑉=𝑘
𝑟2

The variation of the potential with r for a point charge and a dipole
For a point charge, potential is inversely proportional to r, V α 1/r,
For a dipole, potential is inversely proportional to square of the distance V α 1/r2
𝑞
Electric potential due to a point charge q at a distance r: 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟
Electric potential due to a charged ring:

Radius of the ring = R

𝑞
Electric potential at distance x from the center 𝑉 = 𝑘 √𝑅2 +𝑥 2

Electric potential due to a non-conducting spherical shell

Radius of the spherical shell = R,
Surface charge density = σ = charge /Area
a. At a point inside the spherical shell (r˂R) 𝑉 =
𝑄
𝑘 𝑅
𝑄
b. At a point on the surface (r=R) 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑅
c. At a point out side the spherical shell (r˃R) 𝑉 =
𝑄
𝑘 𝑟
Electric potential due to conducting shell
Radius of the spherical shell = R
a. At a point inside the spherical shell (r˂R)
𝑄
𝑉=𝑘
𝑅
b. At a point on the surface of the spherical
𝑄
shell (r=R) 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑅
c. At a point outside the spherical shell
𝑄
(r˃R) 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟
Electric potential due to a solid non-conducting sphere
Radius = R
a. Electric potential at a point inside the sphere
𝑄
(r˂R)𝑉 = 𝑘 3 (3𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
𝑅
b. Electric potential on the surface of the
𝑄
sphere(r=R) 𝑉 = 𝑘
𝑅
 31

𝑄
b. Electric potential outside the sphere(r˃R) 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑟
Electric Potential of a charged liquid drop formed by n small charged liquid droplets:
The radius of small droplet = r Charge on small droplet = q
Radius of big drop = R Charge on big drop = Q
Charge on big drop = Q = n q ---------(1)
Let n be the no. of droplets combine to form a big drop.
Volume of big drop = n x Volume of small droplets
4 3 4
𝜋𝑅 = 𝑛 × 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
𝑅 = 𝑟 3√𝑛 ----(2)
1 𝑄
Potential of the big drop = 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 × 𝑅
0
1 𝑞
Potential of small droplet = 𝑉𝑠 = 4 𝜋𝜀 × 𝑟
0
Potential of big drop = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑛2⁄3

Equi-potential surfaces
The surface on which the potential remains constant at any point is called equi-potential
surface.
Properties:
1. Potential remains constant at any point on the surface.
2. The electric field is normal to the surface.
3. Work done by a charge from one point to another point on the surface is zero.
4. The electric field is stronger, if the surfaces are closer. It is weak, if they are far apart.
5. Two equipotential surfaces do not intersect each other.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES:
(A) A point charge (b) For a dipole

For Uniform electric field (d) Equipotential surfaces for two identical charges

01. The work done by the test charge in moving from one point to another point on the
Equi-potential surface is zero.
Consider two points A and B on equi-potential surface. Let q be a charge on the surface moving
from point B to A. Let V1 and V2 be the potentials at these two points on the surface.
 32

Work done in moving a charge from A to B = WAB = Vq

=(V1 – V2) q
Since potential at every point is same on the surface, V1 = V2
W = 0.
02. The electric field is perpendicular to the displacement vector on the equipotential surface.
OR Prove that electric field is normal to displacement vector.
Consider a unit test charge is moved from point A to point B on equipotential surface. Let E be
electric field and dl be displacement vector from point A to point B.
Let θ be the angle between electric field and displacement vector.
Work done by moving a charge = W = F.dr = E.dl = E dl Cosθ
since work done by moving a charge on equipotential surface is zero.
E dl cosθ = 0 cosθ = 0 θ = 90o
Electric field is perpendicular to displacement vector.
03. Two equi-potential surfaces do not intersect each other.
If two surfaces intersect, then at the points of intersection, there will be two values of electric
potential. This is not possible; hence two surfaces can not intersect.
04.The equi-potential surfaces for a uniform electric field.
Equi-potential surfaces for a uniform electric field E are the planes at right angles to the field
lines. They are very close for strong fields and distant for weak fields.
For a plane equi-potential surface, the source charge is located at infinity.
The equi-potential surfaces are closer together, where the electric field is stronger and
further apart, where the electric field is weaker.
The electric field at any point E= - d V / d r d r = - d V/E
or dr α 1/ E
If the spacing between the surfaces is smaller, the electric field is stronger and vice versa.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY: Electrostatic potential energy of a system of charges is
the total amount of work done (by external agency) in brining them from infinity to the present
arrangement in the system.
Potential energy of a system of two charges:
Potential energy of a system of charges is the work done in assembling the charges at their
location.
Let q1,, q2 be the charges are at the positions r1,r2 respectively in an external field with
reference to a point P, The distance between the two charges is given by r12.
𝟏 𝐪
The electric potential at point r2 = V(r2) = 𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝐫 𝟐
𝟎 𝟏𝟐
Work done in bringing charge q2 against the field of charge q1 = q1V(r2)
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪
Potential energy of a system =𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝐫𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟏𝟐
Potential energy of a charge q in an external potential V (r)= P.E. =q V(r)
1 ELECTRON-VOLT(1eV): The work done in accelerating an electron under a potential difference
of 1 V is 1 electron Volt. 1eV=1.610-19 J.
Work done W = Charge of electron x Potential
W=e*1V =1eV = 1.610-19 J
Potential energy of a system of three point charges. And also write for a system of N charges.
 33

𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝐪𝟑 𝟏 𝐪𝟑 𝐪𝟏
System of three charges =𝟒𝛑𝛆 + 𝟒𝛑𝛆 + 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝐫𝟏𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝐫𝟐𝟑 𝟎 𝐫𝟑𝟏
𝟏 𝐧 𝐍 𝐪𝐢 𝐪𝐣
System of N charges = ½ -∑ ∑
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐢=𝟏 𝐣=𝟏 𝐫𝐢𝐣
i≠ 𝐣

EXPRESSION FOR THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF THE SYSTEM OF TWO POINT CHARGES IN
EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD:
Work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1 =q1 V(r1)
Work done in bringing the charge q2 from infinity to r2 against the external electric field =q2 V(r2)
𝟏 𝐪 𝐪
Work done = Work done on q2 against the field due to q1 + q2V(r2) = q2 V(r2) + 𝟒𝛑𝛆 𝐫𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
Potential energy of the system = q1V(r1)+ q2 V(r2) + 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎 𝐫𝟏𝟐
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
DIELECTRICS: The insulators in which microscopic local displacement of charges takes place in
presence of electric field are known as dielectrics.
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH: Dielectric strength is defined as the maximum value of electric field that
a dielectric can tolerate without breakdown.
Unit is volt/metre.
Dielectrics are non conductors upto certain value of field depending on its nature. If the field
exceeds this limiting value called dielectric strength they lose their insulating property and
begin to conduct.
TYPES OF DIELECTRICS: 1. Polar Dielectrics 2. Non-Polar dielectrics
Polar dielectrics:
a. A dielectric in which the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge do not
coincide, is called Polar dielectric.
Ex. Water, Alcohol, CO2 , HCl, NH3
b. They have permanent dipole moment.
c. It is due to asymmetric shape of the molecules.
d. The dipole are randomly oriented so average dipole moment per unit volume of polar
dielectric in absence of external field is nearly zero.
e. In presence of external field dipoles tends to align in direction of field.
Non polar dielectrics
a. A dielectric in which the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge coincide,
is called Polar dielectric.
Ex. Nitrogen, Oxygen, Benzene, Methane
b. They have zero dipole moment in normal state i.e. in the absence of external electric field.
c. It is due to symmetric shape of the molecules.
d. In presence of external field they acquire induced dipole moment.
Conditions obeyed by the conductors in
electrostatic field:

(i) The electrostatic field inside a

conductor is zero.
 34

(ii) Electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every point at the surface of a charged
conductor.
(iii) There is no charge inside the conductor. Volume charge density is zero.
(iv) Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the
same value as inside on its surface.
(v)Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E = σ/Є o.
(vi) The charge and electric field inside a cavity of a conductor is zero. This is called electrostatic
shielding.
vii) The interior of a conductor can have no excess of the charge in static situation.
Electrostatic field is zero inside a conductor.
Consider a conductor inside an external electrostatic field. In static situation, when there is no
current inside or on the surface of conductor, the electric field is zero everywhere inside the
conductor.
As long as electric field is not zero, the free electrons experience a force and drift. In static
situation, they are distributed themselves that the electric field is zero everywhere inside.
When a conductor is placed in an external electric field, its electrons begin to move on the
opposite direction of external electric field. Negative charges are induced on the left and
positive charges are induced on the right of conductor. This process continues till induced
electric field by the induced charges become equal and opposite to the field. The net field in
side a conductor is zero.
The electric field is normal to the surface of the conductor at every point. Explain.
Suppose that electric field E is not perpendicular to the surface of the conductor. Let E makes
angle θ with the surface of the conductor.
E cos θ is tangential component.
This component leads to the surface current, flow of the charge carriers. But, there is no
current in electrostatics because conductor is placed in an electrostatic field.
E cos θ = 0 θ = 90 degrees.
The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
The electric field inside a conductor is zero. Electric field E = - d V/dr = 0
d V = 0 or V = constant or potential difference between any two points is zero inside or out side
the conductor
ELECTRIC FIELD AT THE SURFACE OF THE CONDUCTOR
Consider a pill box as the Gaussian surface about any point P on the surface, as shown in the fig.
The pill box is partially inside and partly outside the surface of the conductor, Let the area of
cross section be ∆𝑆.
Electrostatic field is zero just inside the surface.
Electric field is normal to the surface outside the
surface.
Total flux through the pill box = E. ∆𝑆 = E ∆𝑆
Charge enclosed by the pill box = 𝜎 ∆𝑆
From Gauss Law, E ∆𝑆 = 𝜎 ∆𝑆/ ε0
𝝈
E=𝝐
𝟎
 35

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
If there is a cavity of any shape inside a conductor, the
field there will be strictly zero. This property is called
electrostatic shielding because any thing placed inside
the cavity will be completely shielded from external
fields. All charges reside on the outer surface of a
conductor with a cavity. So any region can be isolated
from external fields by surrounding it with a conducting
sheet. Thus electric field inside a cavity of a conductor is
zero.
EXAMPLE: In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safer to be inside a car, rather
than near a tree or on the open ground.
Applications:
During lighting, it is safer to be inside a car than near tree. The metallic body of car acts as
shielding.
To prevent the electric interaction, the neighboring circuits in the electronic devices are
shielded by placing metal shields around sensitive components.
Capacitor: An arrangement of two conducting pieces separated by an insulating medium is
called capacitor.
Uses of capacitor: (i) To store the charge (ii) To store the energy.
Capacitance of a capacitor
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the charge required to raise the potential by unity.
It is denoted by a symbol C.
C = q/ V where q = charge, V = potential difference between two conductors
Unit : Farad.
1 Farad: The capacitance of a capacitor is said to be 1 Farad if 1 coulomb of charge raises its
potential by 1 Volt.
PRINCIPLE OF CAPACITOR:
Consider a positively charged metal conductor, A, and
place an uncharged conductor, B, close to it, as shown
in the figure below. Due to induction, the closer face
of conductor B acquires a negative charge and its
farther face acquires a positive charge. The negative
charge on conductor B tends to reduce the potential
on conductor A, while the positive charge, on conductor B, tends to increase the potential on A.
As the negative charge, of conductor plate B, is closer to conductor A, than its positive charge,
so the net effect is that the potential of A is decreased by a small amount, and hence, the
charge needed to raise its potential, to a given value increases by a small amount Now if the
positive face of plate B is earthed, its positive charge gets neutralized due to the flow of
electrons from the earth to the plate B. The negative charge, on B, is held in position due to the
positive charge on A. The negative charge on B reduces the potential of A considerably and
hence increases the magnitude of charge that would increase its potential by a given value by a
large amount.
 36

Hence we see that the ability, of an isolated conductor, to store charge, is considerably
increased when we place an earthed connected conductor near it. Such a system of two
conductors is called a capacitor
So capacitor is an assembly of two conductors separated by an insulating medium and it is used
to store electric energy by accumulating charge on the conductors.
The two conductors have equal and, opposite charges, +Q and –Q, and there is a potential
difference, V, between the conductors.
If Q is the magnitude of the charge, given to either plate of the capacitor, and V is the potential
difference between its two plates it is known that, the magnitude of the charge Q, is directly
proportional to potential difference between the two conductors, 𝑄∝𝑉 or Q=CV
The constant of proportionality is called the capacitance of the capacitor
𝐀𝐞
The factors on which the capacitance of a capacitor depends: Formula C = 𝐝 𝐨
1. Cross sectional area
2. Distance between two conductors
3. Medium between two conductors
4. Geometrical Arrangement of the conductors
The capacitance of a capacitor also depends on the presence of conductors present in
neighborhood and is independent of the material of metallic conductor.
Two conductors have a charges q1 and q2 with the potentials V1 and V2.
Consider two conductors of charges q1 and q2 with the potentials V1 and V2.
Charge = ∆q = q1 - q2 Potential = ∆V = V1 - V2
∆𝐪
Capacitance of capacitor = C = ∆𝐕

Can a metal sphere of radius 1 cm hold a charge of 1 coulomb? Justify.

R = 1cm = 1 X 10-2 m q=1C
𝟏
V = k q/R where k = 𝟒𝛑𝛆
𝟎
= 9 X 1011 V
The potential is very large. It ionizes the air. The charge on the metallic sphere will leak into
surrounding air.
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor.

Consider an isolated spherical conductor of radius r in vacuum.

Let a charge q be given to the sphere which is assumed to be
concentrated at the centre O of the sphere.
𝟏 𝐪
The potential at any point on the surface of the sphere = V= 𝟒𝛑𝐞
𝟎 𝐫
Capacitance of capacitor C = q/V
C= 4πЄo r
For earth, radius of earth= 6.4 X 106 m
Then capacitance C = 711 X 10-6 F.
Capacitance of Isolated spherical conductor C α r.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
 37

It consists of two parallel plates separated a small distances with an insulating medium
between them.
Consider two plates L and M of surface charge densities +σ and –σ and area of cross section A.
Let d be the distance between two plates and the medium is vacuum.

If charge +q is given to plate L, then charge –q is

induced on the left face of the plate M.
When plate M is earthen, the charge +q on the right
face flows to the earth. Due to the charge +q on
plate L and –q on plate M, the electric field E is set
up between the two plates.
Electric field E0 = σ / Єo
If V is the potential difference between two plates,
V0 = E0 d= σd / Єo
Charge q = σ A
Capacitance of a capacitor = Co = q / V0
Aϵ
C0 = d 0
Let E and V be the electric field and potential difference between two plates with a dielectric
medium of dielectric constant K
In the presence of a dielectric V = E d
𝐸
𝑉 = ( 𝐾0 ) 𝑑
1 𝜎
𝑉 =𝐾×𝜖 ×𝑑
0
𝑞
Capacitance of the capacitor with a dielectric medium 𝐶 = 𝑉
𝐾∈ 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑑0
C = K Co
Energy stored in parallel plate capacitor and also derive an expression for energy density.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor consisting of two plates of area cross section A and
surface charge densities +σ and –σ respectively.
Let d be the distance between the two plates and the medium between the plates be air.
Let Cobe the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
If V is the potential difference across the plates,
then Potential difference V is given by V = q /Co
Assume that a source of emf is connected across the plates of capacitor. The capacitor gets
charged. There is a transfer of charge from one plate to another.
Let d q be the amount the charge transferred from one to another.
Let dW be the work done by the transfer of the charge d q.
𝑞
d W = V d q = q / Co d q 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑞
0
Let The total work done in transfer of charge q be W
𝑞
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐶 𝑑𝑞
0
𝑞2
𝑊 = 2𝐶
0
 38

1
By substituting q = Co V, 𝑊 = 2 𝐶0 𝑉 2
The work done by the charge carriers is stored in the form of energy across the capacitor.
But Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor Co = (ЄoA )/ d,
Potential difference V = Electric field * distance =Ed
1 ∈ 𝐴
Energy stored in capacitor 𝑈0 = × 0 × (𝐸𝑑 )2
2 𝑑
1
Energy =𝑈 = 2 ∈0 𝐸 2 × 𝐴𝑑
But Product of area and distance is Volume
Energy per unit volume is called as energy density uE.
(uE)o = ½ Єo E2
If the medium between two plates is filled with a dielectric of dielectric constant K,
the energy density uE = ½ K Єo E2 = K (uE )o
Equivalence Capacitance C when three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in (i) Series (ii)
Parallel combination.
Show that the energy stored in the series combination is same as in the parallel combination.
Series Combination:

Consider three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in

series to a source of emf V.
The charge +q is accumulated on the left plate of first
capacitor and –q is accumulated on the right plate of
capacitor.
Same way, the same amount of charge is accumulated.
Each capacitor has same charge q when they are connected in series.
Let C be the equivalence capacitance of the combination.
Let the potential differences across three capacitors C 1, C2 and C3 be V1, V2 and V3 respectively.
Total potential difference V = V1+ V2 + V3
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
= + +
𝐶 𝐶 1 𝐶 𝐶
2 3
1 1 1 1
=𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶
𝐶 1 2 3
Energy stored :
When a series combination of capacitors is charged through a battery, the charge on the left
plate of each capacitor is q, while induced charges +q and –q are produced pn the right plate of
each capacitor.
The net charge stored in the series combination = q
The total energy = U = q2 / 2C
U = U1 +U2 +U3
The energy stored in series combination of the capacitors is equal to the sum of the energies
across individual capacitors.
Parallel Combination:

Consider three capacitors C1 ,C2 ,C3 connected in parallel to a

source of potential difference V.
 39

In parallel combination, the parallel branches have same potential differences, but charge
accumulated across each capacitor will be q1, q2 and q3 respectively.
Let C be the equivalent capacitance of these capacitors.
Let q be the total charge. q = q1 + q2 + q3
CV = C1 V + C2 V + C3 V
C = C 1 + C2 + C3
Energy Stored
Suppose that three capacitors of capacitances C1 , C2 ,and C3 are connected in parallel to the
battery. The resultant capacitance of the parallel combination is given by C = C1 + C2 + C3
When a parallel combination of capacitors is charged through a battery, the potential
difference across the two plates is equal to the applied voltage.
The total energy stored = U = ½ C V2
= ½ (C1 + C2 + C3) V2
= U1+ U2 + U3
The total energy stored in parallel combination of the capacitors is equal to the sum of the
energies stored in the individual capacitors.
IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS:
If two capacitors of capacitances have the parameters as follows:
Capacitor 1 - C1 : Area of each plate A1 , distance between two plates d1
The permittivity of the medium between two plates = ε 1 = k1 ε0
Capacitor 2 - C2 : Area of each plate A2 , distance between two plates d2
The permittivity of the medium between two plates = ε 2 = k2 ε0
1. When they are connected in series combination:
Area is same, but the distance is divided in series combination
𝑘 𝑘
The equivalent Capacitance 𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝐴 (𝑑 𝑘 1+𝑑2 𝑘 )
1 2 2 1
𝜀0 𝐴 𝑘 𝑘
a. If the distance between two plates is same in both capacitors 𝐶 = (𝑘 1+𝑘2 )
𝑑 1 2
b. If the distance between two plates of the capacitors is d/2
𝜀0 𝐴 2 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐶= ( )
𝑑 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
2. When they are connected in parallel combination:
Distance is same, but the area is divided in parallel combination
𝜀
The equivalent Capacitance 𝐶 = 𝑑0 (𝑘1 𝐴1 + 𝑘2 𝐴2 )
𝜀0 𝐴
a. If the Area of each plate is same both capacitors 𝐶 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )
𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴
b. If the area of each plate is A/2, 𝐶 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘1 )
𝑑

PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC SLAB:

When the space between the parallel plate capacitor is
partly filled with a dielectric of thickness t(< d)
If no slab is introduced between the plates of the
𝜎
capacitor, then a field E0 given by E0= , exists in a space
𝜀0
 40

d. On inserting the slab of thickness t, a field E0 = σ/ε0 exists inside the slab of thickness t and a
field Eo exists in remaining space (d-t).
When a dielectric slab is inserted, the field E0 polarizes the dielectric.
This induces a charge - Q0 on upper surface and a charge + Q0 on lower surface.
These charges set up a field Ep opposite to the electric field E0.
The electric field due to induced charges E = E0- Ep = E/K.
E
If V is total potential then V = E0 (d-t) +K t But E = E0 /K
𝑡
𝑉 = 𝐸0 [𝑑 − 𝑡 + 𝐾 ]
𝐪 𝐪
But 𝛔 = 𝐀 and E0 = 𝐀𝛜
𝟎
𝐀𝛜𝐨
Then C= 𝟏
𝐝−𝐭(𝟏− )
𝐊
So, on introducing a dielectric slab of thickness t and dielectric constant K the capacitance
increases.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH CONDUCTING SLAB
When the space between the parallel plate capacitor is partly filled by a conducting slab of
𝜎
thickness t(< d).If no conducting slab is introduced between the plates, then a field E0= 𝜀 , exists
0
in a space d.
If Co be the capacitance (without the introduction of conducting slab), then
𝛜 𝐀
𝐂𝐨 = 𝐨
𝐝
𝛔 = 𝐪/𝐀
On inserting the slab, field inside it is zero and so
𝝈
E0 = 𝜺 ,
𝟎
The Potential difference in the region (d-t) = V = E0 (d-t)
C = q/V
𝐂
C = 𝟎𝐭
𝟏−
𝐝
Since t < d, C > C0
If a conducting slab is inserted between two plates of capacitor, the capacitance increases
If t=d, then C   i.e if a conducting slab occupies the complete space between the plates of
capacitors, then C   .
COMMON POTENTIAL AND THE LOSS OF ENERGY

Consider two capacitors of capacitances C1 and C2 . Assume that these capacitors are charged
by the potentials V1 and V2 respectively.
 41

Assume that they are connected by a conducting wire. Charge flows from higher potential to
lower potentials. This process continues, till the potential of both capacitors become equal. This
potential is called Common Potential.
Total charge on both capacitors before sharing = Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = C1 V1 + C2 V2 ------(1)
Let V be the common potential.
Since they are connected in parallel, equivalent capacitance C = C 1 + C2 ----(2)
Total charge on both capacitors after sharing Q = C V
Q = (C1 + C2 ) V ---------------(3)
By using law of conservation of charge,
Total charge after sharing = Total charge before sharing
(C1 + C2 ) V = C1 V1 + C2 V2
𝐶 𝑉 +𝐶 𝑉
Common Potential 𝑉 = 1𝐶1 +𝐶2 2 --------------------------------------------(4)
1 2
Total energy before sharing = U = U1 + U2
1 1
𝑈 = 2 𝐶1 𝑉12 + 2 𝐶2 𝑉22 -----------------------(5)
1
Total energy after sharing 𝑈 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 --------------------------------------(6)
By substituting equation (2) and equation (4) in equation (6)
1 (𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2 )2
Total energy after sharing 𝑈 = 2 -------------------------------------------(7)
𝐶1 +𝐶2
Loss of Energy = Total energy before sharing - Total energy after sharing
1 𝐶1 𝐶2 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
∆𝑈 = 2 (𝐶1 +𝐶2 )
--------------------------------------------------(8)
The charge on first capacitor Q1 = C1 V ------------------------------------(9)
The charge on second capacitor Q2 = C2 V ------------------------------(10)
From equations (9) and (10),
𝑄1 𝐶
= 𝐶1 -----------------------------------------------(11)
𝑄2 2
The ratio of charge after sharing is equal to the ratio of capacitance of capacitors
𝑄 𝐶 𝑎
If the capacitors are spherical capacitors of radii a and b, the 𝑄1 = 𝐶1 = 𝑏
2 2
Effect of dielectric when battery is disconnected:
Let K be the dielectric constant, Let d be the distance between two plates
Before inserting the dielectric between two plates of a capacitor,
Let the charge be Q0 Capacitance of capacitor C0 Potential difference V0
Electric field E0 Energy stored in the capacitor U0
Charge Q0 = C0 V0 -------------------------(1)
𝑉
Electric field 𝐸0 = 𝑑0 -------------------------(2)
1
Energy 𝑈0 = 2 𝐶0 𝑉02 -----------------------(3)
Since battery is disconnected, Charge on the pates remains constant. Q = Q 0 = C0 V0 -----(4)
𝐸
Electric field 𝐸 = 𝐾0 ------------(5)
Potential difference V=Ed
𝐸 𝑑
𝑉 = 𝐾0
 42

𝑉0
𝑉= -----------(6)
𝐾
𝑄 𝑄0
Capacitance of capacitor 𝐶=𝑉= 𝑉
𝑄
𝐶 = 𝑉 ⁄0𝐾
0
𝑄
𝐶 = 𝐾 𝑉0
0
C = K C0 --------(7)
1
Energy stored 𝑈 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 ---------(8)
𝑈
By substituting equations 7, and 6, 𝑈 = 0 -----------(9)
𝐾
Effect of dielectric when battery is connected:
Let K be the dielectric constant, Let d be the distance between two plates
Before inserting the dielectric between two plates of a capacitor,
Let the charge be Q0 Capacitance of capacitor C0
Potential difference V0 Electric field E0 Energy stored in the capacitor U0
Charge Q0 = C0 V0 -------------------------(1)
𝑉
Electric field 𝐸0 = 𝑑0 -------------------------(2)
1
Energy 𝑈0 = 2 𝐶0 𝑉02 -----------------------(3)
Battery remains connected, Potential difference V = V0 -----------------------(4)
𝑉 𝑉
Electric field 𝐸 = = 0 = 𝐸0 -----------------(5)
𝑑 𝑑
Capacitance of capacitor C = K C0 -------------------(6)
Charge Q=CV
Q = K C0 V0
Q = K Q0 -----------------(7)
1
Energy stored 𝑈 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2
1
𝑈 = 2 𝐾𝐶0 𝑉02
U = K U0 -----------------------------------(8)
Effect of dielectric between two plates of capacitor:
Sl. No Physical quantity With battery connecting Without battery or disconnecting
1 Charge Q = K Q0 Q = Q0
2 Potential difference V = V0 𝑉0
𝑉=
𝐾
3 Electric field E = E0 𝐸0
𝐸=
𝐾
4 Capacitance C = K C0 C = K C0
5 Energy U = K U0 𝑈0
𝑈=
𝐾
INSULATORS (DIELECTRICS)
Materials which do not allow current to flow through them are called insulators or dielectrics.
While the electrons in such materials remain bound within their individual molecules, thus
preserving the overall neutrality of each molecule, they are affected by external electric fields
because the positive and negative charges tend to shift in opposite directions.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIELECTRICS:
 43

Dielectric substances are of two types.

NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS: In such dielectrics the centre of mass of all the positive charges
(protons)in a molecule coincides with the centre of mass of all the negative charges (electrons).
Therefore they are not only electrically neutral but also possess zero dipole moments.
In the presence of an external field, the two centers of charge get slightly separated and each
molecule becomes a dipole, having a small dipole moment. This is because the protons
experience a force in the direction of the applied field while the electrons experience a force in
the opposite direction. Thus in the presence of a field the dielectric gets polarized.
Examples: Hydrogen, Carbon-di-oxide etc.
This is due to their symmetrical shape. They do not have dipole moment.
POLAR DIELECTRICS: In polar dielectrics the centre of mass of the protons in a molecule does
not coincide with the centre of mass of the electrons. This is due to the asymmetric shape
of the molecule. Thus each molecule behaves as a dipole having a permanent dipole moment.
In the presence of an external applied field, these dipoles tend to align themselves along the
field and their dipole moments may also increase.
Examples: HCl, Water, Ammonia, etc
They do not have symmetrical shapes. They have a permanent dipole moment.
BEHAVIOUR OF A CONDUCTOR AND A DIELECTRIC IN AN EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD:

Polarization: Polarisation of a dielectric is a process of inducing the equal and opposite charges
on the two opposite faces of the dielectric in the presence of electric field.
It is also defined as the induced dipole moment per unit volume of a substance. It is
represented P.
P α E P = χeE where χe= Electric susceptibility of dielectric medium.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

The electric field change in the presence of a dielectric slab:

Consider parallel conducting plates having vacuum between the plats.
Let E0 be the electric field between two plates.
 44

If +σ be the surface charge density of positive plate and -σ be the surface charge density of
negative plate,
Then Applied electric field = E0 = σ / Є0
Assume that a non-polar dielectric is introduced between the plates. Each atom will be
elongated due to the displacement of the charges under the effect of applied electric field. The
atom is polarized.
Each atom of the dielectric experiences a torque in the direction of the field and all the dipoles
get aligned in the direction of the applied field.
The interior charges cancel the effect of one another.
The net effect is that the opposite faces of the dielectric will have equal and opposite charges.
These charges are called induced charges and the process is called Polarization of dielectric.
Let Ep be the induced electric field.
If +σp and -σp be the charge densities of the opposite faces of the dielectric,
Electric field due to Polarization = Ep= +σp/ Єo E0 is opposite to Ep.
𝛔− 𝛔𝟎
Net electric field E = E0 – Ep =
𝛜𝟎
Net electric field gets reduced
𝐸
The ratio K = 𝐸𝑝 is called the dielectric constant of the material.
K = E0 / E
E = E o – Ep where Eo= applied electric field
Ep= Electric field in side dielectric slab due to polarization
Since, Eo>Ep, E is less than Eo K>1
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
The dielectric strength of a dielectric is the maximum value of the electric field that can be
applied to the dielectric without its electric breakdown, i.e., without liberating electrons from
its atoms (or molecules).

Effect of electric field on non-polar molecules: Induced dipole moment:

In an external electric field, The centre of positive charges

and the centre of negative charges of non-polar molecules
are displaced by a small distance.

The non-polar molecule develops an induced dipole

moment. The dielectric said to be polarized.
Induced dipole moment disappears as soon as the electric
field is removed.
Induced dipole moment p α E
p = α Єo E where α = Atomic Polarisability.
Unit of Atomic Polarisability is Metre3 same as that of the Volume.
Effect of external electric field on polar molecules:
In the absence of external field, the permanent dipoles
are oriented randomly due to thermal agitation, so that
the total dipole moment is zero.
 45

When an external field is applied, the individual dipole moments tend to align with the field. In
total they develop a net dipole moment in direction of the electric field.

The polar dielectric is polarized.

The extent of polarization depends on two factors.
The dipole energy in the external field tending to align the dipole with the field and
the thermal energy tending to disrupt the alignment.
POLARISATION DENSITY: - The induced dipole moment developed per unit volume in a
dielectric slab on placing it inside the electric field is called polarisation
Polarisation in terms of induced Dipole moment:

Consider a dielectric slab. Assume that n be the no. of atoms per

unit volume of the dielectric.
In the presence of electric field, Let p be the induced dipole
moment developed in each atom.
Let P be the polarization, then P α p P = n p.

1. Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Conductor C = 4 π ε0 R

2. Capacitance of a spherical capacitor

Radius of inner sphere = a

Radius of outer sphere = b
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑎 𝑏
a. Outer sphere is earthed 𝐶 = 𝑏 −𝑎
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑏 2
b. Inner sphere is earthed 𝐶 = 𝑏 −𝑎

𝜺𝟎 𝑨
3. Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor 𝑪 = 𝒅

4. Cylindrical capacitor

Length of cylindrical capacitor = l,

Radius of inner cylinder = R1
Radius of outer cylinder = R2
𝟐 𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒍
𝑪=
𝑹
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 (𝑹𝟐 )
𝟏

1. A dielectric is introduced between the plates of a charged capacitor while potential

difference is held constant. How does it affect the capacitance, charge, electric field and
energy?
Keeping the potential difference constant means the battery remains connected to the
capacitor. Pot. Diff. = constant
 46

Capacitance increases. C = K CoCharge also increases q = C Vo

Electric field remains same E = Vo / d
Energy stored across capacitor increases U = K Uo
2. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery, which is then disconnected. A dielectric
slab is then inserted in the space between the plates. Explain what changes may occur in (i)
Charge(ii) capacitance (iii) potential difference (iv) Electric field (v) energy.
When battery is disconnected, the charge remains constant throughout.
Hence there is no change in charge. Q = constant
Capacitance increases C = K C’
Potential difference between the plates decreases V = q/C
Electric field decreases as the potential difference decreases E = V/d
Energy stored by the capacitor decreases. U = q2 / 2 C
3. A parallel plate capacitor with the air as dielectric is charged by dc source to a potential V.
Without disconnecting the capacitor from the source, air is replaced by another dielectric
medium of dielectric constant 10. State with the reason, how does (i) electric field between
the plates and (ii) the energy stored in the capacitor change.
E=V/d Electric field does not change
2
Energy U’ = ½ C’ V
C’ = K C = 10 C
So, U’ = K U = 10 U
4. A parallel plate capacitor with air between its plate having plate area of 6 * 10 -3 m2 and
separation between them 3 mm is connected to 100 V supply. Find the charge on each plate
of the capacitor.
Explain what would happen when a 3 mm thick mica sheet of dielectric constant K = 6 is
inserted between the plates (i) while the voltage supply remains connected (ii) after the supply
is disconnected.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor C = Єo A / d
A = 6 x 10-3 m2 d = 3 x 10-3 m C = 17.7 pF V= 100 V
-9
Q = C V = 17.7 x 10 C
C’ = K C = 6 x 17.7 x10-9 F = 106.2 pF
V = 100V
Q’ = C’ V = 1.08 x 10-8 C
On disconnection of the supply, the charge on the capacitor is same.
Introduction of mica in the space between plates, the capacity increases.
But voltage decrease.
Q = same = 17.7 n C C’ = 106.2 pF
V’ = Q / C’ = 16.6 V
5. If a capacitor is disconnected from the battery, what will be the energy stored in the
capacitor when (i) separation between the plates is doubled and (ii) an uncharged and
identical capacitor is connected across it.
(i) Energy = ½ C V2 = Q2 / 2 C C = Єo A / d
If distance d is doubled Capacitance becomes half of the original, but Q remains constant.
C’ = C/2
2
Energy U = Q / 2 C’ Energy is doubled
 47

When an uncharged capacitor is connected across the capacitor,

The capacitance of the combination C’ = C + C = 2C
Charge is equally distributed among both of them.
Charge on each capacitor = Q’ = Q / 2
Energy stored in the capacitor = ( Q’)2 / 2 C’
By substituting, the energy becomes ¼ th of original one.
6. Two point charges + 4 C and – 6C are separated by a distance of 20 cm in air. At what point
on the line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero.
𝐤 (+𝟒) 𝐤 (−𝟔)
Let x be a point where potential is zero from +4 C., - =0
𝐱 𝟎.𝟐−𝐱
By solving them, x = 8 cm.
7. A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100V battery.
a ) What is the electrostatic energy stored by the capacitor ?
The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to another 900pF capacitor.
b) What is the electrostatic energy stored in the system?
The charge on the capacitor = Q1 = C1 V1 = 900 x 10-12 x 100 = 9 x 10-8 C
1
The energy stored by the capacitor = 2 𝐶1 𝑉12 = 4.5 × 10−6 𝐽
Charge stored in the second capacitor Q2 = 0
When two capacitors are connected together, charge will flow from the charged capacitor to
the uncharged capacitor till both the capacitors reach common potential V
𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑉= = 50 𝑉
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Equivalent capacitance C = C1 + C2 = 1800 pF
1
The energy stored in the system = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2.25 × 10−6 𝐽
Loss in energy = final energy – initial energy = 4.5 x 10-6 - 2.25 x 10-6 = 2.25 x 10-6 J
8. When two capacitors of equal capacitance C are connected in series, the equivalent
capacitance is X. When they are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is Y. Find the
relation between (a) C, X and Y. And also calculate X/Y.
1 1 1
Series combination: 𝑋 = 𝐶 + 𝐶
1 2
1 1 1
= +
𝑋 𝐶 𝐶
1 2
=
𝑋 𝐶
X = C/2 -------------(1)
Parallel combination, Y = C1 + C2 = C + C = 2 C
Y = 2 C----------(2)
𝐶
(a) From (1) and (2) 𝑋 × 𝑌 = 2 × 2𝐶
XY =C2
𝑋 𝐶 ⁄2 𝑋 1
(b) From (1) and (2) 𝑌 = 2𝐶 =
𝑌 4
9. When n capacitors of equal capacitance C are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance
is X. When they are connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is Y. Find the relation
between (a) C, X and Y. And also calculate X/Y.
Ans: XY = C2 Y = n2 X
 48

BOARD PREVIOUS YEAR EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Consider two hollow concentric spheres, S1 & S2 , enclosing
charges 2Q & 4Q respectively as shown.
(i) Find out the ratio of the electric flux through them.
(ii) how will the electric flux through the sphere S1 change, if a
medium of dielectric constant is introduced K in the space inside S1
in place of air ?
Deduce the necessary expression.
2𝑄
(A) 𝜑1 = 𝜀0
2𝑄 +4𝑄 6𝑄
𝜑2 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜑1 1
=
𝜑2 3
1 2𝑄
(B) 𝜑1 = 𝐾 × 𝜀0
2. The graph shows the variation of voltage V across the plates of two capacitors A and B
versus increase of charge Q stored on them. Which of the capacitors has higher capacitance ?
Give reason for your answer
Capacitance C = = Q / V
Slope = Reciprocal of capacitance = 1/C
B has higher capacitance.

3.CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CURRENT: The rate of flow of net charge is called the current through that region.
If a net charge Q flows thorough a cross section of the material in a time interval t,
the average current through the material is; given by I = Q/ t
The S.I. unit of current:: Ampere (A).
Definition of 1 Ampere:
It is the steady current maintained in each of two long straight, parallel conductors of negligible
cross section, and placed one meter apart in vacuum, would produce a force is equal to 2 x 10 -7
Newton per meter of length on each of the conductor.
Carriers of current:
The conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers.
In metals, mobile charge carriers are electrons;
In an ionised gas, mobile charge carriers are electrons and positive charged ions;
In an electrolyte, mobile charge carriers are both positive and negative ions.
In a semi-conductor, the mobile charge carriers are electrons and holes.
In ionic crystals and electrolytic liquids. the mobile charge carriers are Positive and Negative
ions
The direction of current is taken as the direction in which positive charges move.
The conductivity of electrolyte is low as compared to the conductivity of metal at room
temperature.
 49

Conductivity of a substance depends upon (i) the number density of charge carriers and (ii)
the drift velocity of charge carriers. In an electrolyte, charge carriers are positive and
negative ions, while charge carriers in a metal are free electrons. The number density of ions
in electrolytes is less than the number density of free electrons in metals. Moreover, ions are
massive compared to that of free electrons, so the drift velocity of ions in the electrolyte is
less than the drift velocity of free electrons in metals. Due to these reasons, the conductivity
of an electrolyte is very low as compared to that of a metal.

Electromotive Force
The E.M.F(  ) of the source is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive in taking a
positive charge through the seat of the e.m.f from the low potential end to the high potential
end.
Thus  = W/q

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:

1. The potential difference between the two electrodes in a open circuit is called Electro motive
force.
The difference between the potentials across two ends of resistor in a closed circuit is
called Potential difference.
2. Electromotive force is a cause and potential difference is an effect.
3. Electromotive force is greater than potential difference.
AVERAGE VELOCITY OF ELECTRONS: In the absence of an electric field, the free electrons in a
metal move randomly in all directions and therefore their average velocity is zero.
DRIFT VELOCITY: Drift velocity of free electrons is defined as the average velocity with which
the free electrons get drifted towards the positive end of the conductor under the influence of
an external electric field
When an electric field is applied, electrons are accelerated opposite to the direction of the field.
Therefore they have a net drift in that direction. However, due to frequent collisions with the
atoms, their average velocity is very small.
This average velocity with which the electrons move in a conductor opposite to direction to the
electric field is called the drift velocity. It is denoted by v d.
If E is the applied field, e is the charge of an electron and m is the mass of an electron.
The force acting on an electron due to electric field = - e E
According to Newton’s 2nd Law The force acting on it = ma.
ma=-eE
−𝑒𝐸
The acceleration of the electron 𝑎 = 𝑚
−𝑒𝐸
Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏
RELAXATION TIME: The time between two successive collisions is called Relaxation time. It is
denoted by symbol 𝜏.
If  is the average time between successive collisions (called relaxation time)
Then the drift velocity is vd = a 
−𝑒𝐸
Drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏
 50

MOBILITY: It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the drift velocity to the electric field.
It is denoted by a symbol μ.
|𝑣 |
Mobility = 𝜇 = 𝐸𝑑
The unit of mobility: m2/(Volt-sec)
𝑉 −𝑒𝐸𝜏 1
Mobility 𝜇 = 𝐸𝑑 𝜇 = 𝑚 ×𝐸
−𝑒𝜏
𝜇=
𝑚
From above equation mobility is inversely proportional to mass, electron will have higher
mobility.
Mobility is positive.
OHM'S LAW At constant Temperature, the Potential Difference between two ends of a
conductor is directly proportional to the current across the conductor.
V I Or V=IR
Where R = Resistance.
The graph between Potential difference and current I is a straight line passing through origin.
The slope of the graph gives the resistance.
Ohm's law holds true for metallic conductors.
Ohm's law is not valid for semiconductors, electrolytes and electronic devices etc.
These are called non-ohmic or non-linear conductors.
The cause of resistance of a conductor:
While drifting, the electrons collide with the ions and atoms of the conductors.
This is the opposition to the flow of electrons. This is called resistance.
RESISTANCE: The resistance of a conductor is the property of the conductor to oppose the flow
of the current across a conductor.
S.I. unit of resistance = Ohm (Ω).
The factors on which the resistance depends:
1. Length 2. Area of cross section 3. Nature of substance 4. Temperature
1. Length: Resistance is directly proportional to length
Resistance R α L ----------------------(1)
2. Area of cross section: Resistance is inversely proportional to area of cross section
1
Resistance 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 ------------------(2)
𝐿 𝜌𝐿
By combining above equation (1) and (2), 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 𝑅= 𝐴
Where ρ = Resistivity or specific resistance of the material.
Resistivity: It is the resistance offered by a wire of the material of unit length and unit area of
𝐑𝐀
cross-section. 𝛒= 𝐋
Unit: Ohm-meter (  -m).
Consider a wire of length L = 1meter, Area of cross section A = 1 m2
Resistivity ρ = R Ohm-meter
The factors on which the resistivity depends: 1. Nature of substance 2. Temperature
CONDUCTANCE: The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
It is denoted by symbol C: C = 1/R
1
Unit : mho or  or Siemens (S).
 51

CONDUCTIVITY: The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity

It is denoted by symbol σ. σ = 1/ ρ
Unit:  -m 'or mho-m or S-m .
-1 -1 -1 -1

Current Density: It is defined as the ratio of Current to Area. It is denoted by symbol j

j =I/A
It is a vector. Unit: Amp/m2.
Electric field in terms of Potential difference
Consider a conductor of length L. Let V be the potential difference across the conductor by
connecting to a battery.
The electric field between two ends of the conductor = E
Electric field E = Potential difference / Length of the conductor= V/L

Relation between Current and Drift velocity

Consider a planar area A, located inside the conductor such that
the normal to the area is parallel to E
Then because of the drift,
The distances travelled by electrons in an infinitesimal amount of
time Δt = |𝑣𝑑 |∆𝑡 ---(1)
If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume in the metal,
then
No. of electrons = 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝐴 |𝑣𝑑 |∆𝑡 -----------------(2)
Total charge transported across this area A to the right = −𝑛𝑒𝐴|𝑣𝑑 |∆𝑡 --------------(3)
The total charge transported by the definition = I Δt ---------------------(4)
From (3) and (4) Current I = n e A vd --------------------(5)
Relation between Current density and Electric field
𝑒𝐸
But drift velocity is given by 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏 ----------------------(6)
𝑒𝐸
Expression for the current 𝐼 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 × 𝑚 𝜏
𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴𝐸
𝐼 = 𝜏 --------------------------------------(7)
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴𝐸
Total charge transported = 𝐼 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚 ∆𝑡 -------------------(8)
From the definition of current density j, I = j A ---------------------(9)
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝑬 𝝉
From equations (7) and (8), Current density 𝒋 = 𝒎 ---------------(10)
Let R be the resistance of the conductor, Current I = V/R ----------------(11)
Let L be the length of the conductor, Then Potential difference V = E L -----(11)
𝑛𝐴 𝑒 2 𝑉
From equation (7) Current 𝐼 = 𝜏
𝑚𝐿
𝑉 𝑚𝐿 1
or 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴 × 𝜏
But resistance R = V/I
𝑹𝑨 𝒎
Resistivity 𝝆 = 𝑳 = 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 --------(12)
Conductivity is the reciprocal of the resistivity. σ = 1/ρ
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
Conductivity of the material = 𝝈 = --------(13)
𝒎
OHM'S LAW DERIVATION
 52

𝑒𝐸
Drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏 --------(1)
Electric field in terms of Potential difference and length of the conductor E = V/L
Potential difference in terms of the resistance and current V=IR
Current I = n e A vd
𝑒𝐸
𝐼 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 ( )𝜏
𝑚
𝑛 𝑒 2𝐴 𝑉
𝐼 =( )×( ) 𝜏
𝑚 𝐿
𝑉 𝑚𝐿
=𝑅=
𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 2𝐴 𝜏
Hence Ohm's law is proved.
The factors on which the resistance depends:
01. Length 02. Area 03. Temperature 04. Nature of the substance
The factors on which the resistivity depends:
01. Temperature 02. Nature of the substance,
CLASSIFICATION OF THE RESISTORS:
There are two types of resistors. Wire bound resistors and Carbon resistors.
CARBON RESISTORS: Carbon resistors are compact, inexpensive and thus find extensive use in
electronic circuits.
Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their values are given using a colour code
COLOUR CODE OF THE RESISTORS:
There are four bands on a carbon resistor.
First two bands: First two bands from the end indicate the significant figures of the resistance
in ohm.
THIRD BAND: The third band indicates the decimal multiplier.
FOURTH BAND: It stands for tolerance or possible variation of the resistance.
Sometimes, this last band is absent and that indicates a tolerance of 20%
Sl. No. Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance (%)
1 Black 0 1
2 Brown 1 101
3 Red 2 102
4 Orange 3 103
5 Yellow 4 104
6 Green 5 105
7 Blue 6 106
8 Violet 7 107
9 Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 5
Silver 10
Silver 20
Example:
1. A carbon resistor has four bands Blue, Green, Red, and Silver. What is its resistance?
Blue = 6 Green = 5 Red = 2 Silver 10%
2
Resistance = 𝑅 = 65 × 10 ± 10%
 53

WIRE COUND RESISTORS: Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz.,
manganin, constantan, nichrome or similar ones.
The choice of these materials is dictated mostly by the fact that their resistivities are relatively
insensitive to temperature.
These resistances are typically in the range of a fraction of an ohm to a few hundred ohms
IMPORTANT POINTS:
01. If the length of a conductor l whose resistance is R l is changed by a factor n, then
Final resistance R’ = n2 R
02. If the diameter (d )or radius (r ) is changed by a factor n, then the Final resistance is
given by R’ = R/n4

TEMPERATURE COEFFICEINT OF RESISTANCE (TCR):

Consider a conductor of resistance R1 at temperature t1. After the supply of the thermal energy,
assume that its resistance is R2 at temperature t2.
The change in resistance = ΔR = R2 – R1
Change in temperature = Δ t = t2 – t1
Change in Resistance α Change in temperature ΔR αΔt ---(1)
Change in Resistance α initial Resistance ΔR α R1 ----(2)
From (1) and (2) ΔR α R1 Δt
ΔR = 𝛼 R1 Δt
ΔR
where Temperature coefficient of Resistance 𝛼 = R ∆ t
1
𝐑𝟐 − 𝐑𝟏
𝛂= 𝐑 𝟏 [𝐭𝟐 − 𝐭𝟏 ]
𝛒𝟐 − 𝛒𝟏
Temperature coefficient of Resistivity = 𝛂 = 𝛒𝟏 [𝐭𝟐 − 𝐭𝟏 ]
For Alloys α < 1,Small positive value. Constantan or Mangananin is used in making the wire for
Potentiometer or Meter Bridge.
A perfect conductor would have zero resistivity and a perfect insulator would have infinite
resistivity.
The temperature dependence of a resistivity of a (i) conductor (ii) Alloy (iii) Semiconductor

METAL ALLOY SEMICONDUCTOR/INSULATOR

.
𝒎
The resistivity of a material 𝝆 = 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
 54

The number density of free electrons, n, is practically independent of temperature for most
metals.
For metals, As the temperature increases, the resistance increases. Hence, the resistivity
also increases with the temperature.
The number of free electrons is fixed. As the temperature increases, the amplitude of
vibrations of atoms/ions increases, and collisions of electrons with them become more
effective and frequent, resulting in the decrease in Relaxation time 𝜏 and hence increase in
Resistivity 𝜌. Thus for metals, Resistivity increases with temperature.
An increase of temperature, increases the amplitude of vibration of atoms and the average
speed of the free electrons increases.
The time between two successive collisions decreases. i.e. the relaxation time  decreases
and hence resistivity increases with temperature 𝜌 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡)
So, the resistance increases.
𝜌, 𝜌𝑜 are the values of resistivity of a material at t°C and 0°C respectively, then over a
temperature range that is not too large, we have approximately,
Where  is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity of the material.
For Insulators: As the temperature increases, the resistivity decreases. The insulators have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
For Semi-conductors: As the temperature increases the resistivity decreases. In
semiconductors, the energy gap between the conduction band and valence band decreases
with an increase in temperature. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
For Alloys: As the temperature changes, the change in resistivity is very much negligible.
For superconductors: The materials which have resistance are called super conductors. The
temperature at which the resistance drops to zero is called critical temperature.
NICHROME: The resistivity of nichrome is very large but has a weak temperature
dependence. Nichrome has a residual resistivity even at 0K.
MAGANIN: The resistivity is independent of temperature.
CARBON: The resistivity of carbon decreases with increasing temperature and its emperature
co-efficient of resistivity is negative.
Resistances in Series In this arrangement the resistances are connected end to end in
succession. In this combination
Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series to a source of emf V as shown in the
fig. Let I be the current in the circuit. The current flowing in each resistor is same.
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the combination.
The potential difference across R, R1 , R2 and R3 is given by
V = IR, V1 = IR1 ,V2 = IR, V3 = IR3
The total potential difference V across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential
difference across individual resistances
i.e. V = V1+V2+V3
IR = I R1 + IR2 + I R3
The equivalent or effective resistance (Rs) of the
combination is equal to the sum of individual resistances
i.e., R = R, + R2 + R3
Such that V1: V2: V3 = R1:R2: R3
 55

PARALLEL COMBINATION
Consider three resistors R1 , R2 and R3 connected in series to a source of emf V as shown in the
fig. R 1

In this arrangement one end of each resistor is connected at one point 1 I

R 2
and the other end of each to the other point. Then these two A I2 B

points are connected across a source of potential difference V. I 3I I

Let R be the equivalent resistance of the circuit. R 3

V
Let I be the current in the circuit.
The Potential difference across each resistor in parallel is same as the emf of the source,
The total current in the circuit I = I1 + I2 + I3
where I = Total current in the circuit = V/R I1 = Current across R1 = V/ R1
I2 = Current across R2 = V/ R2 I3 = Current across R3 = V/ R3
V/R =( V/R1 ) + (V/R2) + (V/R3)
1 1 1 1
=𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 1 2 3
1 1 1
such that 𝐼1 ∶ 𝐼2 ∶ 𝐼3 = 𝑅 ∶ 𝑅 ∶ 𝑅
1 2 3
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL (r)
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow
of current between its electrodes. It is denoted by r.
The factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends
a. Concentration of the electrolyte solution of the cell.
b. The distance between electrodes
c. Area of electrodes.
d. Temperature
and is independent of the material of electrodes.
TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS A CELL
When the current flows across the external resistor in the circuit, the potential difference
across external resistor is called Terminal Potential Difference.
Consider a circuit in which an external resistor R is connected to a battery of emf E having an
internal resistance r. Let I be the current across the circuit.
Potential Difference across external resistor = Terminal Potential difference = V ext = IR --(1)
Total Emf E = The potential difference across r + Pot. diff. across R
E = I (r+R) --------------------(2)
From (1) I = Vext / R ---------------------(3) r
𝐕𝐞𝐱𝐭(𝐫+𝐑)
By putting (3) in (2) 𝐄= 𝐑
𝐸
𝑟 = 𝑅 (𝑉 − 1)
𝑒𝑥𝑡 I E
If a cell of e.m.f. E, internal resistance r sends a current I, through an external
resistance, then terminal potential difference V = I R = E-I r
R
In general the terminal potential difference (T.P.D.) is the potential difference across the
 56

external resistance of the circuit.

When a cell is being charged by an external battery, then terminal potential difference
V = E + Ir

TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF A CELL (TPD) ‘V’

It is defined as maximum potential difference between the terminals of a cell when current is
being drawn from the cell.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND EMF OF A CELL
The basic difference between emf and TPD of cell is that in emf no current is being drawn from
the cell but in TPD current is being drawn from the cell.
COMBINATION OF CELLS: There are three possible arrangement of a
E E E
number of cells. r r r
(a)SERIES ARRANGEMENT
I R
In this arrangement the positive terminal of one cell is connected to
negative terminal of the other in succession. Figure represents; cells,
each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r connected in series and an external resistance R is
connected across the combination. Since all the cells are in series,
so Net e.m.f. = nE
Similarly each internal resistance ( r) of each cell is in series, so net internal resistance = nr
Total resistance of the circuit =R+ nr
𝐧𝐄
Current I = 𝐑+𝐧 𝐫
a) If R>> nr, then I = n( E/R) = n * current due to one cell
b) If R<< nr, then current due to one cell I = E/R
So when net external resistance >> net internal resistance , then to get the maximum current ,
the cells must be connected in series for maximum current , the cells should be connected in
series, when net external resistance >> net internal resistance.
(B).PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT
In this arrangement the positive terminals of all cells are connected to one point and negative
r
terminals to the other point. Figure represents m cells, each of E e.m.f. £
and internal resistance r, connected in parallel and an E r

external resistance R is connected across the combination. I

E r I

Since all the cells are in parallel, net e.m.f. = e.m.f. due to R
a single cell.= Net emf = E
CELLS IN SERIES COMBINATION:
Consider two cells of emf’s E1 and Es having internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively connected
in series as shown in fig.

Let V(A), V(B), V(C) be the potentials at points A, B and C shown in fig.
The potential difference of first cell = V(A) – V(B) =VAB = E1 – Ir1
The potential difference of second cell = V(B) – V(C) =VBC = E2 – Ir2
 57

VAC = V(A) – V(C) = E1 – Ir1 + E2 – Ir2 = (E1 + E2) – I (r1 + r2)

= Eeq – I req

CELLS IN PARALLEL COMBINATION

Consider two cells of emf’s E1 and Es having internal
resistances r1 and r2 respectively connected in parallel as
shown in fig
Let I1 and I2 be the currents from the cells.
Total Current = I = I1 + I2 -------------(1)
V = E1 – I1 r1 = E2 – I2 r2 -----------------(2)
𝐄 𝐄
From last three equations𝐈 = 𝟏−𝐕 + 𝟐−𝐕
𝐫 𝐫 𝟏 𝟐
𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝐈 = (𝐫 + ) − 𝐕 (𝐫 + )------(3)
𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄 𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫 𝐫
Put (3) in (2) we get 𝐕 = − 𝐈 (𝐫 𝟏+𝐫𝟐 )
𝐫𝟏 +𝐫𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
= Eeq – I req
𝐄𝐞𝐪 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐
= + + ……
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
If the cells have equal emf E, and same internal resistance r
then, req = r/n
𝐸
Current = 𝐼 = 𝑟
𝑅+( )
𝑛

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
FIRST RULE (JUNCTION RULE}
The algebraic sum of the currents at a junction is zero.
∑ 𝐼 = I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 – I5 – I6 = 0
It follows the conservation of charge, While applying this rule, we (arbitrarily) take the
currents entering into a junction as positive and those leaving it as negative.
SECOND RULE (LOOP RULE) The algebraic sum of the emfs of the sources and the sum of the
changes of potential (potential rise and drop) across the elements of a circuit in a closed loop is
zero.
This rule follows from the Law of Conservation of Energy.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: CONDITION OF BALANCE
The Wheatstone's Bridge is shown in Figure. P ,Q , R and S are four
resistances, G is galvanometer and E be the emf of a battery.
The Wheatstone's bridge is said to be balanced when no current
flows in galvanometer. This is called Null Method.
So, Potential at B = Potential at D.
The condition of balance is best achieved by applying Kirchhoff's
Laws
Applying Kirchhoff's 2nd Law to loop ABDA :
 58

- I1 P – IG G + (I + I1) R = 0 ---------(1)
Applying Kirchhoff's 2nd Law to loop BCDB:
- (I1 – IG) Q + (I-I1 + IG) S + IG G = 0 -------(2)
When the current across galvanometer IG = 0, the bridge is balanced.
I1 P = (I + I1) R ------(3)
I1 Q = (I + I1) S ----(4)
𝐏 𝐑
Dividing (3) and (4), we get, Condition of balance is =
𝐐 𝐒
Important:
1.The connections between resistors in a Wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper
strips. This is because the copper has negligible resistance.
2.The connecting wires are made of copper.
The conductivity of copper is high. It conducts the current without offering resistance. Copper
being diamagnetic material does not get magnetized due to the current through it and does not
disturb the current in the circuit.
METER BRIDGE
Meter bridge is the practical application of the Wheatstone circuit.
Principle: For uniform cross section, and same material, the resistance is directly proportional
to the length of the conductor. R𝛼𝐿
To find the unknown resistance
:The position of the jockey adjusted such that null
deflection is found in the Galvanometer. Null method
means that the flow of the current becomes zero.
From the fig.
Resistance of the wire AD α Length of the wire AD
RAD α lAD --------------------------(1)
Resistance of the wire DC α Length of the wire DC
RDC α lDC --------------------------(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
𝑅𝐴𝐷 𝑙𝐴𝐷 𝑙1
𝑅
= 𝑙
= 100−𝑙
-------(3)
𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐶 1
𝑅 𝑅
When the current across galvanometer is zero, 𝑅𝐴𝐷 = 𝑆 ---(4)
𝐷𝐶
𝑅 𝑙
From equations (3) and (4) = 1001−𝑙
𝑆 1
At the balancing point galvanometer G gives no deflection at all. At A and C, the galvanometer
must have deflections in opposite direction because, then only zero deflection can be expected
when the jockey (J) attached to the galvanometer is moved from A to C.
IMPORTANT:
1. Thick metallic strips of copper are used to reduce resistance and to increase flow of current.
2. Wheatstone bridge and Meter Bridge are not useful in measuring very small and very high
resistances. This is because in each the balance length will be closer to one of the ends of the
scale and is very difficult to measure accurately.
 59

3. The balance length is not affected by interchanging positions of galvanometer and battery.
This is because current in the circuit remains same so potential drop across length l1 remains
same.
4. It is desirable to get balance point in the middle of the wire (close to 50cm ) because
percentage error is reduced and meter bridge (Wheatstone bridge) is most sensitive as all the
four resistances become equal.
5. The Wheatstone bridge is said to be most sensitive when all the four resistances are equal
i.e. 𝑹1 =𝑹2 =𝑹3 =𝑹4. In this condition the Wheatstone gives most accurate value of unknown
resistance.

POTENTIOMETER: Potentiometer is an ideal device to measure the potential difference

between two points.
Principle: When the constant current flows through a conductor of uniform cross section and
same material, the potential difference is directly proportional to the length. V 𝛼 𝐿
Potential difference / length = Potential Gradient
If the wire is longer, the potentiometer is said to be more sensitive and accurate.
The position of the jockey is adjusted so that there is no current across the galvanometer. This
is called Null Method.
APPLICATIONS:
01. To find the ratio of the emf’s of two cells.
02. To find the internal resistance of the given cell.
A. COMPARISON OF E.M.F.s OF CELLS
The diagram shows the circuit diagram for comparing the emfs of two cells A constant current
is maintained in potentiometer wire AB. Let E1 and E2 are the emfs of the two cells.
Include the first cell into the circuit. Move the jockey
over the wire AB till the galvanometer shows no
deflection. Let the balancing length be l1.
E1 α l1
Include the cell of emfE2 into the circuit and estimate
the balancing length l2. E2α l2
𝐄𝟏 𝐥𝟏
=𝐥
𝟐 𝐄 𝟐
If one of the two cells is a standard cell of known emf,
then emf of the other cells can be determined.
B.TO FIND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL

With key K 2 open, balance is obtained at length l1(AN1). Then, 𝜀 = k l1 (𝑘 =

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡) ---------------(1)
With key K 2 is closed, the cell sends a current (I) through the resistance box (R).
If V is the terminal potential difference of the cell and balance is obtained at length l 2 (AN2)
V = k l2 ----------(2)
 60

𝜀 𝑙
From equations (1) and (2) = 𝑙1 ----------(3)
𝑉 2
𝜀
Internal Resistance = 𝑟 = 𝑅 (𝑉 − 1)
𝑙
Internal resistance = 𝑟 = 𝑅 (𝑙1 − 1)
2
Advantages of Potentiometer over Voltmeter:
1. A potentiometer of longer wire is more sensitive.
If the potential gradient or the potential difference per unit length is smaller, the potentiometer
is more sensitive.
2. The length of the scale is more than the voltmeter.
3. Copper wire is not used in potentiometer because its resistivity is small and temperature
coefficient of resistance is lagre.
4.Potentiometer is preferred to measure the emf of a cell rather than a voltmeter.
Potentiometer uses a null method i. e. it draws no current from the cell. Hence the terminal
potential difference measured by it is exactly equal to the e.m.f. of the cell.
On the other hand, voltmeter draws some current, however, small it may be. Thus there is a
definite potential drop across the voltmeter. Hence the potential difference measured by the
voltmeter is less than the e.m.f. of the cell.
5. A potentiometer is considered as an ideal voltmeter.
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance. Since no current flows from the cell when a balance
point in the potentiometer is found, hence the potentiometer is considered asan ideal
voltmeter The current drawn by the cell is zero. So, the emf of the cell can be measured
accurately. Null method is used to find the emf of the cell. So, the potentiometer is ideal
voltmeter.
6. Current in potentiometer is due to driver cell only. And current in secondary circuit is due to
secondary cell only.
7. Emf of driver cell should be greater than emf of secondary cell; otherwise we won’t get
balance point on the potentiometer.
8. A resistance in series with secondary cell does not affect the
balance point because at balance length no current is drawn
from the secondary cell. Hence no potential drop in the resistor

9. A resistance in parallel to secondary cell affects

the balance point because it draws current from the
secondary cell.
10. If galvanometer shows deflection in one
direction, following may be the reason:
(i) Emf of secondary cell may be greater than emf of primary cell.
(ii) Connections of secondary cell may be losing.
11. Positive ends of both cells, driver cell and secondary cell, should be connected at zero end
of the potentiometer.
12. Potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter because potentiometer draws no current from
the cell, emf of which is being measured. Thus potentiometer is an ideal voltmeter.
JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING:
 61

The heat produced in a given conductor is directly proportional to the square of the current,
resistance of the conductor and the time for which the current flows.
Q α I2 QαR Qαt
Combining above equations Q α I2 R t
Q = (I2 R t)/J where J = Joule’s Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Power = P = I2R
Applications of Heating effects of current:
01. Incandescent Lamp: Tungsten is used in it. It has High Melting Point.
02. Electric Iron, Electric Heater, Electric Oven, Immersion Rod, Geysor:
Nichrome is used.
Reasons: 1. High Resistivity. 2. High Malleability 3. High Melting Point
03. ELECTRIC Fuse: A small wire made up of material having suitable resistivity and lower
melting Point. Alloy of Tin and Lead is used.
SERIES COMBINATION OF THE BULBS

1 1 1
= +
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2
RATIO OF POWERS CONSUMED IN TWO RESISTORS IN
SERIES

If P1 and P2 are the powers consumed in R1 and R2,

respectively,
Then P1=I12 R1,P2=I22 R2 since current(I1 = I2) is same across both resistors
in series,
P1/ P2 = R1/ R2
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF THE BULBS:
Power is given by P = P1 + P2

RATIO OF POWER CONSUMED IN TWO RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

The Power is given by P = V2/R
P1 = V2/R1 P2 = V2/R2
IN PARALLEL COMBINATION,
The Potential Difference across both Resistors is same,
SO P1/ P2 = R2/ R1
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1. A steady current is flowing in a metal conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Which of these

quantities is constant along the conductor: current, current density, electric field, drift speed?
Only current. All other quantities inversely depend upon the area of cross-section.
2. A toaster produces more heat than an electric lamp when they are connected in parallel.
Which of the two has the greater resistance?
Ans. Heat produced/second, P = I2RSince wattage P of toaster is more than that of the bulb, so
the resistance of the toaster will be less than that of the bulb as the potential difference V
across both of them is same (being connected in parallel).
 62

3. .When current flows through a coil of heater, heat Q 1 is produced. Now the coil is cut into
two equal halves and only one half is connected to the same power supply. Heat produced now
is Q2. What is the ratio of Q1 / Q2.
Ans. Heat produced in the coil, Q = I2Rt.
If R is the resistance, Heat produced in the coil = Q 1 = I2 R t
Let V be the potential difference of the cell.
When only half part of the coil is connected to the power supply,
resistance of this part of coil becomes R/2 (i.e. half)
The current is doubled (i.e. 2I) as voltage remains the same.
𝑅
Heat energy = 𝑄2 = (2𝐼 )2 ( ) 𝑡 = 2 I2 R t
2
Q1 / Q2 = 1/2
4. A current is passed through a steel wire, heating it to red hot. The half of the wire is
immersed in cold water. Which half of the wire will heat up more and why?
Ans. When current flows through the wire, heat is produced. The heat produced in the portion
of the wire immersed in cold water is immediately transferred to the water. So the rise of
temperature of immersed portion is less than the outside portion of the wire. Due to high
temperature of the outside portion of wire, its resistance increases considerably and hence
more heat will be produced in it. Thus, the portion of the wire outside the water will heat up
more.
5. A 60 W bulb connected in parallel with a room heater is further connected across the mains.
If 60 W bulb is now replaced by a 100 W bulb, will heat produced by heater be smaller, remain
the same or be larger? Explain why?
Ans. The potential difference across the new bulb and the heater remains equal to the mains
voltage as both are connected in parallel. So heat produced by heater will remain the same.
6. Will the drift velocity of electrons in a metal increase or decrease with the increase in
temperature.
Drift velocity decreases due to the increase in collision frequency.
7. What is the effect of temperature on the relaxation time of the free electrons in a metal.
Relaxation time decreases with increase in temperature.
8.Two wires, one of copper and the other of manganin, have equal lengths and
equal resistances. Which wire is thicker?
R/l = /a = constant. Since resistivity of copper is less than that of manganin, area of cross-
section of copper wire is less than that of manganin. Manganin wire is thicker.
9. If a student by mistake connects voltmeter in series and ammeter in parallel, what
will happen?
When voltmeter is connected in series, the resistance of the circuit increases. Current
decreases. Hence would not read the required potential difference.
When the ammeter is connected in parallel, the resistance of the circuit decreases. Hence large
current would flow which can damage the ammeter.
10. The specific resistances of copper, constantan and silver are 1.7 x 10-6 ohm- meter, 39.1 x
10-6ohm- meter and 10-6 ohm-meter respectively. Which is a better conductor. Why?
 63

For a given length and area of cross-section, the resistance of the material is directly
proportional to its specific resistance. Since specific resistance for silver is less, silver is a better
conductor.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The phenomenon due to which a substance loses all signs of its resistance when cooled to its
critical temperature is called superconductivity.
The substances which offer superconductivity (no resistance) are called superconductors.
Critical Temperature: -The temperature at which the resistivity suddenly drops to zero.
The conductivity of metals and alloys increases, as they are cooled. At critical temperature,
their resistivity becomes zero and they behave as superconductors.
The cause of superconductivity is that electrons in a superconductor are mutually coherent. The
ionic vibrations, which could deflect free electrons in metals, are unable to deflect the coherent
cloud of electrons in superconductors.
A superconductor shows Meissner effect.
MEISSNER EFFECT: - Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933 found that if a conductor is cooled in a
magnetic field to below the transition temperature, then at the transition, the lines of
induction, B are pushed out. The Meissner effect shows that a bulk superconductor behaves as
if inside the specimen, B is zero.
Applications of Superconductors
They will help to produce super fast computers.
It will be possible to transmit electrical power without any loss of electrical energy by using
super conducting cables.
Superconductors will enable to produce very high magnetic field without any expenditure of
electrical power.
PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. A potential difference V is applied to a conductor of length L, diameter D. How are the
electric field, E, the drift velocity, and the resistance, R, affected when (i) V is doubled (ii) L is
doubled (iii) D is doubled ?
𝑽
Electric field 𝑬 = 𝑳
𝒆𝑬 𝒆𝑽
Drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉 = 𝒎𝑳𝝉
𝒎
𝝆𝑳 𝝆𝑳 𝟒 𝝆𝑳
Resistance 𝝆 = 𝑨 = 𝒎 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = 𝝅 𝒎 𝒅𝟐
If V is doubled: Electric field doubles, Drift velocity doubles, Resistance will not change.
If L is doubled: Electric field becomes half, Drift velocity becomes half, Resistance doubles.
Id D is doubled, Electric field does not change, Drift velocity does not change, Resistance
becomes one fourth of original one.
2. A conductor of length L, is connected to a dc source of emf ε. If this conductor is replaced by
another conductor of same material and same area of cross-section, but of length 3 L, how will
the drift velocity change?
Current in terms of Drift velocity 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
 64

𝑽 𝑽 𝑽𝑨
Current 𝑰 = 𝑹 = 𝝆𝑳⁄𝑨 = = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
𝝆𝑳
𝑽
Drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝆 𝒏 𝒆 𝑳
If length is 3L, drift velocity becomes one-third of original one.
3. What is internal resistance of the cell? Write the factors on which internal resistance of
electrolyte depends ?
The internal resistance is the resistance offered by the electrodes and electrolytes of the cell to
the current flowing.
The value of internal resistance depends upon: -
1) Nature of electrodes
2) Nature of electrolyte
3) Concentration of electrolyte
4) Distance between electrodes (d r)
5) Area of electrodes emerged in the electrolyte

Increase area emerged, decrease in internal resistance for this reason, we pour water in cars or
inverter batteries.
6) Temperature of electrolyte: - Inversely proportional
4. A cell of emf 2V and internal resistance 0.1Ω is connected to a 3.9Ω external resistance. What
will be the potential difference across the terminals of the cell?
Emf of the cell = Terminal potential difference + Potential difference across internal resistance
𝑽 𝟐
Current 𝑰 = 𝑹 +𝒓 = 𝟎.𝟏 +𝟑.𝟗
I = 0.5 A
Potential difference across the terminals of a cell= 0.5 x 3.9 = 1.95 V
5. A dry cell of emf 1.6V and internal resistance 0.10Ω is connected to a resistance of R ohm.
The current drawn from the cell is 2.0A. Find the voltage drop across R.
Voltage across R = Emf of the cell - Potential difference across internal resistance
6. A battery of emf ‘ε’ and internal resistance ‘r’ gives a current of 0.5A with an external resistor
of 12Ω and a current of 0.25A with an external resistor of 25Ω. Calculate (i) internal resistance
of the cell and (ii) emf of the cell.
Case (1) Emf = I1 r + I1 R1 = 0.5 r + 12 x 0.5 = 0.5r + 6 ----(1)
Case (2) Emf = I2 r + I2 R2 = 0.25 r + 25 x 0.25 = 0.25r + 6.25 ----(2)
From (1) and (2) 0.5r + 6 =0.25r + 6.25
Internal resistance 0.5 r - 0.25 r = 6.25 - 6
0.25 r = 0.25
Internal resistance r = 1 ohm
Emf of the cell = 0.5r + 6 = (0.5 x 1) + 6 = 6.5 V
7. On what factors does the sensitivity of potentiometer depends?
For potentiometer to be sensitive its k has to be small, which can be done by:
(i) Increasing length of potentiometer wire since 𝒌 =V/L
(ii) Decreasing current in the potentiometer
Potential difference V = IR
 65

𝑰𝝆𝑳
𝑽=
𝑨
𝑰𝝆
Sensitivity of potentiometer 𝒌 = 𝑨
8. Two students X and Y perform an experiment on potentiometer separately using the circuit
in which key K1 is connected across main cell and key K2 is parallel to the cell for the internal
resistance is to be found. AB is the potentiometer wire.
Keeping other parameters unchanged, how will the position of null point be affected if
(i) X increases the value of resistance R in the setup by keeping the key K 1 closed and the key K2
open
(ii) Y decreases the value of resistance S in the setup, while the key K2 remains open and the
key K1 closed.
SOLUTION:
(i) Current through potentiometer wire decreases. Thus, potential gradient decreases. As 𝐾 = 𝑉𝑙
with the decrease in potential gradient balancing length increases i.e. null point will shift
towards ‘B’.
(ii) Current through potentiometer wire remains same i.e. potential gradient does not change.
As a result null point remains same.
9. POWER IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Equivalent instantaneous power of devices
i) Connected in series ii) Connected In parallel
Case 1: Let P1, P2, P3 be the rated powers of electrical devices connected in SERIES.
If R1, R2, R3 are their resistances, then
R1 = V2/P1 , R2 = V2/P2 R3 = V2/P3
When the electrical appliances are connected in series, then effective resistance, R is
R= R 1 + R2 + R3
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Dividing equation by V2 to convert in power form 𝑉 2 = 𝑉12 + 𝑉22 + 𝑉32
1 1 1 1
=𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃
𝑃 1 2 3
Equivalent instantaneous power is less than the least rated power of the group.

Case 2: Let P1, P2, P3 be the rated powers of electrical devices connected in PARALLEL.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
If R1, R2, R3 are their resistances, then =𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹
𝑹 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
= + +
𝑹 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
P= P 1 + P2 + P3
Equivalent instantaneous power is greater than the largest rated power in the group

10. A current in a circuit having constant resistance is tripled. How does this affect the power
dissipation?
The power dissipated in a circuit is P=I2 R.
Thus, P ∝ I2 where R is constant.
When I becomes 3 times, P becomes 9 times, i.e. Power dissipation becomes 9 times.
11. What is the power transferred per unit volume into joule heat in a resistor?
 66

Power, P = I2R = I2 ( ρl/A)

Volume of resistor, V= Al
Therefore, power transferred per unit volume =𝑃/𝑉olume
𝐼 2 𝜌𝐿
𝑃= = 𝑗2 𝜌
𝐴 ×𝐴𝐿
Where I/A = j = current density
12. Long distance power transmission is carried on high voltage lines. Why?
When current I is transmitted through a power line of resistance R. Power loss= I2R
If the power p is transmitted at voltage V, then P=VI or I= (p/V)
Therefore, Power loss= (𝑃/𝑉)2 𝑅
For a given power and given line voltage, P and R are constant.
Hence, power loss ∝ (I/V2 ).
It means if power is transmitted at high voltage, power loss will be small and vice-versa.
13. Two bulbs are marked (a) 100W, 220V (b) 40W, 220V. Which has higher resistance? Also,
calculate the maximum current that can flow through each bulb.
SOLUTION:
V1 = 220V , P1 = 100W , V2 = 220V, P2 = 40W
(a) P1 = V1 I1
I1 = 𝑃1 /𝑉1 = 100/220 = 0.45A
R1 = 𝑉1 /𝐼1 = 220/0.45 = 484 ohm
(b) P2 = V2 I2
I2 = 𝑃2 /𝑉2 = 40/220 = 0.18A
R2 = 𝑉2 /𝐼2 = 220/0.18 =1210 ohm
14. A wire connected to a bulb does not glow, whereas the filament of the bulb glows when
same current flows through them. Why?
The heat developed in a resistor by passing current I for time t is given by
H = I2 R t
Resistance of connecting wires is very small but resistance of filament is very very high.
Therefore, the heat produced in a filament is very high.
15. An electric bulb marked 40W and 200V, is used in a circuit of supply voltage 100V. What
is its power?
Ans: 10W
16) Two bulbs rated 25W – 220V and 100W – 220V are connected in series to a 440V supply.
Show with necessary calculations which bulb is any will fuse?
Let i1 & i2 be the maximum allowed currents in the two bulbs
R1 , R2 their respective resistances.
V = 220V
R1 =2202 / P1= 220×220/25 = 1936Ω
ii. i1 = 𝑃1/𝑉 = 25/220 = 0.11A
R2 =2202 / P2= 220×220/100 = 484Ω
ii. i2 = 𝑃2/𝑉 = 100/220 = 0.45A
When bulbs are connected in series, net resistance
i. R = R1 + R2 = 1936 + 484 = 2420Ω
 67

ii. ∴ current in the circuit,

iii. 𝑖= 𝑉′/𝑅 = 440/2420 = 0.18A
Bulb 2 will fuse.
17 Two bulbs rated 25W – 220V and 100W – 220V are connected in parallel to a 440V supply.
What should happen if the two bulbs were connected in parallel to the same supply?
When bulbs are connected in parallel, let the currents through I and II bulbs be i1 and i2 . In
parallel combination the voltage across each bulb is the same.
i1 = 440/ 1936 = 0.23A
i2 = 440/1484 == 0.91A
In this case both the bulbs will fuse.
18) A wire connected to a bulb does not glow, whereas the filament of the bulb glows when
same current flows through them. Why?
Heat energy Q = I2R t
The resistance of connecting wires is negligibly small as compared to the resistance of filament
is very high. Therefore, the heat produced in the filament is very large.
19. The figure shows a plot of terminal voltage ‘V’ versus the current ‘i’ of a given cell. Calculate
from the graph (a) emf of the cell and (b) internal resistance of the cell
V=E-Ir
When I = 0A, V = E = 6V
E=V+Ir
6=4+1xr
r = 2 Ohm
20. Why is potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter for comparison of
emf. of cells ?
[Ans. because a potentiometer does not draw current for any measurement unlike a voltmeter
21. In a potentiometer experiment, if the area of cross section of the wire
increases uniformly from one end to another, draw a graph showing how
potential gradient would vary as the length of the wire increases from one
end ?
22. Write two possible causes for one sided deflection in a potentiometer
experiment.
Possible causes :
(a) The emf ε1 or ε2 is more than the emf of driver cell
(b) Positive terminals of driver cell and the cell whose emf is to be measured may not be
connected to the zero end of the potentiometer
23. Two cells of emf 1.5V and 2V having internal resistances 0.2
ohm and 0.3 ohm respectively are connected in parallel.
Calculate the emf and internal resistance of the equivalent cell.

𝜀1 𝑟2 +𝜀2 𝑟1
𝜀= 𝑟1 +𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟= = 0.12 𝑜ℎ𝑚
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
 68

24. In the following potentiometer circuit AB is a uniform wire of length 1 m and resistance 10 .
Calculate the (i) potential gradient along the wire, and [Ans 0.8 V/m, 37.5 cm] CBSE (D) -2016
(ii) balance length AO (= l ).

𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝐼𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝐵 2 10

𝑘= = = × = × = 0.8𝑉/𝑚
𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝐿 15 + 10 1
1.5
Current through the circuit 𝐼 = 1.2 +0.3 𝐴 = 1 𝐴
VAD = 0.3 x 1 = 0.3 V
k = VAD/LAD
LAD = 0.3m/0.8 = 0.375 m
24. Two wires X, Y have the same resistivity, but their
cross–sectional areas are in the ratio 2:3 and lengths are in the ratio 1:2. They are first
connected in series, and then in parallel to a given d.c. source. Find out the ratio of the drift
speeds of the electrons in the two wires for the two cases.
Ratio of the Area = Ax : Ay = 2:3 Ratio of length = Lx: Ly = 1: 2
In series When two wires are connected in series, the current is same across both wires.
IX = IY n e A x v x = n e AY v y vx : vy = Ay : Ax = 3:2
In parallel, the potential difference across both wires is same and resistivities of both wires is
same
Vx = Vy IX RX = IY RY n e Ax vx Rx = n e AY vy Ry
vx : vy = Ly : Lx = 2: 1 As resistance is given R = (ρL)/A
25. When two resistors of resistance R each are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is
X. When they are connected in parallel combination, the resistance is Y. Find the relation
between (a) X, Y and R (b) And also calculate X/Y.
Series combination: X = R + R = 2 R ---(1)
1 1 1 2
Parallel combination: 𝑌 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅
Y = R/2 ----(2)
(a)From (1) and (2) X Y = R2
(b) X/Y = 1/4
26. When n resistors of resistance R each are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is X.
When they are connected in parallel combination, the resistance is Y. Find the relation between
(a) X, Y and R (b) And also calculate X/Y.
Ans: X Y = R2
Y = n2 X
4. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

OERSTED EXPERIMENT: moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field

in the surrounding space.
 69

Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire caused a
noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic compass needle.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. The alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which has the straight wire as
its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the wire. This situation is depicted in Fig.4.1(a).
2. It is noticeable when the current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so that
the earth’s magnetic field may be ignored. Reversing the direction of the current reverses the
orientation of the needle [Fig. 4.1(b)]. The deflection increases on increasing the current or
bringing the needle closer to the wire.
3. Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire
as the centre.
MAGNETIC FORCE ACTING ON A CHARGE q MOVING WITH A VELOCITY v IN UNIFORM
MAGNETIC FIELD B:
Consider a particle of charge q moving with a velocity v in uniform magnetic field B.
The force acting on it given by = 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗
or magnetic force = 𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛́
𝐹
Magnetic field = 𝐵 = 𝑞 𝑣 sin 𝜃
Definition of Magnetic field: Magnetic field is the magnetic force acting on a unit charge
moving perpendicular to the magnetic field B with a speed of 1m/s.
Unit of magnetic field: Newton/(Coulomb-m/s) or Tesla.
DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD:
The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing the velocity and
magnetic field.
If the direction of the magnetic field is out of the plane of the paper, it is shown by a dot (.).
If the direction of the magnetic field is into the plane of the paper, it is shown by a cross ( )*.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
If the particle is moving parallel or anti parallel to the magnetic field, the force is zero.
The force is maximum, if the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The direction of the force is perpendicular to the plane containing the direction of the particle
and the magnetic field.
 70

The direction of the force is explained by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand rule:
Stretch the thumb, forefinger and the middle gfinger of Left Hand such
that they are mutually perpendicular.
If the first finger points the direction of the magnetic field (FORE FINGER),
second finger ( MIDDLE FINGER) represents the direction of the current,
then
Thumb represents the direciton of the motion (FORCE) of the conductor .
IMPORTANT POINTS:
1. Magnetic force = 𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗
Magnitude of the magnetic force = F = q v B sin θ
θ = Angle between velocity and Magnetic field
Maximum Force: Velocity is perpendicular to magnetic field θ = 900
F = q v B sin 900 F=qvB
Minimum Force: Magnetic force = 0
1. Velocity is parallel to Magnetic field θ = 00 Velocity and magnetic field are in same direction
2. Velocity is anti-parallel to Magnetic field θ = 1800 Velocity and magnetic field are in
opposite sin 00 = 0 sin 1800 = 0
Magnetic force = 0 = mass x acceleration
Acceleration a = 0 Velocity = constant Kinetic energy K.E. = constant
Trajectory or Path of particle: Straight line
Magnetic force = 𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗
Magnitude of the magnetic force = F = q v B sin θ
θ = Angle between velocity and Magnetic field
CASE II: Velocity is perpendicular to magnetic field θ = 900 F = q v B sin 900 F = q v B
Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
Consider a conductor of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l.
Let n be the number density of these mobile charge carriers.
The total number of mobile charge carriers = n l A.
Let q be the charge of each carrier. Total charge = Q = q n l A
Let the drift velocity of each charge carrier be v d. Let I be the steady current across it.
Magnetic force in the presence of magnetic field = 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗
Product = Q v = q n l A vd = n q A vd l = I l
Magnetic force acting on a current carrying conductor = 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵 ⃗
MOTION OF A CHARGE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider a particle of charge q moving with a velocity v in uniform
magnetic field B.
Magnetic force = 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗
the direction of the force is perpendicular to both velocity and
magnetic field
If the force is perpendicular to velocity , Work = 𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑣
𝑊 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ ). 𝑣
𝑊 = 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝑣 ). 𝐵 ⃗ = Zero.
 71

The magnitude of the velocity is constant. Kinetic energy of the charge is constant.
If the force is perpendicular to the velocity, means the perpendicular force acts centripetal
force and produces circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other
if mass of the particle is m and r is the radius of the circular path of a particle,
𝑚𝑣 2
Centripetal force = 𝐹 = 𝑟
This centripetal force acts perpendicular to the path towards center of the circle.
If the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field, Magnetic force = F = q v B
Centripetal force = Magnetic force
𝑚 𝑣2
=𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
Radius of the circular orbit = 𝑟 = 𝑞 𝐵
𝑞𝐵
Angular frequency of the particle = 𝜔 = 𝑚
Angular frequency is independent of the velocity of the particle and radius of the orbit.
And also it is independent of the energy of the particle.
2𝜋𝑚
Period of revolution of the particle = 𝑇 = 𝑞 𝐵
𝑞𝐵𝑟
The velocity of the particle = 𝑣 = 𝑚
𝑞2 𝐵2 𝑟 2
Kinetic energy of the particle = 𝐾. 𝐸. =
2𝑚
The factors on which the angular frequency depends:
1. Charge of the particle 2. Magnetic field 3. Mass of the particle
The factors on which the angular frequency does not depend:
1. Velocity of the particle 2. Radius of the orbit 3. The energy of the particle
If the particle is moving with a velocity making an angle with magnetic field B
If the component of the velocity is parallel to the magnetic
field, it will make the particle move along the magnetic
field and follows helical path. It produces a helical motion.
The velocity v has a component along the magnetic field B,
v sin θ.
The distance travelled along the magnetic field in one
rotation is called pitch. It is denoted by symbol p.
2𝜋𝑚𝑣
Pitch = 𝑝 = 𝑣∥ 𝑇 = 𝑞 𝐵 ∥
The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix.
𝑚 𝑣2
Centripetal force = magnetic force. = 𝑞 𝑣 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
Radius of the helical path = 𝑟 =
𝑞 𝐵 sin 𝜃
CONCULSIONS:
𝒎𝒗
1. Radius of the orbit: 𝒓 = 𝒒 𝑩
𝑞2 𝐵2 𝑟 2
2. Kinetic Energy Of The Particle 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2𝑚
𝒒𝑩 𝟐𝝅𝒎
3. Angular Frequency 𝝎= Period Of Revolution: 𝑻 =
𝒎 𝒒𝑩
 72

PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES
SL.NO. NAME OF THE PARTICLE Symbol MASS CHARGE
1 Electron 𝑒− 9.1 x 10-31 kg -1.6 x 10-19 C Or 1e
2 Proton 1.67 x 10-27 kg +1.6 x 10-19 C Or 1e
Symbol = m
1
3 Hydrogen 𝐻1 1 proton symbol = m 1 electron + 1 proton
2
4 Deuterium 𝐻1 1 proton + 1 neutron 1 electron + 1 proton
= 1 m + 1m = 2m
3
5 Tritium 𝐻1 1 proton + 2 neutron 1 electron + 1 proton
=1 m + 2m = 3m
6 Alpha Particle or 𝟐+ 2 protons + 2 neutrons 2 protons = 2 e
𝑯𝒆
Helium Nucleus = 2m + 2m = 4m

Case I: Same Velocity, Same magnetic field v = constant B = constant

𝑚
Radius of the orbit 𝑟 𝛼 𝑞
Radius of two particles r1 , r2 Two particles of masses m1, m2 charges q1 , q2
𝑟2 𝑚2 𝑞1
= ×
𝑟1 𝑚1 𝑞2
Example: Proton and alpha particle : Proton q1 = e Mass m1 = m Radius = 𝑟1 ,
Alpha Particle q2 = 2e Mass m2 = 4m Radius = 𝑟2
𝑟2 𝑚2 𝑞1
=𝑚 ×𝑞 rα : rp = 2:1
𝑟 1 1 2
Case II: Same Momentum , Same magnetic field mv = constant B = constant
1
Radius of the orbit 𝑟 𝛼 Radius of two particles r1 , r2 charges q1 , q2
𝑞
𝑟2 𝑞1
=
𝑟1 𝑞2
Example: Proton and alpha particle
Proton q1 = e Radius = 𝑟1 , Alpha Particle q2 = 2e Radius = 𝑟2
𝑟2 𝑞1
=𝑞 rα : rp = 1:2
𝑟 1 2
Case III: Same Kinetic energy Same magnetic field K. E. = constant
𝑚𝑣
B = constant Radius 𝑟 =
𝑞𝐵
Momentum in terms of Kinetic energy and mass = 𝑝 = √2 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐾. 𝐸
√2 ×𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ×𝐾.𝐸.
Radius of the orbit 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
Radius of two particles r1 , r2 Two particles of masses m1, m2 charges q1 , q2
√𝑚 𝑟2 𝑞1 𝑚2
𝑟𝛼 = ×√
𝑞 𝑟1 𝑞2 𝑚1
Example: Proton and Alpha particle Proton q1 = e Mass = m1 = m Radius = 𝑟1 ,
Alpha Particle q2 = 2e Mass = m2 = 4 m Radius = 𝑟2
𝑟2 𝑞 𝑚
= 𝑞1 × √𝑚2 rα : rp = 1:1
𝑟1 2 1
𝒒𝑩 𝟐𝝅𝒎
ANGULAR FREQUENCY 𝝎= PERIOD OF REVOLUTION: 𝑻 =
𝒎 𝒒𝑩
 73

q = charge , B = Magnetic field m = Mass

Same magnetic field
𝑞 𝑚
𝜔 𝛼 𝑚 𝑇𝛼 𝑞
𝜔2 𝑞 𝑚 𝑇2 𝑚 𝑞
= 𝑞2 × 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 × 𝑞1
𝜔1 1 2 𝑇1 1 2
Example: Proton and Alpha particle
Proton q1 = e Mass = m1 = m Angular frequency = 𝜔1 Period = 𝑇1
Alpha Particle q2 = 2e Mass = m2 = 4 m Angular frequency = 𝜔2 Period = 𝑇2
𝜔2 𝑞2 𝑚1
= × ωα : ωp = 1: 2
𝜔1 𝑞1 𝑚2
𝑇2 𝑚2 𝑞1
=𝑚 ×𝑞 Tα : Tp = 2: 1
𝑇1 1 2
Motion of a charge particle in uniform electric field:
Consider a particle of charge q is accelerated under electric field E.
The electric force acting on a particle q = F = q E
LORENTZ EELCTRO-MAGNETIC FORCE
Consider a conductor which contains charge q. Let the elctric field be E.
The Electric force due to the electric field = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ ------------------(1)
Assume that the charge particles are moving with the velocity v. An accelerated particle exhibits
magnetic properties.
Magnetic force = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞 (𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗) ---------------------------(2)
So, the electron is moving in the presence of the Electric field and Magnetic field.
The total force is called Lorentz electromagnetic force.
Total Electro-magnetic Force = 𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹𝑒 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞[𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ )]
Motion of a charge particle in combined electric and
magnetic field:
Consider a particle of charge q is moving with a velocity v in
electric field E.
The electric force on charge q due to electric field E = F = q E
Since the particle is in motion, magnetic field B is produced.
Sue to this it exerts a magnetic force.
The magnetic force on a charge q in magnetic field B = F = q
(v X B)
The total force acting on a charged particle in combined electric and magnetic field
Total force = Force due to electric field + force due to magnetic field
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
Assume that electric field and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle
Let Electric field is along Y-axis, Magnetic field is along Z-axis. the particle is moving along X-axis,
Then, Total force = 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸𝑗́ + 𝑣𝑖́ × 𝐵𝑘́)
Force = 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸 − 𝑣𝐵)𝑗́
In other words, the electric force and magnetic forces are acting in the opposite directions,
 74

If the magnitudes of electric force and magnetic forces are equal by adjusting the magnitudes
of electric field and magnetic field, then charge will not move.
Electric force = Magnetic force
qE = q v B
or E = v B
This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam
containing charges moving with different speeds(irrespective of their charge and mass). The
crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a velocity selector. Both fields are called crossed
fields.
Only particles with speed E/B pass undeflected through the region of crossed fields.
CYCLOTRON:
PRINCIPLE: When a positive charged particle is made to move in uniform and magnetic fields, it
gets accelerated and acquires high energy. Electric field is used to accelerate and the magnetic
field is used to make the particle to move in circular orbit.
The cyclotron uses both electric and magnetic fields in combination to increase the energy of
charged particles. As the fields are perpendicular to each other they are called crossed
fields.
Cyclotron uses the fact that the frequency of revolution of the charged particle in a magnetic
field is independent of its energy.
CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of two hollow D-shaped metallic chambers D1 and D2 called dees as they look like
the letter D. These dees are separated by a small gap where a source of positive charged of
particles is placed.
Two dees are connected to a high frequency oscillator,
which provided a high electric field is set up.
Inside the metal boxes the particle is shielded and is
not acted on by the electric field. The magnetic field,
however, acts on the particle and makes it go round in a
circular path inside a dee. Every time the particle
moves from one dee to another it is acted upon by the
electric field.
The sign of the electric field is changed alternately in
tune with the circular motion of the particle. This
ensures that the particle is always accelerated by the electric field. Each time the acceleration
increases the energy of the particle. As energy increases, the radius of the circular path
increases. So the path is a spiral one.
Strong magnetic field is applied on the particle and makes them to move in a circular path in
the dees. For this purpose, a strong electromagnet is used. The magnetic field is perpendicular
to the plane of the dees.
The whole assembly is evacuated to minimise collisions between the ions and the air molecules.
WORKING:
A high frequency alternating voltage is applied to the dees.
Assume that D1 is connected to Positive terminal and D2 is connected to negative terminal of
the source. A high frequency alternating voltage is applied to the dees.
 75

Positive ions or positively charged particles (e.g., protons) are released at the centre P.
Because of the electric field, the particle is accelerated and moves in a circular orbit in D 2
because of the magnetic field.
They move in a semi-circular path in one of the dees and arrive in the gap between the dees in
a time interval T/2.
After completion of semi -circular orbit, when it reaches the periphery of the D2, the polarity of
the oscillator is reversed, so that it jumps into D 1.
When it completes another semi-circle, the polarity is reversed and jumps into D2. The speed of
it increases.
𝑞𝐵
Angular frequency = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝑚
This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency for obvious reasons and is denoted by νC .
𝑞𝐵
The frequency of cyclotron = 𝜈𝑐 = 2 𝜋𝑚
2𝜋𝑚
Period of revolution = 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵
They move in a semi-circular path in one of the dees and arrive in the gap between
the dees in a time interval T/2.
The frequency νa of the applied voltage is adjusted so that the polarity of the dees is reversed
in the same time that it takes the ions to complete one half of the revolution. The requirement
νa = νc is called the resonance condition.
The frequency of the cyclotron is adjusted such that it is equal to the frequency of applied
voltage. This is called resonance condition.
The increase in their kinetic energy is qV each time they cross from one dee to another (V refers
to the voltage across the dees at that time).
𝑚𝑣
Radius of the orbit = 𝑟 = 𝑞 𝐵
𝑞𝐵𝑟
Velocity of the particle = 𝑣 = 𝑚
𝑞2 𝐵2 𝑟 2
Kinetic energy of the particle = 2 𝑚
The radius of their path goes on increasing each time their kinetic energy increases. The ions
are repeatedly accelerated across the dees until they have the required energy to have a radius
approximately that of the dees. They are then deflected by a magnetic field and leave the
system via an exit slit.
USES:
1. It is used to accelerate heavy charged particles and increase the energy.
2. The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with energetic particles, so accelerated by it, and
study the resulting nuclear reactions.
3. It is used to implant ions into solids and modify their properties or even synthesise new
materials.
4. It is used in hospitals to produce radioactive substances which can be used in diagnosis and
treatment

LIMITATIONS:
1. Neutrons cannot be accelerated because charge = 0
2. Electrons cannot be accelerated because of lighter particle or small mass.
 76

3. The cyclotron cannot accelerate the particles to velocities as high as comparable to the
velocity of light. The reason is that at these velocities the mass m of a particle increase with
increasing velocity
A proton with kinetic energy 10 eV, moves on a circular path in a uniform magnetic field.
What shall be the kinetic energies of (i) an 𝜶 particle; and (ii) a deuteron moving on the same
circular path in the same field?
SOLUTION:
Let m be the mass and e the charge of a proton.
Suppose it is moving with velocity v on a circular path of radius r in a magnetic field.
The magnetic force on the proton provides the necessary centripetal force. That is
𝑚 𝑣2
𝑒𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑒𝐵𝑟
Velocity of the proton = 𝑣 = 𝑚
1 1 𝑒 2𝐵2𝑟 2
Kinetic energy of the proton = 𝐾 𝐸𝑝 = 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 2 × 𝑚
For Alpha Particle : Charge = 2e Mass = 4m
1 (2 𝑒)2𝐵 2 𝑟 2
Kinetic energy of alpha particle = 𝐾 𝐸𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 = 2 × = 𝐾. 𝐸.𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
4𝑚
For Deuteron: Charge = e, Mass = 2m
1 𝑒 2 𝐵2 𝑟 2
Kinetic energy of Deuteron = 𝐾 𝐸 𝐷 = 2 × 2𝑚
1
𝐾 𝐸𝐷 = 𝐾 𝐸𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
2
BIOT-SAVART LAW
Consider a finite conductor XY carrying current I.
Consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor. The
magnetic field dB due to this
element is to be determined at a point P which is at a distance
r from it. Let q be the angle between dl and the displacement
vector r.
According to Biot-Savart’s law,
the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional to the
current I, dB α I
the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional the
element length |dl|, dB α dl
and the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance r. dB α 1/ r2
The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r .
Thus, in vector notation,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟
𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝛼
𝑑𝐵
𝑟3
𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟3
where μ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space = 4 π x 10-7 Tesla-m/Amp
 77

𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
The magnitude of the magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
Electric permittivity ε is a physical quantity that describes how an electric field affects and is
affected by a medium. It is determined by the ability of a material to polarize in response to an
applied field, and thereby to cancel, partially, the field inside the material.
Similarly, magnetic permeability μ is the ability of a substance to acquire magnetization in
magnetic fields. It is a measure of the extent to which magnetic field can penetrate matter.
DIFFERENCE AND SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND MAGNETIC FIELD:
Differences:
Sl. Electric field Magnetic field
No.
DIFFERENCES
1 The electrostatic field is produced by a The magnetic field is produced by a vector
scalar source, namely, the electric source Current element I dl
charge
2 The electrostatic field is along the The magnetic field is perpendicular to the
displacement vector joining the source plane containing the displacement vector r and
and the field point. the current element I dl
3 The electrostatic field does not depend The magnetic field depends on angle sin θ
on the angle
SIMILARITIES
1 Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from the
source to the point
2 The magnetic field is linear in the source I dl just as the electrostatic field is linear in its
source: the electric charge
Magnetic Field on the axis of a circular current Loop:
Consider a circular loop carrying a steady current I. The loop is
placed in the y-z plane with its
centre at the origin O and has a radius R. The x-axis is the axis
of the loop.
We wish to calculate the magnetic field at the point P on this
axis.
Let x be the distance of P from the centre O of the loop.
Consider a conducting element dl of the loop.
According to Biot-Savart law, The magnitude dB of the
magnetic field due to dl
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
------------------------(1)
At a point on the circumference, the angle between current element and displacement vector
from the element to the axial point is 900.
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2 -----------------------------------(2)
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane formed by dl and r.
It has two components.
a. The component along X-axis dBx.
 78

b. Another component perpendicular to the x-Axis, 𝑑𝐵⊥

When the components perpendicular to the x-axis are summed over, they cancel out and we
obtain a null result. For example, the dB component due to dl is cancelled by the contribution
due to the diametrically opposite dl element.
Thus, only the x-component survives.
The net magnetic field over the loop is the magnetic field contribution along X-axis.
dBx = dB cos θ ---------------(3)
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅
𝑑𝐵𝑥 = 4𝜋0 𝑟 2 𝑟 ----------------(4)
Total magnetic field is found by taking the circumference of the coil = 2 π R
𝜇 𝐼 𝑅 ×2𝜋𝑅
𝐵𝑥 = 4𝜋0 ----------------------------(5)
𝑟3
𝜇 𝐼𝑅2
𝐵𝑥 = 20 𝑟 3 ---------------------------------(6)
Since r2 = R2 + x2,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
Magnetic field at a point P at a distance x from the centre = 𝐵𝑥 = (𝑥 2+𝑅2 )3⁄2
---------------(7)
2
The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops and are shown in Fig.
The direction of the magnetic field is given by (another)
right-hand thumb rule stated below:
Right Hand Thumb Rule: Curl the palm of your right hand
around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-
hand thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field
The upper side of the loop may be thought as North pole and
lower side of the loop is South Pole.
VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE
AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP.
The figure shows the variation of the magnetic
field along the axis of a circular loop with
distance from the centre.
The value of B is maximum at the centre and it
decreases as we go away from the centre on
either side of the loop.
Conclusions:
There are two rules for prediction of direction of magnetic field due to a circular current loop
( a conductor loop in which current is flowing)
i) Right hand thumb rule, if we curl the palm of our right hand around the circular wire with
the fingers pointing in the direction of the current then the extended thumb gives the
direction of the magnetic field.
ii) The rule gives the polarity of any face of the circular current loop. If the current round any
face of the coil is in anticlockwise direction, it behaves like a north pole with magnetic field
line emerging from it
𝜇0 𝐼
1. At the center of the circle, x = 0, Magnetic field 𝐵 = 2𝑅
 79

𝜇 𝐼𝑅2 𝜋
2. From equation (7), 𝐵𝑥 = 20 𝑟 3 × 𝜋
Numerator = I π R2 = I x Area of the circular coil = I A= Magnetic moment m
𝜇0 𝑚
𝐵=
2𝜋 𝑟 3
Magnetic moment: It is defined as the product of current and area of the coil.
It is denoted by m. Magnetic moment = 𝑚 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝐴
or Magnetic moment = 𝑚 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼 𝐴𝑛́
Magnetic moment is a vector quantity. Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the circular
coil.
The unit of magnetic moment = Amp-m2
MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINETELY LONG STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT:
Consider a long straight wire AB carrying current I.
Let P be a point at a perpendicular distance a from the wire at a point O.
The magnetic field is to be found at point P.
Let r be the distance between current element idl and point P.
Let l be the distance between the current element and point O.
Let θ be the angle between the current element to point O and the current element to the
point P.
Accorcing to Biot-Savart Law, Magnetic field at a point P is given by
𝜇 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = 0 -----------------------------(1)
4𝜋 𝑟2
sin 𝛉= a/r
𝜇 𝑖 𝑑𝑙 𝑎 𝛍 𝐈𝐝𝐥 𝐚
Equation (1) changes to 𝑑𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝐝𝐁 = 𝟒𝛑𝐨 𝐫𝟑 ------(2)
Magnitude of the Distance vector 𝑟 = √𝑎2 + 𝑙 2
𝑟 3 = (𝑎2 + 𝑙 2 )3⁄2
3⁄2
𝑙2
𝑟 3 = 𝑎3 (1 + 𝑎2 ) -----------------------------------(3)
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
By using equation (2) and (3) 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 × 𝑎2 × 3⁄2 --------(4)
𝑙2
(1+ 2)
𝑎
𝜇 𝐼 1 𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 × 𝑎 × 3⁄2 × 𝑑 (𝑎) -----------------(5)
𝑙2
(1+ 2)
𝑎
Let l/a = x
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑥
Equation (5) changes to 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 × 𝑎 × (1+𝑥 2 )3⁄2 -------------------(6)
0 𝜇 𝐼 +∞ 𝑑𝑥
Magnetic field = 𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑎 ∫−∞ (1+𝑥 2)3⁄2
-------------------------------(7)
𝜇0 𝐼
The value of integration is 2. 𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑎 × 2
𝜇 𝐼
0
𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑎 -------------------------------------------(8)
The direction of the magnetic field is given by Right Hand Thumb Rule.
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb
pointing in the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the
magnetic field.
 80

If a current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right hand such that the thumb
points in the direction of the current, then the tips of the curled fingers encircling the conductor
will give the direction of the magnetic field.
MANGETIC FIELD AT A POINT MIDWAY BETWEEN INFINITELY LONG PARALLEL STRAIGHT
CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENT:
a. When both conductors carrying current in the same direction:
Let I be the current across both conductors.
The distance between two conductors = d
Magnetic field at a point P at a midpoint between two conductors due to first conductor
𝜇0 4 𝐼
𝐵1 = ×
4𝜋 𝑑
The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane and directed inward.
Magnetic field at a point P at a midpoint between two conductors due to second conductor
𝜇0 4𝐼
𝐵2 = ×
4𝜋 𝑑
The direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane and directed outward.
Since these two are equal in magnitude and opposite direction.
The net magnetic field at the centre = 0
b. When both conductors carrying current in the same direction:
Let I be the current across both conductors.
The distance between two conductors = d
Magnetic field at a point P at a midpoint between two conductors due to first conductor
𝜇0 4 𝐼
𝐵1 = ×
4𝜋 𝑑
Magnetic field at a point P at a midpoint between two conductors due to second conductor
𝜇0 4𝐼
𝐵2 = ×
4𝜋 𝑑
The directions of the magnetic fields are in the same direction and directed perpendicular to
the plane of the paper.
The net magnetic field at the centre 𝐵 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
𝜇0 4 𝐼
𝐵=2 × ×
4𝜋 𝑑

Magnetic field due to finite current carrying wire at point P

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= (sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 )
4𝜋𝑑

𝜇 𝐼
a. For Infinite wire θ1 = θ2 = 900, Magnetic field 𝐵 = 2 𝜋0 𝑑

𝜇0 𝐼
b. For semi-infinite wire, θ1 = 00, θ2 = 900 Magneitc field 𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑑
 81

Note : For points along the length of the wire (but not on it), the field
is always zero
2. Magnetic field at the centre of current carrying circular arc. 𝐵 =
𝜇0 𝐼
(𝛼 )
4𝜋𝑅

(a) At the centre of current carrying circular loop, Angle α = 2 π

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= 2𝑅

(b) At the centre of semi-circular loop, Angle α = π

μ0 I
B=
4R
3. Magnetic-field at an axial point of current carrying circular loop,

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑅2
𝐵=
2(𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
𝜇 𝐼
At the centre of the circular coil: x = 0, 𝐵 = 20𝑅

Magnetic field due to a finite current carrying conductor:

Length of the conductor = L
Current = I in the upward direction.
Let P be a point a distance x and lie on the perpendicular bisector of the conductor.
𝜇 2𝐼𝐿
Magnetic field due to a finite current carrying conductor 𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 × √𝐿2 2
𝑥 +4𝑥
AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW:
The Line integral of Magnetic field over a closed surface is μ0 times the total current passing
through the surface. ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 × 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
it is possible to choose the loop (called an amperian loop) such that at each point of the loop,
either
(i) B is tangential to the loop and is a non-zero constant B, or
(ii) B is normal to the loop, or (iii) B vanishes.
PROOF OF AMPERE'S CIRCUITAL LAW: Consider a straight infinte current carrying wire. Let I be
the current through it. Let P be a point magnetic field is determined. Let r be the distance from
the conductor to the point P.
 82

𝜇 𝐼
0
Then Magnetic field B at a point P due to a straight conductor = 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟 ----------(1)
Assume that this conductor is bent in the form of circular wire such that the radius is r and the
magnetic field is tangential to the circumference.
Then From Ampere’s circuital law B x circumference = µ0 x total current in a cloed loop.
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
= RHS
APPLICATION S OF AMPERE CIRCUITAL LAW:
1. The magnetic field of a straight infinte current carrying conductor:
Consider a straight infinte conductor carrying current I. Let P be a point at distance r where
magnetic field B is to be determined.
Assume that striaght conductor is bent so that the boundary of the loop is choosen as a circle of
radius r and the magnetic field is tangential to the circumference of the circle.
The circumference = 2𝜋𝑟
From Ampere’s ciruital law, B x circumference = µ 0 x total current in a cloed loop
B x 2 π r = μ0 I
𝜇0 𝐼
or 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑟
The field direction at any point on the circle is tangential to it. The magnetic field lines form
concentric circles.
CONCLUSIONS:
(i) The magnetic field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is same
in magnitude.
In other words, the magnetic field possesses what is called a cylindrical symmetry.
The field that normally can depend on three coordinates depends only on one: r. Whenever
there is symmetry, the solutions simplify.
(ii) The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it.
Thus, the lines of constant magnitude of magnetic field form concentric circles.
These lines called magnetic field lines form closed loops.
(iii) The magnetic field due to infinite wire at a non-zero distance is not infinite.
(iv) The magnetic field is directly proportional to the current and inversely proportional
to the distance from the (infinitely long) current source.
(v) The direction of the magnetic field due to a long wire is explained by right-hand rule
Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the
current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.
2. SOLENOID:
A coil of many ciruclar turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the hape of a cylinder
is callled Solenoid.
It consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where
the neighbouring turns are closely
spaced. So each turn can be regarded as a circular loop.
By long solenoid we mean that the solenoid’s length is large
compared to its radius.
Consider a solenoid of length L. Let I be the current across
each turn. Assume that it consists of n turns per unit length.
 83

Let N be the total tunrs of the coil. N = n x L

Total current through the surface = N I = n L I
From Ampere’s circuital law, B x circumference = µ0 x Total curent through the surface.
B x L = µ0 x n L I
B = µ0 nI
OR
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd.
Along cd the field is zero as argued above.
Along transverse sections bc and ad, the field component is zero.
Thus, these two sections make no contribution.
Let the field along ab be B. Thus, the relevant length of the Amperian loop is, L = h.
Let n be the number of turns per unit length, then the total number of turns = n h
The total enclosed current =I (n h), where I is the current in the solenoid.
From Ampere’s circuital law BL = μ0 I (nh)
B h = μ0 I (n h) B = μ0 n I
The direction of the field is given 0by the right-hand rule.
Figure displays the magnetic field lines for a finite solenoid.
Fig. A section of this solenoid in an enlarged manner in fig.
it is clear from the circular loops that the field between two
neighbouring turns vanishes.
Fig : The magnetic field for entire finite solenoid with its
magnetic field in Fig. 4.17(b), The field at the interior mid-point
P is uniform, strong and along the axis of the solenoid.
The field at the exterior mid-point Q is weak and moreover is
along the axis of the solenoid with no perpendicular or normal
component.
IMPORTANT CONCLUSIONS:
1. The field outside the solenoid approaches zero.
2. The field inside the solenoid parallel to the axis everywhere.
3. The field at the interiro is uniform, strong and along the axis of the solenoid.
4. If the solenoid is longer or for a longer solenoid, it appears like a long cylinderical metal sheet.
The field outisde is zero and the field inside is uniform and parallel to the axis.
FIELD DUE TO A LONG SOLENOID
a. Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field = B = μ0 n I
𝜇 𝑛𝐼
b. At the ends, the magnetic field = 𝐵 = 02
 0 nI
(I) Inside B   0 nI (ii) At one end B 
2
where n is the number of turns per unit length
Magnetic field at the axis of a solenoid:
𝜇 𝑛𝐼
a. Finite length: 𝐵 = 0 (sin 𝜃1 + sin 𝜃2 )
2
b. Infinite Length θ1 = θ2 = 900
B = μ0 n I
Note : Magnetic field outside solenoid is zero.
 84

TOROID:
The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of
turns of a wire are closely wound.
Magnetic field at a point due to a Toroid: Consider a toroid of
radius r. Let I be the current through each turn. Let N be the
total no. of turns of the coil. Since it is in the form of a circular,
the length is equal to the cirumference = 2𝜋𝑟.
At a point P, a circular loop of radius < 𝑟 Let radius of the
loop be r1. The current = 0.
Magnetic field at any point at point P i.e. inside the toroid = 0
At a point Q, a circular loop of radius r3> 𝑟
The current coming out of the plane of the paper is cancelled
exactly by the current going into it.
Magnetic field at any point Q i.e. outside the toroid = 0
The field B inside the toroid is constant in magnitude for the ideal
toroid of closely wound turns.
At point S, a circular loop of radius r.
The total current I = N x current across each turn
= n x Length of the conductor x current across each turn
= n x circumference x current
= n x 2 πrx I
From Ampere circuital law: B x circumference = µ0 x Total curent through the surface
B x 2𝛑𝐫 = µ0 x n x 2𝛑𝐫 x I
B = µ0 n I
OR
It can be viewed as a solenoid which has been bent into a circular shape to close
on itself.
It is shown in Fig. carrying a current I.
Figure shows a sectional view of the toroid. The direction of the magnetic field inside is
clockwise as per the right-hand thumb rule for circular loops.
Three circular Amperian loops 1, 2 and 3 are shown by dashed lines.
By symmetry, the magnetic field should be tangential to each of them and constant in
magnitude for a given loop.
The circular areas bounded by loops 2 and 3 both cut the toroid: so that each turn of current
carrying wire is cut once by the loop 2 and twice by the loop 3
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG LOOP 1
Let the magnetic field along loop 1 be B1 in magnitude.
Then in Ampere’s circuital law, The length of the loop L = 2 π r1 .
The current enclosed by the loop = Ie = 0
B1 ( 2 π r1 ) = μ0 Ie
B1 = 0 Thus, the magnetic field at any point P in the open space inside the toroid is zero.
 85

MAGNETIC FIELD AT POINT Q

We shall now show that magnetic field at Q is likewise zero.
Let the magnetic field along loop 3 be B3 .
The length of the loop = L = 2 π r3
The current coming out of the plane of the paper is cancelled exactly by the current going into
it. Thus, Ie = 0, and B3 = 0.
MAGENTIC FIELD INSIDE THE SOLENOID
Let the magnetic field inside the solenoid be B.
We shall now consider the magnetic field at S.
The length of the loop = L = 2 π r
Let N be the no. of turns and the current in each turn be I.
The total current enclosed in toroidal coil = N I
From Ampere's circuital law B ( 2 π r) = μ0 NI
B ( 2 π r) = μ0 n L I
B ( 2 π r) = μ0 n( 2 π r) I
B = μ0 n I
𝜇 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 20𝜋 𝑟
In an ideal toroid the coils are circular. In reality the turns of the toroidal coil form a helix and
there is always a small magnetic field external to the toroid.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. Magnetic field at any point P i.e. inside the toroid = 0
2. Magentic field at any point Q, i.e. outside the toroid = 0
3. The field B inside the toroid at point S is constant in magnitude for the ideal toroid.
B = µ0 n I
4.Field inside a Torodial Solenoid B = μ0 n I. Note that B is independent of r

MAGNETIC FIELD INSIDE A LONG STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING STEADY CURRENT

Magnetic field at a distance away from the center of the wire, obviously outside the wire
But is there a magnetic field within the wire? We can use Ampere’s law to determine the
magnetic field inside the wire.
Assumptions
1. The current must be through a wire of uniform cross section
2. The current density should be uniform
3. The material of the straight wire should be homogeneous with the same resistivity
Consider a conductor wire through which a current I flows so we have a long straight wire of
a circular cross-section (radius a) carrying steady current I.
The current I is uniformly distributed across this cross-section.
Let us calculate the magnetic field in the region
i) r > a
The Amperian loop, labeled 2, is a circle concentric with the cross-
section.
For this loop, L = 2 π r
 86

Let Ie = Current enclosed by the loop = I

𝜇 𝐼
Magnetic field 𝐵 = 2 𝜋0 𝑟
or B α (1/r)
ii) r ˂ a
The amperian loop is a circle labeled 1.
For this loop, taking the radius of the circle to be r,
Since the current distribution is uniform, the current enclosed =
𝜋 𝑟2 𝑟2
𝐼𝑒 = 𝐼 (𝜋 𝑎2 ) = 𝐼 (𝑎2 )
𝑟2
Using Ampere circuital law, 𝐵 × 2𝜋 𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼 (𝑎2 )
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑟
𝐵=
2 𝜋 𝑎2
Bαr

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS

a. Parallel currents attract, and anti-parallel currents repel.
b. The ampere is the value of that steady current which,
when maintained in each of the two very long, straight,
parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed
one metre apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10-7 Newton per metre of
length
DERIVATION:
Consider two long parallel conductors a and b separated by
a distance d and carrying the currents Ia and Ib respectively.
The conductor ‘a’ produces, the same magnetic field Ba at all points along the conductor ‘b’.
By the right hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field for this straight conductor is
downwards.
𝜇 𝐼
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to conductor a = 𝐵𝑎 = 2 0𝜋 𝑎𝑑 ---------------(1)
The conductor ‘b’ carrying a current Ib will experience a sideways force due to the field Ba.
Let the force on a conductor b due to conductor a = Fba = Ib L Ba -----------------------(2)
𝜇 𝐼 𝐼
𝐹𝑏𝑎 = 02 𝑎𝜋 𝑑𝑏 𝐿 --------------------(3)
The direction of this force is towards the conductor ‘a’
Similarly the force on a conductor a due to the conductor b = Fab = Ia L Bb ----------(4)
𝜇 𝐼 𝐼 𝐿
𝐹𝑎𝑏 = 02 𝑎𝜋 𝑑𝑏 ------------------(5)
The force on conductor ‘a’ due to conductor ‘b’ is equal and opposite to the force on conductor
b due to conductor a Fba = - Fab
It obeys Newton's third law.
From this, the currents flowing in the same direction attract each other.
One can show that oppositely directed currents repel each other.
Parallel currents attract, and anti-parallel currents repel.
COMPARISION OF THE ELECTRIC FORCE AND MAGNETIC FORCE
 87

Consider two conductors of length L each, carrying currents I 1 and I2 sperated by a distance d.
Let q1 and q2 be the charges in the conductors and v1 and v2 be the velocities of the charges in
the conductors.
1 𝑞 𝑞
The electric force between two conducotrs 𝐹𝑒 = 4 𝜋 𝜖 𝑑1 22 ---------(1)
0
The magnetic force between two codnuctos = 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼2 𝑙2 × 𝐵2
𝜇 𝐼 𝑙
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐼2 𝑙2 × 4 0𝜋 𝑑1 21
𝜇 𝐼1 𝑙1 𝐼2𝑙2
𝐹𝑚 = 4 0𝜋 𝑑2
𝜇0 𝑞1 𝑣1 𝑞2 𝑣2
But I1 l1 = q1 v1 ,I2 l2 = q2 v2 𝐹𝑚 = 4 𝜋 -------(2)
𝑑2
From (1) and (2)
𝐹𝑒 1 1
=𝜇 ----------------(3)
𝐹𝑚 0 𝜖0 𝑣1𝑣2

Left Hand side quantity does not have unit. It is a dimensionless constant.
By substituting the values of electric permitivity and magnetic permeabilties of vacuum,
By substituting magnetic permeablity of free space and electric permitivity of free space,
1
= 𝑐 2 Where c = speed of light.
𝜇 𝜖
0 0
𝐹𝑒 𝑐2
=𝑣
𝐹𝑚 1𝑣2
Since the particle can not move with the speed more than speed of light, Fe> Fm .
Show that two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying current in the same direction
attract each other.

Magnetic field B1 due to I1 point into the plane of the paper.

By Flemings Left Hand rule F2 force on I2 is towards I1. Similarly, B2
points outside the plane of the paper. Therefore F1 is towards I 2 .
Therefore I1 and I2 attracts.

Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field:

Consider a rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and placed in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque.
The net force experienced by the rectangular loop is zero.
Consider a rectangular loop ABCD is placed such that the
uniform magnetic field B is in the plane of the loop.
Let the length and breadth of the rectangular loop are a
and b respectively.
The direction of the current in arm AD is along the
direction of the magnetic field B i.e. making an angle 00 , the force acting on the arm AD = I a B
sin 00 = 0
 88

Similarly, the direction of the current in arm BC is opposite to the direction of the magnetic field
B i.e. making an angle 1800 , the force acting on the arm AD = I a B sin 1800 = 0
It is perpendicular to the arm AB of the loop and exerts a force F1 on it which is directed into
the plane of the loop.
Its magnitude of the force F1 = I b B
Similarly, it exerts a force F2 on the arm CD and F2 is directed out of the plane of the paper.
F2 = I b B = F 1
Thus, the net force on the loop is zero.
Assume that the plane of the coil is making an angle θ with the magnetic field B,
Since the forces acting on the arms AB and CD are equal and
opposite with a magnitude
F1 = F 2 = I b B
The loop results to a rotational motion and experiences a
torque τ.
𝑎
The magnitude of the torque on the loop = 𝜏 = 𝐹1 ( 2 ) sin 𝜃 +
𝑎
𝐹2 (2 ) sin 𝜃
𝑎 𝑎
𝜏 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 ( ) sin 𝜃 + 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 ( ) sin 𝜃
2 2
𝜏 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝑏 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃
Magnetic moment of the current loop = m = I A ,
where the direction of the area vector A is given by the right-hand thumb rule
The direction of the magnetic moment is directed into the plane of the paper.
Torque experienced on the loop = 𝜏 = 𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
where θ is the angle between magnetic moment and magnetic field.
In vector notation, torque = 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗
The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane containing magnetic moment and
magnetic field.
Magnetic moment : Magnetic moment of the current loop is defined as the product of area and
current.
It is denoted by symbol m. Unit of magnetic moment = Amp-m2
If the loop has N closely wound turns, magnetic moment of the current loop = m = N I A
By using the vectors, Magnetic moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴𝑛́
The direction of the magnetic moment is perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

IMPORTANT POINTS:
1. Net force on the rectangular coil dipole is F Net = +I l B - I l B = 0
2. The torque experienced by the current carrying rectangular coil 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜏 = 𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛́
where θ = Angle between magnetic moment and magnetic field
Magnetic moment m = Current x Area = I A
3. Potential energy = 𝑈 = −𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵 U = - m B cos θ
4. If the coil is rotating angle from 1 to angle 2 Potential energy
 89

𝑈 = −𝑚 𝐵 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
5. Stable equilibrium : When magnetic moment is parallel to magnetic field, θ = 00 ,
Potential energy = U = - m B = Negative = Minimum
Torque = 0
6. Unstable equilibrium: When magnetic moment is anti-parallel to magnetic field, θ = 1800 ,
Potential energy = U = m B = Positive = Maximum
Torque = 0
7. If the coil is rotated from angle θ1 =00 to θ2 = θ, then work done is given by W= m B (l-cos).
8. If the coil rotating from stable equilibrium θ 1 =00 to unstable equilibrium θ2 = 180°,
the work, W= m B (l-cos 180°) = m B (l + 1) = 2 m B.
9. Torque will be maximum when the coil is held perpendicular to the magnetic field. θ = 90 0,
Torque = m B
10. The torque will be minimum or zero when the coil is parallel (θ=00) or anti-parallel
(θ=1800) to the magnetic field
11. When the coil is released, the torque on the coil brings the dipole parallel to the external
magnetic field.
12. In Uniform magnetic field, an coil placed experiences only a torque. But when the
magnetic field field is not uniform, it experiences both a torque and force.
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:
It is a device used to detect the current in the circuit.
PRINCIPLE: When a current carrying rectangular coil is placed in
uniform Magnetic field, it experiences a torque.
CONSTRUCTION: The components are as follows:
01. A rectangular coil: It consists of a rectangular coil with
many turns, wound on a metallic frame is placed
between two poles of a permanent Magnet. It is free to
rotate about a fixed axis in a uniform magnetic field.

02. Permanent Magnet: The poles of the permanent magnet should be either cylinder or
concave poles in shape. The magnetic field should be uniform and radial. A radial
magnetic field is always parallel to the plane of the coil.
03. Spiral Spring: The rectangular coil is suspended by a spiral spring. One end of the spring
is connected to one terminal of galvanometer and another end is connected to a light
spring. A flat strip spring of Phosphorous Bronze is used instead of a circular spring.
Value of is small for a rectangular coil.
04. Soft iron core: A cylindrical soft iron core is used. It not only makes the magnetic field
radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic field. piece of soft iron is placed in
the metallic frame of the coil.
The whole arrangement is enclosed in non-magnetic case, which is provided with leveling
screws. The torsion head is connected to terminal T1. The galvanometer can be connected to
the circuit through terminals T1 and T2.

MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT: When current flows

through the coil, it experiences a torque.
 90

If A = area of the rectangular coil, B = Magnetic field,

N = No. of turns and
𝜃be the angle made by the normal to the plane of coil with the direction of the magnetic field
Torque experienced by the coil = 𝜏 = 𝑁 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃 --------------------------------(1)

Since the field is radial and the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, then 𝜃 =
900. Then Deflecting torque τ = NIAB -------------------------------(2)
This magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate the coil.
As the coil gets deflected, the spring is twisted and a restoring torque is developed.
If the restoring torque per unit twist is k, then the restoring torque for a deflection 𝜑 is given by
Restoring torque τ = kφ -----------------------------(3)
where k is the torsional constant of the spring.
Torsional torque is the restoring torque per angular twist.
This restoring torque balances the magnetic torque resulting in a steady angular deflection ϕ.
For equilibrium of the coil, the deflecting torque = Restoring torque
k ϕ = N I A B ------------------------------------(4)
The deflection ϕis indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the spring.
𝑘
𝐼 = (𝑁 𝐴 𝐵 ) 𝜑 -------------------------------------------(5)
Or current is directly proportional to the angular deflection. I α ϕ -------(6)
𝑘
Here Galvanometer constant =
𝑁𝐴𝐵
Thus for a given value of current I, deflection ∅ will be large, if
(i) N is large
(ii) B is large
(iii) Area A is large
(iv) Torsion constant K is small
SENSITIVITY OF THE GALVANOMETER:
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current flowing through the coil, produces a
large deflection in it.
The sensitivity of galvanometer is increased by
(a) Increasing B: Using a strong Horse shoe Magnet and using a soft iron core
(b) Torsion constant K depends on the nature of material used for making the spring or
suspension wire.
Quartz or Phosphor Bronze is used.
That is why, in sensitive galvanometer quartz or phosphor bronze strip is used as a
suspension wire and spring
TYEPS OF SENSITIVITIES: There are two types of sensitivities.
1. Current sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of angular deflection to current flowing through
the coil.
𝜑 𝑁𝐴𝐵
Current sensitivity = 𝐼 = 𝑘
Current sensitivity is increased by (i) Increasing the no. of turns (N)
(ii) Increasing the magnetic field: By using a strong permanent horse shoe-magnet
(iii) Increasing the area of the coil
(iv) Decreasing the restoring force constant k
 91

by using a flat strip spring of Phosphorous Bronze.

2. Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of angular deflection to voltage across the coil.
𝜑 𝑁𝐴𝐵
Voltage sensitivity = 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑅
Voltage sensitivity is increased by (i) increasing the no. of turns N
(ii) increasing B
(iii) increasing Area A
(iv) Decreasing the resistance
(v) decreasing k
The increasing of current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity. If we
increase current sensitivity by increasing number of turn N, voltage sensitivity will not change.
This is because the resistance of the galvanometer coil will change in the same ratio as length of
wire changes by changing the number of turns N.
ROLE OF EDDY CURRENTS: When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, the eddy currents are
produced in a metallic frame. These eddy currents produce dampening effect and hence the
coil comes to rest quickly.
GALVANOMETER CAN NOT BE USED TO FIND THE CURRENT:
The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the value of the current
in a given circuit.
This is for two reasons: (i) Galvanometer is a very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection
for a current of the order of μA.
(ii) For measuring currents, the galvanometer has to be connected in series, and as it has a large
resistance, this will change the value of the current in the circuit.
To overcome these difficulties, one attaches a small resistance S , called shunt resistance, in
parallel with the galvanometer coil; so that most of the current passes through the shunt.

Increase in Current sensitivity may not increase the voltage sensitivity.

Assume that no. of turns are doubled, changed from N to 2N,
Current sensitivity also becomes double.
Since resistance is directly proportional to length, resistance becomes doubled, i.e from R to 2R
Voltage sensitivity also remains unchanged.
IMPORTANT POINTS:

1. MAGNETIC FIELD: Radial and uniform.

Radial magnetic field is obtained by using concave poles or Cylindrical poles
A radial magnetic field is always parallel to the plane of the coil.
ADVANTAGE OF RADIAL MAGNETIC FIELD: whatever be the position of coil in magnetic field,
plane of coil is always parallel to magnetic field. Thus the torque acting on the coil is always
maximum and remains the same.
2. SPRIAL SPRING: Made of Phosphor Bronze A flat strip Torsion constant k = small

Properties of the material of the wire used for restoring spring in a moving coil galvanometer.
(a) It should be non-brittle conductor
(b) Its restoring torque per unit twist should be small.
 92

3. Why a voltmeter is always connected in parallel with a circuit element across which voltage
is to be measured?
Answer: So that it may not change the resistance of the circuit and hence voltage across it.
4. An ammeter and a milli-ammeter are converted from the same galvanometer. Out of the
two, which should have higher resistance?
Answer: Milli-ammeter has higher resistance because it has shunt of higher resistance as
compared to that of an ammeter.
5. Galvanometer as such cannot be used to measure current flowing in the circuit. Why?
Answer: (a) it is a very sensitive instrument and shows very large deflection for small amount of
current

(b) it has very high resistance and can affect the value of current in the circuit.

GALVANOMETER CAN NOT BE USED AS AMMETER. WHY?

The galvanometer cannot as such be used as an ammeter to measure the value of current in a
given circuit. This is for two reasons:
(a) Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument; it gives a full scale deflection for very small
current
(b) For measuring currents the galvanometer has to be connected in series, and as it has large
resistance, this will change the value of the current in the circuit.
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER:

A galvanometer is converted to an ammeter, when a low resistance

called Shunt (S) connected in parallel with the Galvanometer.
Let I be the maximum current measured by ammeter.
Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer, S be the shunt
resistance.
Voltage across Galvanometer = Voltage across Shunt Resistance
Ig G = (I-IG) S
𝐼𝐺 𝐺
S = 𝐼−𝐼
𝐺
For an ideal ammeter, The resistance is zero.
CONVERSION OF GALAVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER:
A galvanometer is converted to an Voltmeter, when a high resistance is connected in series
with the Galvanometer.
Let V be the maximum Voltage measured by Voltmeter.
Let G be the resistance of the galvanometer, R be the
resistance.
Voltage across the circuit = Potential difference across G + Pot.
Diff. across R V = IG G + IG R
= Ig (G+R)
𝐕
R=𝐈 –G
𝐆
The resistance of Ideal Voltmeter is infinity
 93

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A CURRENT LOOP:

The magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is the product of the total current and the
magnitude of area vector A
It is denoted by a symbol. M. It is direction is along the area vector or perpendicular to the
plane of the coil.
m = I A.
If there are N turns in the coil, m = NIA.
Unit: Amp-m2.
MAGNETIC MOMENT OR MAGNETIC DIPOLEMOMENT OF REVOLVNG ELECTRON OR ATOM AS
A MAGNETIC DIPOLE:

An electron revolves around nucleus in an atom.

When the electrons are revolving around the nucleus in
an orbit, the orbit is considered to be a tiny current loop.
Consider an electron of mass me and charge e is revolving
with a velocity v around a nucleus.
Since electron is revolving in circular orbit, it possess
angular momentum L about the nucleus..
Let A be are of the circular coil and I be the current. Let m
be the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole moment of an electron about the center of the
nucleus.
Magnetic moment of an electron = m = IA
𝑒
= − 2𝑚 𝐿
𝑒
𝑒ℎ
Magnetic moment of electron about the center of the nucleus = 𝑚 = 𝑛 (2 𝜋 𝑚)
where n = Principle quantum Number h = Planck’s constant
Consider an electron of charge e and mass me revolves in an orbit of radius r with a velocity v
around the nucleus of an atom.
Magnetic moment of the electron is called orbital magnetic moment.
Angular Momentum L acts along the normal to the plane of orbit. L = m v r ---------(1)
vr = L/m ----(2)
If T is the period of the revolution and ω be the angular velocity,
Linear velocity v = r ω ------------------(3)
2𝜋
= 𝑟 𝑇 ----------------(4)
2𝜋𝑟
Period of Revolution = 𝑇 = 𝑣 ---------------(5)
Since orbital motion of electron is the flow of current in clockwise direction, the current is given
by Current I = e/T ----------------(6)
𝑒𝑣
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑟 -------(7)
Magnetic moment of electron = I x Area of circular loop
𝑚 =𝐼 ×𝐴 --------(8)
 94

𝑒𝑣
𝑚 = (2 𝜋 𝑟 ) × 𝜋 𝑟 2
𝑒𝑣𝑟
Magnetic moment of electron = 𝑚 = 2 -----------(9)
From equation (1), L = me vr --(1)
By using equations (1) vr= L/m e ----------(10)
Put equation (10) in equation (9),
𝐿
Magnetic moment of the electron = 𝑚 = 𝑒 × (2 𝑚 ) ---(11)
𝑒
𝑒
⃗⃗ = − (2 𝑚 ) 𝐿⃗
In the vector form, Magnetic moment of electron = 𝑚
𝑒
- ve sign indicates that the direction of Magnetic dipole moment is opposite to Angular
Momentum.
According to Bohr’s Atomic Model, Angular Momentum is quantized.
𝑛ℎ
Angular momentum about the center of the nucleus= 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 𝑟 = 2 𝜋 -------(12)
where n = Principle quantum number or orbit no. in which electron is revolving around the
nucleus.
From equations (11) and (12)
𝑒ℎ
Magnetic moment of the electron = 𝑚 = 𝑛 (4 𝜋 𝑚 ) ------------------------(13)
𝑒
By substituting this in above equation,
𝐞𝐡
Magnetic Dipole moment m = 𝐧 (𝟒𝛑 𝐦)

IMPORTANT POINTS:
1. Gyro-magnetic ratio: The ratio of Magnetic moment of the electron to the Angular momentum
is called Gyro-magnetic ratio.
𝑚 𝑒
=
𝐿 𝑚𝑒
Gyro-magnetic ratio = 8.8 x 1010 C/kg
2. If the electron is revolving in first orbit (principle quantum number n=1),
eh
If n=1, Magnetic moment of the electron= m = Bohr Magneton = 4π m
Magnetic moment of the electron = 9.27 x 10-24 Amp-m2

Bohr Magneton: It is the orbital magnetic moment of an electron revolving in an innermost

orbit.
𝐞𝐡
m = Bohr Magneton = 𝟒𝛑 𝐦
By substituting mass, Planck’s constant and charge of electron
Bohr Magneton =9.27 x 10-24 Amp-m2
Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
It we compare the fields produced by a bar magnet and a currentin a loop
that they are similar. Thus a solenoid behaves as a dipole. Now; current loops.
Therefore, we can assert that a single current loop is the most elementary
magnetic dipole—its one face behaves as a north pole and the other as a
south pole. The face in which the current is anticlockwise acts as N-pole because the lines of
force emerge out of this face, and the face in which the current is clockwise acts as S-pole.
 95

PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. In the figure are shown two current carrying wires 1 & 2. Find the magnitudes and directions of
the magnetic field at the points at P, Q and R. The distance between P and wire 1 is 10 cm, Q is at
the midpoint between the wires 1 and 2.The distance between R and wire 2 is also 10 cm . the
current in wire 1 is 20 A and in wire 2 is 30 A

According to right hand rule the field at P due to the

current in wire 1 will be perpendicular to the screen
pointing outward and that at Q & R pointing inward
into the screen. Similarly, the field due to the current
in wire 2 will be inward into the screen at P and Q,
and out ward at R.
Thus at P and R the direction of magnetic fields due to the two wires are opposite but at Q
they are in the same direction.
Therefore resultant field at P = BP = B1 - B2
𝝁 ×𝟐𝟎 𝝁 ×𝟑𝟎
𝑩𝑷 = 𝟐 𝝅𝟎 ×𝟎.𝟏 − 𝟐 𝝅𝟎 ×𝟎.𝟑
BP = 2 X 10-5 T
It will be perpendicular to the plane of the screen pointing outwarDS.

Resultant field at Q is BQ = B1 + B2
𝜇 ×20 𝜇 ×30
𝐵𝑄 = 2 𝜋0 ×0.1 + 2 0𝜋 × .1 = 1 × 10−4 𝑇
It will be perpendicular to the plane of the screen pointing inward.
Resultant field at Q is BR = B2 - B1
𝝁𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎
𝑩𝑹 = − = 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑻
𝟐 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟏 𝟐 𝝅 × 𝟎. 𝟑
It will be perpendicular to the plane of the screen pointing out ward.
2. A current of 10 A is flowing east to west in along wire kept horizontally in the east west
direction. Find magnetic field
a) in a horizontal plane at a distance of 10 cm north
b) in a horizontal plane at a distance of 20 cm south of the wire
Magnetic field in the horizontal plane at a distance of 10 cm north of the wire =
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵𝑁 = = 2 × 105 𝑇
2 𝜋 × 0.1
According to right hand rule the direction will be in the horizontal plane into the screen

b) magnetic field in the horizontal plane at a distance of 20 cm South of the wire is

𝜇0 × 10
𝐵𝑆 = = 1 × 10−5 𝑇
2 𝜋 × 0.2
According to right hand rule the direction will be in the horizontal plane out of the screen
3. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in
mid-air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic
field?
Mass m = 200g = 0.2 kg
 96

Length L = 1.5m
Current I = 2A
The Lorentz force on the rod is upward force F
F= BIL
For mid-air suspension, this must be balanced by mg the weight of the rod
BIL = mg
B = (mg/L) = 0.65 T
4. If the magnetic field is parallel to the positive y-axis and the charged particle is moving
along the positive x-axis which way would the Lorentz force be if the charged particle is :
(a) an electron (negative charge),
(b) a proton (positive charge).
Let us understand this.
The velocity v of particle is along the + ve x -axis,
While B, the magnetic field is along the +ve y -axis, i.e into the screen,
So v × B is along the z-axis ( right-hand thumb rule or right hand palm rule ).
So, (a) for electron it will be along –z axis. (b) for a positive charge (proton) the force is along
+z axis.
Why is the direction of Lorentz force different n the two cases? The reason for this is that the
current direction is taken according to conventional direction of current.
5. What is the energy gained in cyclotron?
ENERGY GAINED PER REVOLUTION
If the electric field between the Dees is V.
Energy gained for one revolution will be qV + q V as the charged particle crosses the electric
field twice in one complete revolution.
So for n revolutions the total energy will be 2 n q V.
This should be equal to the maximum kinetic energy.
𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝟐𝒏𝒒𝑽 =
𝟐𝒎
6. Write the expression, in vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force due to a charge moving
with velocity in a magnetic field . What is the direction of the magnetic force ?
The direction of magnetic force is perpendicular to the plane containing velocity and magnetic
field vectors
7. Under what condition is the force acting on a charge(or an electron) moving through a
uniform magnetic field maximum ?
When electron moves perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
8. Under what condition is the force acting on a charge moving through a uniform magnetic
field minimum ?
When it moves parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of magnetic field
9. State the condition under which a charged particle moving with velocity goes undeflected in
a magnetic field .
The charge will go undeflected when Fm = 0, i. e, If is parallel or anti-parallel to Magnetic field
10. Explain clearly the role of crossed electric and magnetic field in accelerating charge in a
cyclotron.
Ans. Electric field : It is used to accelerate the charged particle
 97

Magnetic field : It is used to restrict the particle to move in circular path

11. Where do the electric and magnetic fields exist in a Cyclotron. Write about their nature.
Ans. Electric field : It exists between the Dees an d it is alternating /oscillating in nature
Magnetic field : It exists both inside and outside the Dees and it is constant/uniform in nature
12. What is resonance condition in a cyclotron ? How is it used to accelerate charged particles ?
[ Ans. Resonance condition : “The frequency of oscillating electric field must be equal to the
frequency of revolution of charged particle”
Due to it, charged particles remain in phase with frequency of the applied voltage and
accelerated to high speeds
13. What is the requirement of the frequency of the applied voltage so as to ensure that the
ions get accelerated across the gap of the Dees in a cyclotron ?
[ Ans. “The frequency of oscillating electric field must be equal to the frequency of revolution of
charged particle”
14. In a cyclotron, the time period of ions is independent of both the speed of ion and radius of
circular path. What is the significance of this property ?
[Ans. It helps in achieving resonance condition/Due to it, particle remains in phase with
frequency of the applied voltage
15. Is there an upper limit on the energy acquired by the particle ? Give reason.
[ Ans. When the charged particle moves in a path of radius equal to that of Dees, it gains
maximum speed and hence maximum energy which cannot be further increased . Hence, there
is an upper limit on the energy acquired by the charged particle in a cyclotron
16. A neutron, an electron and an alpha particle moving with equal velocities, enter a uniform
magnetic field going into the plane of the paper as shown. Trace their paths in the field and
justify your answer.

[Ans. Justification : Direction of force experienced by the particle will be according to the
Fleming’s left hand rule
17. Two identical coils P and Q each of radius R are lying in perpendicular planes such that they
have a common centre. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at the common
centre of the two coils, if they carry currents equal to I and √3 I respectively.
 98

𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵𝑃 =
2𝑅
𝜇0 √3 𝐼
𝐵𝑄 =
2𝑅
𝐵2 = 𝐵𝑃2 + 𝐵𝑄2
𝐵𝑃 1
tan 𝜃 = =
𝐵𝑄 √3
Angle θ with BQ
18. Two identical circular loops (1) and (2) of radius R and carrying the same current are kept in
perpendicular planes such that they have a common centre at as shown in the figure. Find the magnitude
and direction of the net magnetic field at the point due to the loops

P be a point at a distance x from the center of the coil

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑅2
𝐵1 = 𝐵2 =
2 (𝑅2 + 𝑥 2 )3⁄2
B = B1 √2
𝐵1
tan 𝜃 = =1
𝐵2
Angle θ = 450

REVISION OF IMPORTANT RULES(MAGNETISM)

OERSTED’S EXPRIMENT:
When an electric current passes through a wire produces a magnetic effect.

A conductor is connected to a battery through a key. The

axis of the conductor is along North-South direction.
 99

When the current is allowed to flow a wire placed parallel to the axis of the magnetic needle
kept directly below and close to the wire, the needle is found to deflect from its normal
position.
The direction of the needle is found to be in the opposite direction on reversing the direction of the
current by reversing the polarity of the battery.

An electric current (i.e. flow of charges) produces

magnetic effect in the space around the conductor.
In other words th e flow of charges is the source of
the magnetic field.

SNOW RULE:If the current flows from South to North in a

wire kept over a magnetic needle, the north of the needle
will deflect towards West. This is also called SNOW
rule.
AMPERE’S SWIMMING RULE:

“Imagine a man swimming along the wire in the

direction of the flow of the current with his face
always turned towards the magnetic needle, then
the north pole of the needle will get deflected
towards his left hand”, as shown in given image.

Imagine a man who swims along the conductor in the direction of the current facing the needle
such that the current enters his feet, then the North of needle will deflect towards his left hand.
MAXWELL’S CORK SCREW RULE(RIGHT HANDED SCREW RULE):

If the forward motion of the imaginary right handed screw is in the

direction of the current through a linear conductor, then the direction
of the rotation of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic lines of
force around the conductor.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO AN INFINETELY LONG STRAIGHT WIRE CARRYING CURRENT:

1. Iron filings arrange themselves in the form of concentric
circles.
This suggests that the magnetic field lines due to a straight
current carrying wire are circular.
2. The direction of magnetic field can be determined by placing
a compass needle near the wire. The direction of North Pole
gives the direction of magnetic field lines.
3. If the direction of the current is reversed, the field lines will
still be circular but the direction of the field lines will be
reversed.
 100

4. If the current is increased, the deflection also increases.

It indicates that the magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a given point increases as
the current through the wire increases.
5. If the compass is taken away from the current carrying conductor, the deflection decreases.
The size of the concentric circles increases as we move away.
The magnetic field produced by a given current in the conductor decreases as the distance
from it increases.
The direction of the magnetic field is given by Right Hand Thumb
Rule.
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: Grasp the wire in your right hand with
your extended thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your
fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.
If a current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the tips of the curled
fingers encircling the conductor will give the direction of the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD ON THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR CURRENT LOOP: Curl the palm of your right
hand around the circular wire with the fingers pointing the direction of the current. The right
hand thumb indicates the direction of the magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES FOR A CIRCULAR COIL
At every point of a current carrying circular coil, the
concentric circles repesenting themagnetic field
become larger and larger as we move away from the
wire.
At the centre of the circular loop, the arcs appear as
striaght line.
Every point on the wire carrying the current would
give magnetic field as straight lines at the centre of
the loop.
The magnitude of the magnetic field is increased by
I) The amount of current passing through it
2) By increasing the number of turns.

THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD

The wire is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. A compass needle is

surrounding to the wire.
The direction of the magnetic field if the current or magnetic field is
emerging out of the plane of the paper is denoted by a dot encrcling it.

The direction of the magnetic field if the current or magnetic field is going
into into the paper is shown by a cross amrk encircling it.
 101

The direction of the magnetic field is given by (another) right-

hand thumb rule stated below:
Right Hand Thumb Rule: Curl the palm of your right hand
around the circular wire with the
fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand
thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field
SOLENOID:
An insulated copper wire wrapped many times as coil in the
shape of a cylinder gives a solenoid.
When current enters a solenoid at one end, it passes through
each turn before coming out at the other end. The net magnetic
field pattern outside the solenoid is similar to that of a bar
magnet.
One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as the
South Pole.
The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines.
This indicates that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid.
It is called uniform magnetic field.
MAGNETIC FORCE
• When key is closed, electrons (charged particles) move in
the aluminum rod.
The external magnetic field exerts a force on the moving charges.
Hence the rod displaces.
• The direction of the force is given by Flemings Left Hand Rule (FLR)
• When the direction of current is reversed, the direction of force
acting on the rod also reverses.
• The magnitude of the force acting on the rod is maximum when the rod (direction of current)
is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field.
DIRECITON OF MAGNETIC FORCE: Fleming’s Left Hand rule:
The direction of the force is explained by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Stretch the thumb, forefinger and the middle gfinger of Left
Hand such that they are mutually perpendicular.
If the first finger points the direction of the magnetic field
(FORE FINGER),
second finger ( MIDDLE FINGER) represents the direction of
the current, then
Thumb represents the direciton of the motion (FORCE) of the
conductor .
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELCTROMAGNEITC INDUCTION:
 102

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of the change in the
𝑑𝜑
magnetic flux through the circuit. 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡
Negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf which opposes the increase
of the magnetic flux.
The direction of Induced emf is explained by Lenz’s Law
LENZ’S LAW:
The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which oppose the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.
Assume that the North Pole of the magnet is pushed towards the coil.
As the North pole of the magnet approaches the coil, the magnetic flux
through it increases. Hence a current is induced in the coil in such a
direction that it opposes the increase in the flux. So the face of the coil
towards the magnet appears to North Pole.
If the magnet is moved away from the coil, the magnetic flux
decreases. The induced current flows in the clock wise direction and
South Pole faces the receding North pole of the magnet.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT-FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND

RULE: The direction of induced current is given by
Fleming's Right Hand Rule which states that Stretch the
First Finger, Middle Finger and the Thumb of Right
Hand in such a way that all three are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
Fore finger points in the direction of Magnetic field,
Thumb points in the direction of motion of conductor,
then Middle Finger points along the direction of Induced Conventional Current.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF A BAR MAGNET
1. Magnetic field lines are closed curves
2. Magnetic field lines emerge from North Pole and enter
inside the magnet from South Pole.
3. Magnetic field lines never intersect
4. Magnetic field lines are closer near the poles than at
other points.
5. The strength of the near the poles is highest and in the
middle of the bar magnet its strength is less.
Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
It we compare the fields produced by a bar magnet and a currentin a loop
that they are similar. Thus a solenoid behaves as a dipole. Now; current loops.
Therefore, we can assert that a single current loop is the most elementary
magnetic dipole—its one face behaves as a north pole and the other as a
south pole. The face in which the current is anticlockwise acts as N-pole because the lines of
force emerge out of this face, and the face in which the current is clockwise acts as S-pole.
 103

MAGNETISM AND MATTER

IMPORTANT PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS
F= Force, q = Charge, v = velocity, I = current, A = Area
Sl. No Physical Quantity Symbol Formula Unit
1 Magnetic moment or M IA A – m2
Magnetic Dipole moment
2 Magnetic Field B 𝐹 Tesla
𝑞 𝑣 sin 𝜃
3 Magnetization M m/Volume A /m
4 Magnetic Permeability µo B/M T m /A
Of vacuum
5 Magnetic Permeability of µ µo µr T m /A
Substance
6 Magnetic flux ΦB B * Area Weber
7 Magnetic Intensity H A/m
8 Magnetic Susceptibility Χm M/H No Unit
9 Relative Magnetic Permeability µr 1 + Χm No unit
Of substance
10 Magnetic Pole strength qm or m A-m
11 Magnetic Length 2l Distance between Meter
two poles
12 Magnetic Dipole moment 2l x m A-m2
MAGNET AND MAGNETIC POLES

The phenomenon of magnetism was known long before the magnetic effect of electric current
was discovered.
Apart from electric current, the simplest sources of magnetic field are bar magnets, which have
the following properties:
01. A freely suspended magnet orients itself approximately in the geographical North-South
direction. A particular end always points towards the geographical North. It is called the
 104

north (N) pole. The other end, which points towards the geographical South, is called
the South (S) pole.
02. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other, with a force which obeys
inverse square law of distance.
03. A magnet attracts certain substances, e.g., small pieces of iron. Iron filings sprinkled on a
sheet of paper held over a bar magnet form characteristic patterns similar to the lines of
force of an electric dipole.
04. It is possible to make magnet out of iron and its alloys.
05. Singe pole does not exist.

BAR MAGNET:
Properties of Bar Magnet:
01. Poles of bar magnet have strength to attract small pieces of iron. This ability is called
Pole Strength.
02. When a bar magnet is suspended, the tip points towards the north geographical pole is
called North Geographical Pole and the tip points towards south is called South
Geographical Pole.
03. The repulsion is the surest test for distinguishing iron piece and magnet.
04. Monopoles do not exist.
05. When a piece of ordinary magnetic material is placed near to the magnet, it induces
magnetism in the material. This is called Induced Magnetism.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES: An imaginary line, or curve, drawn such that the direction of the
magnetic field is represented by a tangent at any point on it.
Magnetic field lines are continuous and closed curves.
01. The tangent at any point on the field line gives the direction of the magnetic field.
02. Two magnetic field lines do not intersect.
03. Magnetic field lines expand laterally and contract longitudinally.
04. The magnetic field lines per unit area indicate the magnetic flux. The larger the field
lines, stronger the magnetic field strength.
05. If the field lines are closer, strong magnetic field exists.
Difference between Electric field lines and Magnetic field lines:
1.Electric field lines do not exist within a conductor, but they exist in a magnet.
2.Electric field lines are discontinuous and magnetic field lines are continuous.
3. Electric field lines do not form any closed loops. Magnetic field lines are closed curves.
COMPARISION BETWEEN BAR MAGNET AND THE SOLENOID:
1. A current carrying straight solenoid behaves like a bar magnet.
2. Magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform and while outside the solenoid it is non-uniform.
3. Magnetic field inside a solenoid is stronger than inside a bar magnet.
4. The property of solenoid is found with the help of CLOCK rule. Anti-clock wise current in a
face of a solenoid gives North Polarity and clock wise current gives South Polarity.
(A) Magnetic field lines for a bar Magnet (B) Magnetic Field lines for a solenoid
 105

BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID OR

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID AT A POINT ALONG AXIAL LINE
Consider a solenoid consists of n turns per unit length.
Let 2L be the length and a be the radius of the solenoid.
Let P be a point along axial line at a distance r from center O of the solenoid where magnetic
field is to be determined.
Consider a circular element of thickness dx of the solenoid at a distance x from its centre.
Total no. of turns in the thickness = n dx
Let I be the current through the solenoid.
0 𝜇 𝑛 𝐼 𝑎 2 𝑑𝑥
Let dB be the magnetic field at a point P due to the circular element. 𝑑𝐵 = 2{(𝑟−𝑥) 2 +𝑎 2 }3⁄2

𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝐝𝐱𝐈𝐚𝟐
𝐝𝐁 =
𝟐{(𝐫 − 𝐱)𝟐 + 𝐚𝟐 }𝟑/𝟐
𝜇0 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 𝑎 2 +𝐿 𝑑𝑥
Magnetic field is given by 𝐵= ∫−𝐿 {(𝑟−𝑥)2+𝑎 2 }3⁄2
2
)2 2 }3⁄2
By taking the assumptions R ˃˃ a, r ˃ ˃ L {(𝑟 − 𝑥 +𝑎 ≈ 𝑟3
𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 𝑎2 +𝐿
𝐵= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑟3 −𝐿
𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 𝑎 2 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 𝑎 2
𝐵= {𝐿 − (−𝐿)} 𝐵= × 2𝐿
2 𝑟3 2 𝑟3
𝜇0 𝑛 ×2𝐿 𝐼 × 𝑎 2 × 𝜋
𝐵= 2 𝑟3 × 𝜋
n x 2L x I x π a2 = Magnetic moment
𝜇 𝑚
𝐵 = 2 0𝜋 × 𝑟 3
𝜇 2𝑚
𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 × 𝑟 3
UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD AND NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD
UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD: If the magnitude of the magnitude field is constant and parallel, it
called Uniform Magnetic field.
The direction of the field lines are parallel.
Example: Inside a Current carrying solenoid
NON-UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD: If the magnitude of the magnetic field is not constant, or
direction is not parallel, then the field is called Non-Uniform Magnetic field.
 106

Example: Magnetic field of Bar Magnet.

MAGNETIC DIPOLE:A magnetic dipole consists of two pole of equal and opposite poles
strength. Pole strength of North pole is denoted by +m and for south pole, it is denoted by a
symbol m.
MAGENTIC LENGTH: The distance between tow poles is called Magnetic length. It is 2L.
MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT: The product of pole strength of either of the poles and the
distance between two poles is called Magnetic dipole moment.
It is denoted by symbol M.
M = Pole strength of either of the pole x distance between two poles = m x 2L
It is a vector and its direction is from North to South pole.

IMPORTANT POINTS:
01. If a magnet is cut into two equal parts along its length,
(a) Pole strength of each pole = ½ x Original Value
(b) Magnetic dipole moment = ½ x Original Value.
02. If the magnet is cut into two equal parts perpendicular to its length,
(a) Pole strength of each pole remains same
(b) Magnetic length reduces to half, Magnetic Dipole Moment = ½ x Original Value.
BAR MAGNET OR COMPASS NEEDLE OR MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:

Consider a compass needle of magnetic moment m and moment of inertia I is placed in uniform
magnetic field B. Let the pole strength of each pole of compass needle be m The magnetic
length = 2L
Let M be the magnetic moment of dipole
The force acting on North pole of needle in Magnetic field= +m B
The force acting on South pole of needle in Magnetic field= -m B
Net force acting on the compass needle in uniform magnetic field = 0
When the net force is zero, it rotates and exerts a torque.
Torque = τ = Magnitude of force on any one pole x Perpendicular distance
= m B x 2L sin θ
= m x 2L x B x sin θ
= M B sin θ
where M = magnetic moment of a dipole = M = m x 2L
𝜏=𝑀 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗
The dipole rotates by an angular displacement d 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘.
Work done dW = τ dθ
dW = M B sin θ dθ
𝜃
Work done 𝑊 = 𝑀𝐵 ∫𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
1
𝑊 = −𝑀 𝐵(cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 )
If the dipole is rotating from an angle θ to 900, work done = W = - M B cos θ
This work is stored in the form of Potential Energy.
Potential Energy = P.E. = -M.B
 107

Stable equilibrium: When𝜃 = 00, The potential energy is minimum and torque is maximum.
Unstable equilibrium: When𝜃 = 1800, The potential energy is maximum and torque is zero.
When the compass needle is in equilibrium,
The torque in terms of angular acceleration and Moment of Inertia I is given by 𝝉 = 𝑰𝜶
Restoring torque =τ = Iα
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2
Deflecting Toque τ = - M B sin θ = - M B θ
𝑑2 𝜃
From above two equations, 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑀 𝐵 𝜃 = 0
Where - ve sign indicates the direction of restoring torque is opposite to the direction of
deflecting torque.
This is similar to Simple Harmonic Motion.
d2 x k
+m x=0
dt2
2
ω = MB/I
𝐼
Period of Revolution = 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑀𝐵
4 𝜋2 𝐼
Magnetic moment of dipole = 𝑀 = 𝐵𝑇 2
IMPORTANT:
Magnetic moment = m Magnetic length = 2l Magnetic field = B
1. The force acting on North pole of needle in Magnetic field= +mB
The force acting on South pole of needle in Magnetic field= -mB
Net force acting on the compass needle in uniform magnetic field = 0
When the net force is zero, it rotates and exerts a torque.
2. The torque experienced by the current carrying rectangular coil 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝜏 = 𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛́
where θ = Angle between magnetic moment and magnetic field
Magnetic moment m = pole strength x magnetic length
3. Potential energy = 𝑈 = −𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵 U = - m B cos θ
4. If the coil is rotating angle from 1 to angle 2, potential energy
𝑈 = −𝑚 𝐵 (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
5. Stable equilibrium : When magnetic moment is parallel to magnetic field, θ = 00,
Potential energy = U = - m B = Negative = Minimum
Torque = 0
6. Unstable equilibrium: When magnetic moment is anti-parallel to magnetic field, θ = 1800,
Potential energy = U = m B = Positive = Maximum
Torque = 0
7. If the coil is rotated from angle θ1 =0o to θ2 = θ, then work done is given by W= m B (l-cos).
8. If the coil rotating from stable equilibrium θ1 =0o to unstable equilibrium θ2 = 180°,
the work, W= m B (l-cos 180°) = m B (l + 1) = 2 m B.
9. Torque will be maximum when the coil is held perpendicular to the magnetic field. θ = 90 0
Torque = m B
 108

10. The torque will be minimum or zero when the coil is parallel (θ=00) or anti-parallel
(θ=1800) to the magnetic field
11. When the coil is released, the torque on the coil brings the dipole parallel to the external
magnetic field.
12. In Uniform magnetic field, an coil placed experiences only a torque. But when the
magnetic field is not uniform, it experiences both a torque and force.
Magnetic Flux: The magnetic flux is defined as the no. of magnetic field lines passing through
the surface.
Magnetic flux through area vector ∆𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by ⃗ . ∆𝐒
𝛗𝐁 = 𝐁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Magnetic flux in terms of magnetic moment = 𝛗𝐁 = 𝐦 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . 𝐁
where m = Magnetic pole strength, B = Magnetic field.

The number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface is

balanced by the number of lines entering it. The net magnetic
flux is zero for both the surfaces. This is true for any closed
surface.

⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = |𝐵
Magnetic flux 𝜑 = 𝐵 ⃗ ||𝐴| cos 𝜃

GAUSS LAW IN MAGNETISM: The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is Zero.

Since the no. of field lines entering is same as the no. of field lines leaving the surface
The flux 𝛗𝐁 = 𝟎 𝛗𝐁 = 𝐁 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐒 = 𝟎
Magnetic flux for a North Pole = +mB Magnetic flux for south pole = -mB
Total magnetic flux through any closed surface = 0

COULOMB’S LAW IN MAGNETISM: The force between two magnetic poles of strengths m1
and m2 or magnetic charges (qm)separated by a distance d, is proportional to the products of
the pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
𝑚 𝑚
𝐹 𝛼 12 2
𝑑
𝜇 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹 = 4 0𝜋𝑑2
𝛍
where 𝟒𝛑𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 Wb A-1 m-1
Magnetic Field strength: Magnetic field strength at a point is defined as the ratio of the
magnetic force acting on an imaginary unit pole placed at that point.
B = F/m0
MAGNETISATION: It is defined as the ratio of total magnetic moment per unit Volume.
It is denoted by symbol M.
The degree to which a substance is magnetized when placed in the magnetizing field is called
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐦
Magnetisation. 𝑀 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 M = 𝐕𝐧𝐞𝐭
Unit: A/m
 109

Magnetic Permeability of Free Space: The magnetic field contributed by the material core
(Bm) is directly proportional to the Magnetisation(M). Bm α M
Bm= μ0 M
MAGNETIC INTENSITY:
The degree or extent to which the magnetizing field can magnetize a substance is called
Magnetic Intensity. It is denoted by H.
𝐵
𝐻 =𝜇 −𝑀
0
Unit =A/m
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY (𝛘𝐦 ) :
It is defined as the ratio of the Magnetisation (M) to the Magnetic intensity(H).
MαH M = χm H
Magnetic susceptibility does not have unit.
RELATION BEWTWEEN THREE MAGNETIC CONSTANTS:
Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current I.
Magnetic field inside the solenoid = B0 = μ0 n I -----(1)
B0 = μ0 H ----(2)
Assume that the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero magnetization,
Magnetic field contributed by the material core is directly proportional to the Magnetisation
Magnetic field contributed by the material core = Bm = μ0 M
The total magnetic field B = B0 + Bm
B = μ0 (H + M)
The field due to the external factors due the current inside the solenoid B0 = μ0 H
Field due to the nature of the magnetic material i.e. Magnetisation = Bm = μ0 M
But, MαH M= χmH
B = μ0 (H + M) B = μ0 (H + χ m H)
B = μ0 H (1 + χ m )
B = μ0 μr H
where Relative permeability μr = 1 + χ m
B = μ H where μ = magnetic permeability of a medium.
EARTH'S MAGNETISM
DYNAMO EFFECT: The magnetic field is now thought to arise due to electrical currents
produced by convective motion of metallic fluids (consisting mostly of molten iron and nickel)
in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the dynamo effect.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
The magnetic field lines of the earth resemble that of a (hypothetical) magnetic dipole located
at the centre of the earth.
1. The axis of the dipole does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the earth but is presently
The axis of the dipole is titled by approximately 11.3° with respect to the axis of rotation.
2. The location of the north magnetic pole is at a latitude of 79.74° N and a longitude of 71.8°
W, a place somewhere in north Canada.
The magnetic south pole is at 79.74° S, 108.22° E in the Antarctica.
 110

Thus, in reality, the north magnetic pole of the earth magnet behaves like the south pole of a
bar magnet inside the earth and the north magnetic pole of the earth magnet behaves like the
south pole of a bar magnet inside the earth vice versa.
If one looks at the magnetic field lines of the earth, one sees that unlike in the case of a bar
magnet
GEOGRAPHIC POLES: The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is called the north
magnetic pole.
MAGNETIC POLES OF THE EARTH: The pole near the geographic South pole is called the South
Magnetic pole.
The magnetic field of the earth lines go into the earth magnet at the North magnetic pole (Nm )
and come out from the South magnetic pole (Sm ).
The convention arose because the magnetic north was the direction to which the north
pole of a magnetic needle pointed; the north pole of a magnet was so named as it was the
north seeking pole.
The location of the north magnetic pole is at a latitude of 79.74° N and a longitude of 71.8° W, a
place somewhere in north Canada.
The magnetic south pole is at 79.74° S, 108.22° E in the Antarctica.
Magnetic Axis: The imaginary line joining the North and South Magnetic Pole is called Magnetic
Axis.
The magnetic Axis makes an angle of 11.30 with the
Geographic Axis.
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN: A vertical plane which passes
through the Magnetic Axis is called Magnetic Meridian.
MAGENTIC EQUATOR: A great circle on the Earth’s
surface perpendicular to the Magnetic Axis is called
Magnetic Equator.
MAGNETIC ELEMENTS OF THE EARTH:
The magnetic field of the Earth at a point on its surface is explained by three quantities or
elements of the Earth.
1. Magnetic Declination(D) 2. Dip or Magnetic Inclination(I)
3. Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetic Field(BH)
1. MAGNETIC DELCLINATION: The angle between the true geographic north and the north pole
of the earth magnet shown by a compass needle. This angle is called the magnetic declination
or simply declination.
 111

The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller near the equator.
The declination in India is small, it is 0°41' E at Delhi and 0°58' W at Mumbai.
Thus, at both these places a magnetic needle shows the true north quite accurately.
2.ANGLE OF DIP (δ) : The angle between total Magnetic Field of the Earth and the surface of
the earth or the horizontal line in the magnetic Meridian.

It is the angle between the earth's magnetic field and the horizontal direction at a place.
Consider the magnetic meridian at a point P on the surface of the earth. The plane is a section
passing through the earth.
Total magnetic field of the earth BE at point P is resolved into two components.
1. Horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field HE
2. Vertical component of the earth's magnetic field ZE
The angle between the earth's total magnetic field BE and the horizontal component of earth's
magnetic field HE is called angle of Dip.
Angle of Dip is denoted by (δ).
Dip is the angle that the total magnetic field BE of the earth makes with the surface of the earth.
There is one more quantity of interest. If a magnetic needle is perfectly balanced about a
horizontal axis so that it can swing in a plane of the magnetic meridian, the needle would make
an angle with the horizontal. This is known as the angle of dip (also known as inclination).
Angle of dip is 0° at the magnetic equator and angle of dip is 90° at the poles.
Angle of dip varies from equator to pole.
3. Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetic field (H E): The component of total magnetic field
of Earth in the horizontal direction in magnetic meridian is called Horizontal Component of
Earth’s Magnetic Field.
Total magnetic field of the earth BE at point P is resolved into two components.
1. Horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field HE = BE sin δ
2. Vertical component of the earth's magnetic field ZE = BE cos δ
Tangent Law: The tangent value of Inclination is defined as the ratio of the Vertical component of the
Earth magnetic field to the Horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic field. It is called Tangent Law.
𝐻𝐸
tan 𝛿 = 𝑍𝐸
𝐵𝐸2 = 𝐻𝐸2 + 𝑍𝐸2
MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ALONG EQUATORIAL LINE OR PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR:
Consider a bar magnet having North and South Poles are separated by a distance 2l. Let P be a
point along the perpendicular bisector where magnetic field is to be determined. Let O be the
midpoint along the line joining two poles of the magnet. Let the distance between point O and
the point P is r.
 112

Let +m and –m be the pole strength of North and South Pole respectively.
𝛍 +𝐦
Magnetic Field at point P due to North Pole of the bar magnet BN = 𝟒𝛑𝐨 𝟐 along NP
(√ 𝐫 𝟐 +𝐥𝟐 )
𝛍𝐨 +𝐦
Magnetic Field at point P due to South Pole of the bar magnet BS = along SP
𝟒𝛑 √ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
( 𝐫 +𝐥 )
𝜇 +𝑚 𝜇 −𝑚
𝐵𝑁 = 4 0𝜋 2 along NP 𝐵𝑠 = 4 0𝜋 2 along SP
(√𝑟 2+𝑙2 ) (√𝑟 2+𝑙2 )
Since the magnitudes of BN = magnitude of BS
Total Magnetic field B = 2BN cos θ
𝜇 𝑚 𝑙
Magnetic field = 𝐵 = 2 × 4 0𝜋 2
2 2 (√𝑟 +𝑙 ) √𝑟 2+𝑙2
𝜇0 𝑚 ×2 𝑙 𝜇 𝑀
𝐵 = 4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙2 )3⁄2
𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟3
where M = Magnetic Dipole Moment = 2l *m and r ≫ 𝒍
The direction of the Magnetic dipole moment is opposite to the direction of Magnetic Field of
the magnet.
MAGNETIC FIELD AT A POINT ALONG AXIAL LINE:
Consider a bar magnet having North and South Poles are separated by a distance 2l. Let P be a
point along the axial line where magnetic field is to be determined. Let O be the midpoint along
the line joining two poles of the magnet. Let the distance between point O and the point P is r.
Let +m and –m be the pole strength of North and South Pole respectively.
𝛍 +𝐦
Magnetic Field at point P due to North Pole of the bar magnet BN = 𝟒𝛑𝐨 (𝐫−𝐥)𝟐along NP
𝛍 −𝐦
Magnetic Field at point P due to South Pole of the bar magnet BS= 𝟒𝛑𝐨 (𝐫+𝐥)𝟐along SP
𝜇0 +𝑚
𝐵𝑁 = (𝑟−𝑙)2
along NP
4𝜋
𝜇0 −𝑚
𝐵𝑆 = along SP
4 𝜋 (𝑟+𝑙)2
Total Magnetic field B = BN + BS
𝜇 +𝑚 𝑚
𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 {(𝑟 −𝑙)2 − (𝑟 + 𝑙)2
}
𝜇 𝑚 ×4 𝑙 𝑟 𝜇 2𝑀𝑟
𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 {(𝑟 2 − 𝑙2 )2} 𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙2 )2
where M = Magnetic Dipole Moment = 2l m, and r ≫ l
𝜇 2𝑀
𝐵= 0 3
4𝜋 𝑟
The direction of the Magnetic dipole moment is along the direction of Magnetic Field of the
magnet.
NEUTRAL POINTS: The points at which the magnetic field due to the earth magnet and the bar
magnet are equal and opposite are called Neutral Points.
OR, The points at which net magnetic field due to the earth magnet and the bar magnet is zero
are called Neutral Points.
At these points, compass do not experience any force and there won’t be any deflection in the
compass needle.
THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF A BAR MAGNET BY PLACING NORTH POLE OF A BAR MANGET
ALONG NORTH GEOGRAPHICAL POLE:
The neutral points lie at a point along the perpendicular bisector or along equator.
 113

At this point the horizontal magnetic field of the earth’s magnet is equal to the magnetic field
of the bar magnet.
𝜇 𝑀
Magnetic field of the bar magnet = 𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟 3
The Horizontal Magnetic field of Earth’s Magnet = BH
At neutral points, BM = BH
𝜇 𝑀
By using this, Magnetic dipole moment is calculated. 4 0𝜋 𝑟 3 = 𝐵𝐻
4 𝜋 𝑟3
𝑀= = 2 𝑙 × 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑚)
𝜇 0 𝐵𝐻
Hence the pole strength of a Pole is determined by using above equation.

THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF A BAR MAGNET BY PLACING NORTH POLE ALONG SOUTH
GEOGRAPHICAL POLE:
The neutral points lie at a point along axial line.

At this point the horizontal magnetic field of the earth’s magnet is equal to the magnetic field
of the bar magnet.
𝜇 2𝑀
The magnetic field of the bar magnet = 𝐵𝑀 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟 3
The Horizontal Magnetic field of Earth’s Magnet = BH
At neutral points, BM = BH
4 𝜋 𝑟3
𝑀= =2𝑙 ×𝑚
𝜇0 2 𝐵𝐻
Hence the pole strength of a Pole is determined by using above equation.
CONCLUSIONS FOR A BAR MAGNET PLACED ALONG GEOGRAPHIC AXIS:
𝜇 2𝑀
1. Magnetic field along axial point(For End on position) of a dipole 𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟 3
𝜇 (−𝑀)
2. Magnetic field along equatorial line(Broad on position of a dipole 𝐵 = 4 0𝜋 𝑟 3
3. Magnetic field at a point which is at a distance r from dipole midpoint and making an angle θ
with the dipole axis
𝜇0 𝑀√1 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑟3
 114

SL.NO. PROPERTY DIA MAGNETIC PARA MAGNETIC FERRO MAGNETIC

1 SUSCEPTIBILITY -1 ˂ χ ˂ 0 0˂χ˂1 χ˃˃1
2 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY 0 ≤ μr ˂ 1 0 ≤ μr ˂ 1 + ε μr ˃ ˃ 1
3 PERMEABILITY μ ˂ μ0 μ ˃ μ0 μ ˃ ˃ μ0

MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
All the magnetic materials are classified into three categories.
a. Diamagnetic Substances
b. Para Magnetic Substances
c. Ferromagnetic Substances
DIA-MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES:

The substances are those which have tendency to move

from Stronger to the weaker part of the external magnetic
field are called Diamagnetic substances.
Magnet repels these substances.
Examples: Bismuth, Copper, Lead, Silicon, water, Sodium
Chloride, Nitrogen at STP.
A freely suspended diamagnetic substance slows sets itself at right angle to the direction of the
external magnetic field.
The magnetic field lines do not pass through these substances.
Magnetic Permeability is always less than 1, as B/H < 1.
Magnetization is negative for all these substances.
Magnetic susceptibility is negative.
They do not obey Curie Law.
In the presence of external magnetic field, the field lines are repelled and the field inside the
material is decreased.
The net magnetic moment in a diamagnetic substance in an atom is zero. The electrons in an
atom revolve around the nucleus and possess orbital angular momentum. These orbiting
electrons are equivalent to current carrying loop and thus possess orbital magnetic moment.
When magnetic field is applied, these electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the same
direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up. This results to Induced
Current.
The substance develops a net magnetic moment in direction opposite to the applied field and
hence repulsion takes place.
PARA MAGNETISM:
The substances are those which have tendency to move
from a region of the weaker magnetic field to the
stronger magnetic field.
The substances get weekly attracted to a magnet.
Examples: Aluminum, Sodium, Calcium, Copper Chloride
and oxygen at STP.
A freely suspended paramagnetic substance slows sets itself along the direction of the external
magnetic field.
 115

The most of the magnetic field lines through these substances.

Magnetic Permeability is always more than 1, as B/H> 1.
Magnetization is positive for all these substances.
Magnetic susceptibility is small positive value.
They obey Curie Law. Due to rise the temperature, they lose magnetic properties.
The magnetization of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute
𝐵 𝑀 𝐶
temperature T. 𝑀 ∝ 𝑇0 = 𝜒 = In the presence of external magnetic
𝐵
0 𝑇
field, the substances weakly magnetized.
The net magnetic moment in a para-magnetic substance is not zero.
The individual atoms of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent magnetic moment of
their own. The direction of magnetic moment is in the same direction as external magnetic
field. The field lines get concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.
When placed in non-uniform magnetic field, the bar magnetic will tend to move from weak
field to stronger field.

FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
The substances are those which have tendency to move from a region of the weaker magnetic
field to the stronger magnetic field.
The substances get strongly attracted to a magnet.
Examples: Iron, Steel, Nickel, Cobalt, Alnico
A freely suspended ferromagnetic substance quickly sets itself
along the direction of the external magnetic field.
The most of the magnetic field lines through these substances.
Magnetic Permeability is always more than 1, as B/H ≫ 1.
Magnetization is positive for all these substances.
Magnetic susceptibility is positive value.
They obey Curie Law. Due to rise the temperature, they lose magnetic properties. At high
temperature, a ferro magnet becomes a paramagnet. The temperature of transition from
Ferromagnetic to para magnetism is called Curie Temperature TC.
The magnetization of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the absolute
𝐶
temperature T. 𝜒 = 𝑇− 𝑇
𝐶
In the presence of external magnetic field, the substances strongly magnetized.
The net magnetic moment in a ferro magnetic substance is not zero.
Under an external magnetic field B0, the domains orient themselves in the direction of B0.
The individual atoms of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent magnetic moment of
their own. The direction of magnetic moment is in the same direction as external magnetic
field.
The field lines are highly concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.
When placed in non-uniform magnetic field, the bar magnetic will tend to move towards the
region of higher field.
EXOTIC DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS OR SUPERCONDUCTORS OR MEISSNER EFFECT:
 116

When these are cooled to very low temperatures, they exhibit both conductivity and perfect
diamagnetism.
In other words, the relative permeability µr = 0 and the susceptibility χ = -1.
The field lines are completely expelled. A superconductor repels a magnet and superconductor
is also repelled by a magnet.
The Phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism in superconductors is called Meissner Effect.
CLASSIFICATION OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
SL. NO. HARD FERROMAGNETICS SOFT FERRO MAGNETICS
1 Magnetisation persists. Magnetisation disappears as the
external magnetic field is removed.
2 Alnico, Naturally occurring Lodestone Soft Iron
3 These materials are used in making They are used to make the core of
permanent magnets to be used in compass transformer, electromagnet.
needle.
4 Area of Hysterisis loop of hard ferro Area of Hysterisis loop of soft ferro
magnetic material is large. magnetic material is less.

DEPENDENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC MATERIZATION OR CURIE LAW:

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
As the temperature is lowered, the magnetic field increases.
The magnetization also increases until it reaches the saturation value M s, at which all dipoles
are perfectly aligned with the field.
Magnetisation is inversely proportional to Absolute Temperature T.
𝐵 𝑀 𝐶
𝑀 ∝ 𝑇0 = 𝜒 = 𝑇 C = Curie constant
𝐵
0
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
The properties depend on the temperature.
At high temperatures, a ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet.
The temperature at which the ferromagnet is converted to paramagnet is called Transition
Temperature Tc.
𝐂
χ= 𝐓−𝐓
𝐂
HYSTERISIS:
IMPORTANT TERMS:
 117

Hysterisis: The graphical relation between the Magnetic field(B) and Magnetic Intensity(H) is
called Hysterisis. The term Hysterisis means Lagging Behind. Lagging of magnetic field with
respect to the magnetic Intensity is called Hysterisis.
RETENTIVITY OR REMANENCE: The property of the magnetic material to retain the magnetism
even in the absence of the magnetizing field is known as Retentivity or Remanence.
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM: The magnetism retained by the magnetic material even the
magnetizing field is reduced to zero is called Residual Magnetism.
COERCIVITY: The magnetic intensity required to completely demagnetize themagnetic material
is called Coercivity.
B-H CURVE FOR FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS:
Consider a solenoid which consists of n turns per unit length. A magnetic material is placed in it.
CURVE Oa: The current is increased through the solenoid. The magnetic field B in the
material rises and saturates as depicted in the curve Oa. This behavour represents the
alignment and merger of the domains until no
enhancement is possible.
The saturated point is Magnetic Intensity H.
CURVE ab OR RETENTIVITY: The magnetic Intensity H is
decreased till it becomes zero. At H=0, Magnetic Field B
≠0.This is represented by ab. The value of B at H = 0 is
called Retentivity.
CURVE bc OR COERCIVITY: The current is reversed and
slowly increased. Some domains are flipped until the net
field inside stands nullified. The value of H at point c is called Coercivity.
CURVE cd: As the reverse current is increased, the saturation is obtained again.
CURVE de and ea: As the current is reduced along the curve de and later it is reversed along the
curve ea. The cycle repeats itself.
HYSTERISIS LOSS: The loss of energy per unit volume of the sample per cycle of magnetization
and demagnetization is dissipated in the form of Heat energy. This is called Hysterisis loss.
PERMANENT MAGNETS:
The substances which retain the ferromagnetic property for a
long time are called Permanent Magnets.
By repeated hammering of Iron rod by placing along North –
South direction, a permanent magnet is made.
High retentivity, High Coercivity, High Permeability.
Because of high retentivity and high coercivity, the
magnetization is not erased by stray magnetic fields,
temperature fluctuations and minor mechanical dmage.
Alnico, cobalt steel and Ticonal are used in making Permanent
magnets.
ELECTROMAGNET:
01. A ferromagnetic material placed inside a current carrying
solenoid acts as an electromagnet.
 118

02. Core of the electromagnets is made of the ferromagnetic materials because they have high
permeability and low retentivity.
03. Soft Iron is used in making electromagnet. Soft Iron has high permeability and low
retentivity, long hysteresis loop.
04. By placing an iron rod inside solenoid and passing the current, the magnetism of the
solenoid is increased. When the current is off, the magnetism is lost because soft iron has low
retentivity.
05. Steel is not used because it has smaller retentivity than soft iron.
FACTORS DECIDING THE STRENGTH OF ELECTROMAGNET:
Electric current 02. Nature of material
03. No. of turns per unit length of the solenoid 04. Temperature
PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMINATIONS QUESTIONS- MAGNETISM & MATTER
1. A bar magnet is cut into two equal pieces parallel to its length. What happens to the pieces?
Ans :- Both the pieces will behave as independent magnets . Their pole strength as well as
dipole moment will reduce to half.
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Pole strength of each piece = 2
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Magnetic moment of each piece = 2
2. A bar magnet is cut into two equal pieces transverse to its length. What happens to the
pieces?
Ans :- Their pole strength will remain the same , but dipole moment will reduce to half .
Pole strength = Same as original
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Magnetic moment of each piece = 2
3. Given two identical bars A and B one is magnetized, how to identify it

Ans :- Bring B near to the ends and at the mid point of X . If there are force of attraction at all
the parts B is a magnet. Only at the ends A is magnet.
4. What is the sure test for magnetism?
Ans :- Repulsion is the sure test for magnetism .
5. Compare the magnetic field of a bar magnet and a solenoid ?
Ans. :- The magnetic field of a bar magnet cannot be altered , however the North and South
pole of a solenoid can be reversed by reversing the direction of current
6. How does a permanent magnet attract an unmagnetised iron object?
Ans. The magnet's field causes a slight alignment of the domains in the unmagnetised iron
object so that the object becomes a temporary magnet with its north pole facing the south pole
of the permanent magnet and vice-versa. Therefore, attraction results.
7. Like poles of nearby magnets repel each other and unlike poles attract. Explain this behaviour
in terms of interaction of current loops.
 119

Ans. Bar magnets with like poles facing each other are equivalent to parallel current loops
whose currents are in opposite directions. Consequently, repulsion takes place. However, bar
magnets with opposite poles facing each other are equivalent to parallel current loops whose
currents are in the same direction. So, attraction takes place
8. Define magnetic dipole moment ? Give relation for it ?
Ans :- Magnetic dipole moment is the product of either of pole strength and distance between
two poles .
M = m x 2l
Unit – ampere – metre2 or J / T
9. Define neutral point in the magnetic field of bar – magnet ?
Ans :- It is the point where the net magnetic field due to a magnet and earth is zero .
10. Where will the neutral point lie ?
Ans :- For south pole of a magnet pointing towards south on the equatorial line of the bar
magnet .For the north pole of a magnet pointing towards south – on the axial line of the bar
magnet .
11 When does a magnetic dipole posses maximum P.E. inside a magnetic field ?
Ans :- When magnetic moment and magnetic field are antiparallel (= 180 ) .
12. How does a paramagnetic material behave in the presence of an external magnetic field?
Parallel alignment of atomic dipoles. Net dipole moment becomes zero.
13. What happens when the temperature of paramagnetic sample is lowered?
As the temperature is lowered, the magnetization increases until it reaches the saturation value
at which point all the dipoles are perfectly aligned with the field.
14. To which of the two – a polar dielectric or a non-polar dielectric- does a paramagnetic
material correspond? Justify your answer.
Para magnetic material correspond to a polar dielectric. This is because the atoms/molecules of
such material have non-zero magnetic moment.
15. If the bar magnet is replaced by a combination of two similar bar magnets, placed over each
other, how will the time period vary?
If North pole of a magnet is placed on the south Pole of magnet, net magnetic moment
becomes zero.
If North pole of a magnet is placed on the North Pole of the magnet, the magnetic moment
becomes double.
16. Two substances A and B have their relative permeabilities slightly greater and less than
unity respectively. What do you conclude about A and B?
Ans :- Substance A is paramagnetic , B is diamagnetic .
Value of Relative permeability of a ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic substance is
quite greater than 1, slightly greater than 1 and slightly lesser then 1 respectively.
17. An iron bar magnet is heated to 1000C and then cooled in a magnetic field free space .
Will it retain magnetism?
Ans :- Curie temperature of iron is 770C . It will not retain magnetism.
18. Above Curie temperature, a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. Why?
Ans. In a ferromagnetic substance, the atoms appear to be grouped magnetically into what are
called domains. This occurs because the magnetic dipole moments of atoms of a ferromagnetic
substance exert strong forces on their neighbours so that over a small region of space, the
 120

moments are aligned with each other even with no external magnetic field. Above Curie
temperature, these forces disappear and ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic
19. Which material is used to make the core of a moving coil galvanometer ?
Ans :- Soft iron because it has low coerisivit
20. Write two properties of a material suitable for making (a) a permanent magnet, and (b) an
electromagnet.
[ Ans. (a) For making permanent magnet :
(i) High retentivity (ii) High coercivity (iii) High permeability
(b) For making electromagnet :
(i) High permeability (ii) Low retentivity (iii) Low coercivity
21. Why are electromagnets made of soft iron?
Ans. The soft iron has very small residual magnetism and coercive force. Therefore, the material
loses magnetism as soon as the magnetising force is removed. For this reason, electromagnets
are made of soft iron.
22. Permanent magnets are made of steel while core of a transformer is made of soft iron.
Why?
Ans. Steel has large value of residual magnetism as well as coercive force. Large coercive force
means that the permanent magnet will not be destroyed by small stray magnetic fields. Due to
these reasons, permanent magnets are made of steel.
When a transformer is in use, its core is subjected to several cycles of magnetisationper
second. Since the area of hysteresis loop for soft iron is small, the resulting hysteresis loss
will be less. For this reason, the core of a transformer is made of magnetically soft material
e.g. soft iron.
23.Why is large area of hysteresis loop not a disadvantage for steel used for making
permanent magnets?
Ans. A permanent magnet is not subjected to cycles of magnetisation. For this reason, large
area of hysteresis loop is not a disadvantage
24. Among steel, soft iron and silicon steel, which is suitable forMaking permanent magnets
and why?
Ans. Steel is suitable for making permanent magnets because it has high coercivityi.e. high
power of retaining magnetism against demagnetising effects
25. What happens when a diamagnetic substance is placed in varying field ?
Ans. :- It moves from stronger to weaker part of the field
26. Draw the magnetic field lines distinguishing between diamagnetic and paramagnetic
materials. Give a simple explanation to account for the difference in the magnetic behaviour of
these materials.
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Para magnetic

.
 121

Explanation : When a diamagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, atoms

acquire net magnetic moment opposite to field, and material acquires a slight magnetism in the
opposite direction of field.
Hence, magnetic field lines are repelled or expelled.
When a paramagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, atomic magnets align
themselves along the field direction and material acquires a slight magnetism in the direction of
field. Hence, magnetic field lines are attracted
27. Name the three elements of Earth’s magnetic field.
Elements of Earth’s magnetic field : (i) Magnetic declination (ii) Angle of dip or magnetic
inclination (iii) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
28. What is the angle of dip at equator ?
[ Ans. zero
29. What is the angle of dip at magnetic poles ?
[ Ans. 900
30. How does angle of dip varies from equator to poles ?
[ Ans. angle of dip increases from zero to 900 on moving from equator to poles
31. Where on the surface of Earth is the angle of dip zero ?
[ Ans. At equator
32. Where on the surface of Earth is the angle of dip 900
[ Ans. At poles
33. Where on the Earth’s surface is the value of angle of dip (i) minim um (ii) maximum ?
[ Ans. (i) at equator (00 ) (ii) At poles ( 900 )
34. Where on the surface of Earth is the vertical component of Earth’ s magnetic field zero ?
Ans. At equator , Reason : At equator, δ = 00 Bv = B sin δ = 0
35. What will be the value of the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at the
Earth’s geometric pole ?
[Ans. Zero
Reason : At poles δ = 900 Bv = B cos δ = 0
36. A small magnet is pivoted to move freely in the magnetic meridian. At what place on the
surface of the earth will the magnet be vertical ?
[Ans. At poles
37. A magnetic needle, free to rotate in a vertical plane, orients itself vertically at a certain
place on the earth. What are the values of (i) angle of dip at this place, and (ii) horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field
[Ans. (i) δ = 900 (ii) BH = B cos δ = 0
38. The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a place is BH and the angle of dip is
600 . What is the value of vertical component of earth’s magnetic field at equator ?
[Ans. Zero, Reason : at equator δ = 0 , BV = BH tan δ = 0
39. What is the angle of dip at a place where the horizontal and vertical components of the
earth’s magnetic field are equal ? [ Ans. Bv = BH tan δ = Bv/BH = 1 δ = 45
40. Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at a place is √3 times the vertical
component. What is the value of angle of dip at this place ?
41. At a place the horizontal component of magnetic field is and angle of dip is 600 . What is the
value of horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at equator ?
 122

Ans. Given : In first case, BH= B, δ = 60

BH = BE cos δ BE = 2 BH = 2 B
In second case, at equator, δ = 0, BH = BE cos δ = 2B
42. In what direction could a compass needle align if taken to geographical (i) North (ii)South
pole?
Ans :- It will align under the influence of vertical component because horizontal component of
magnetic field of earth at these place is zero .
PROPERTY DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FFERROMAGNETIC
Cause of magnetism Orbital motion of Spin motion of electrons. Formation of domains.
electrons.
Explanation of On the basis of orbital On the basis of spin and On the basis of domains
magnetism motion of electrons. orbital motion of formed.
electrons.
Behaviour These are repelled in an These are feebly These are strongly attracted
In a non-uniform external magnetic field i.e. attracted in an external in an external magnetic
magnetic field have a tendency to move magnetic field i.e. have a field, i.e. they easily move
from high to low field tendency to move from from low to high field
region. low to high field region region.
State of These are weekly These get weekly These get strongly
magnetization magnetised in a direction magnetised in the magnetised in the direction
opposite to that of direction of applied of applied magnetic field
applied magnetic field magnetic field
On placing the The gas expands at right The gas expands in the The gas rapidly expands in
gaseous materials angles to the magnetic direction of magnetic the direction of magnetic
between pole pieces field. field field
Magnetic induction B B<B0 B>B0 B»B0
Magnetic Low and negative Low but positive Positive and high
susceptibility  li 1  1 io2
Dependence of on Does not depend on Inversely proportional 𝐶
1 𝜒=
temperature temperature (except Bi to temperature 𝜒 ∝ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑇
at low temperature) This is called Curie-Weiss
Law. Tc = Curie Temperature.
Dependence of x Does not depend Does not depend Does not depend
on H Independent Independent Independent
Relative r <l r > l r > > l, r 102
Permeability (u r )
Intensity of Iis in a direction Iis in the direction of H I is in the direction of H and
magnetisation (I) opposite to that of H but value is low. value is very high.
and its value is very low.
The property of Diamagnetism is found Paramagnetism is Ferro-magnetism is found
Magnetism in those materials the found in those in those materials which
atoms of which have materials the atoms of when placed in an external
even number electrons. which have majority of magnetic field are
electron spins in the strongly magnetised.
same direction.
Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Zn, Bi, Al, M n , Pt, Na, Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Fe 3 O4etc.
 123

Sb, NaCl, H2 O air and CuCl2, O2, and crown

diamond etc. glass.
Nature of effect Distortion effect Orientation effect Hysteresis effect

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELCTROMAGNEITC INDUCTION:
The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of the change in the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
𝑑𝜑
Induced emf = 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑡
Negative sign indicates the direction of induced emf which opposes the increase of the
magnetic flux.
The direction of Induced emf is explained by Lenz’s Law.
Lenz's Rule:
The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which oppose the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.
Magnetic Flux:
The magnetic flux is defined as the product of the magnetic field and area.
Magnetic Flux = 𝜑 = 𝐵 ⃗ .𝐴
If there are N turns in the coil, the total magnetic flux = 𝜑 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜃
Where N = No. of turns B = Magnetic field A = Area of the coil
θ = Angle between area vector and Magnetic field
Unit: Weber
Factors on which magnetic flux depends:
Magnetic flux = 𝜑 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜃
1. N = No. of turns 2. B = Magnetic field
3 = Area of the coil 4 = Angle between area vector and Magnetic field
𝑑𝜑
Induced emf: It is defined as the rate of the change in the magnetic flux. 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡
Unit: Volt or Weber/sec
CAUSE OF INDUCED EMF
Faraday arrived at the conclusion: “An emf is induced in a conductor whenever the magnetic
flux through it changes with time”.
Derivation of Induced emf :
Consider a coil of N turns, Area of cross section = A, Magnetic field = B
Angle between magnetic field and area vector = θ
Angular velocity = ω, time = t
Total magnetic flux = 𝜑 = 𝐵 ⃗ ∙𝐴
Magnetic flux = 𝜑 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜃
Angle between area vector and magnetic field = θ = ω t
Magnetic flux in a time t = 𝜑 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝜑
Induced emf = 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡
ε = N B A ω cos ωt
Maximum emf = ε0 = NBA ω
 124

Let resistance of the coil = R

𝛆
Induced current 𝐼 = 𝑅
I = I0 sin ωt

The factors on which induced emf depends:

1. No. of turns 2. Magnetic field 3. Area of cross section
4. Angular velocity 5. Orientation of the coil or angle between area vector and magnetic field
Methods of producing Induced emf:
01. By changing the magnetic field
02. By changing the orientation of the coil with respect to the magnetic field
03. Changing the area of the magnetic field
MOTIONAL EMF: The emf produced by changing the area of the closed loop moving it through
a uniform magnetic field.
Formula
(a) Rectangular coil moving out from the uniform magnetic field B:
Inducted emf ε = B Lv
where B = Magnetic field L = Length of the conductor v = velocity of the coil
(b) Circular coil of radius R rotating in magnetic field:
If a metallic rod of length is rotated with a frequency ω with one end is hinged at the center and
other end is at the circumference of the circular ring of radius R
1
Induced emf 𝜀 = 2 𝐵𝜔𝑅2

Derivation for induced emf for rectangular coil moving out from the magnetic field:

Consider a rectangular coil PQRS placed in a magnetic

field B such that the conductor PQ is free to move.
Length of conductor = RQ = x
Breadth of the conductor = PQ=L
Area of the rectangular coil = A = Length x Breadth
A=l x
Magnetic flux ϕ= B l x
𝑑𝜑
Induced emf = 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝜀 = −𝐵 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Induced emf 𝜀 = 𝐵𝐿𝑣
Let R = Resistance of the coil
𝜀 𝐵𝐿𝑣
Current 𝐼 = 𝑅 == 𝑅
𝜀2
Power 𝑃 = 𝑅
𝐵 2 𝐿2 𝑣 2
Power 𝑃 = 𝑅
Force required to push the conductor with a velocity v is F
Power in terms of Force and velocity P = Force x velocity = F x v
 125

𝐵 2 𝐿2 𝑣
From these two equations Force 𝐹 == 𝑅
Derivation for emf between the center and metallic ring
Consider a metallic rod of length L is rotated with a
frequency ω with one end hinged at the center and other
end at the circumference of the circular metallic ring.
Radius of circular ring = Length of the conductor = R = L
Let θ = Angle between the rod and the radius of the circle
𝜃
Area of the sector OPQ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅2 × 2𝜋
𝜃
𝐴 = 𝑅2 × 2
Magnetic flux ϕ = B X A
𝐵𝑅2
𝜑= 𝜃
2
𝐵𝑅2 𝑑𝜃
Induced emf 𝜀 = 2 𝑑𝑡
1
𝜀 = 𝐵𝑅2 𝜔
2
The arm PQ of the rectangular conductor is moved from x = 0, outwards. The uniform
magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane and extends from x = 0 to x = b and is zero for x >
b. Only the arm PQ possesses substantial resistance r. Consider the situation when the arm
PQ is pulled outwards from x = 0 to x = 2b, and is then moved back to x = 0 with the same
constant speed v.
Obtain expressions for the flux, the induced emf, the force necessary to pull the arm and the
power dissipated as Joule heat. Sketch the variation of these quantities with distance

Let us first consider the forward motion from x = 0 to x =

2b
ϕ = B A, A = l x
The flux ϕB linked with the circuit SPQR ϕB = B l x ( 0
≤ x ˂ b)
= Bl b ( b ≤ x <2b)
There only A=lb is effective as for x>b , B=0]
𝑑𝜑
The induced emf = 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑡
ε = - B l v ( 0 ≤ x ˂ b)
 126

= 0 ( b ≤ x < 2b [B l b is a constant and derivative of a constant is zero]

𝐵𝑙𝑣
When the induced emf is non-zero, the current = 𝐼 = ( 0 ≤ x <b)
𝑟
I=0 ( b ≤ x < 2b [Ɛ = 0]
The force required to keep the arm PQ in constant motion is IlB. Its direction is to the left. In
magnitude:
F=llB
𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝐹=𝑙𝐵 ×
𝑟
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣
𝐹 = ( 0 ≤ x ˂ b)
𝑟
F=0 (b ≤ x < B) [ I = 0]
According to Joule's law of heating , Power P = F v
𝑙 2 𝐵2 𝑣 2
𝑃 = 𝑟 (0 ≤ x<b
P=0 ( b ≤ x < 2b [ F= 0]
One obtains similar expressions for the inward motion from x = 2b to x = 0. One can appreciate the
whole process by examining the sketch of various quantities displayed below:

EDDY CURENTS OR FOUCAULT’S CURRENTS

When bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to a changing magnetic flux then induced
currents are produced in them. The currents, which are induced in bulk pieces of conductor,
when the magnetic flux linked with them changes, are called EDDY CURRENTS.
When a metallic body is moved in a magnetic field in such a way that the
flux through it changes or is placed in a changing magnetic field,
induced currents circulate throughout the volume of the body. These
are called eddy currents. If the resistance of the said conductor is small,
then the magnitudes of eddy currents are large and the metal gets
heated up.
This heating effect is a source of power loss in iron-cored devices such as dynamos, motors and
transformers. The effect can be reduced by laminating the core. Applications of eddy currents
are given below.
INDUCTION FURNACE
Induction furnace can be used to produce high temperatures, it can be utilized to prepare
alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed
through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the
metals produce high temperatures that are sufficient to melt it.
Joule's heat causes the melting of a metal piece placed in a rapidly changing magnetic field.
DEAD-BEAT GALVANOMETER
If a moving coil galvanometer is intended to attain a steady value quickly, damping is
necessary to prevent oscillation. This is achieved-by winding the coil on a metallic frame - the
large eddy currents induced in the frame provide electromagnetic damping.
 127

MAGNETIC BRAKES
A drum is attached to the axle of the wheels of a train. It rotates when the train is moving. To
stop the train, a strong magnetic field is applied to the rotating drum. The eddy currents set
up in the drum oppose the rotation of the drum and the train stops.
Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electrically powered trains. When
the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails oppose the motion of
the train. As there are no mechanical linkages, the braking effect is smooth.
ELECTRIC POWER METERS:
The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates due to the eddy
currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by the magnetic fields produced by
sinusoidally varying currents in a coil. You may observe the rotating shiny disc in the power
meter (analogue type) that may be linked to the ‘power supply’ of your house.
ELECTROMAGNETIC DAMPING:
Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of non magnetic metallic material. When the coil
oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest
quickly.
the magnet takes much longer time in case of its fall through the copper pipe. Why is it so? It is
due to the eddy currents that are generated in the copper pipe which oppose their cause, the
change in magnetic flux, i.e., the motion of the magnet. The retarding force, due to the eddy
currents, inhibits the motion of the magnet. Such phenomena are referred to as
electromagnetic damping. Note that eddy currents will not be generated in PVC pipe as its
material is an insulator whereas copper is a conductor.
DISADVANTAGES OF EDDY CURRENTS
Eddy currents generate resistive losses; they transform some forms of energy, such as kinetic
energy, into heat. This Joule heating reduces efficiency of iron-core transformers and electric
motors and other devices that use changing magnetic fields.
1. Eddy currents are minimized in these devices by selecting core materials that have low
electrical conductivity (e.g., ferrites) or by using thin sheets of magnetic material, known as
laminations. Electrons cannot cross the insulating gap between the laminations and so are
unable to circulate on wide arcs.
2. The shorter the distance between adjacent laminations (i.e., the greater the number of
laminations per unit area, perpendicular to the applied field), the greater the suppression of
eddy currents.
3. Eddy currents (I, red) (left one) within a solid iron transformer core (right one). Making the
core out of thin laminations parallel to the field (B, green) with insulation between them
reduces the eddy currents. Although the field and currents are shown in one direction, they
actually reverse direction, along with the alternating current in the transformer winding.
SELF INDUCTANCE:
It is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux to the current across a coil.
It is denoted by symbol L
𝜑
Slef inductance 𝐿 = 𝐼 where ϕ = Magnetic flux, I = current
Unit: Henry or Weber/Ampere
 128

Self-induction is the property of a coil by virtue of which it opposes any change in the
strength of current flowing through it; it does so by inducing an opposing emf upon itself .
Conclusions:
1. Relation between magnetic flux and current
Magnetic flux ϕ α Current I.
Graph between Magnetic flux and current is a straight line passing through origin.
Slope= Inductance. More slope = More Inductance.
Question: A plot of magnetic flux (ϕ) versus current (I) is shown in the figure, for two
inductors A and B. Which of the two has the larger value of self-inductance?
𝜑
Self inductance 𝐿 = 𝐼 = Slope of the graph
Thus, slope of ϕ−I graph gives the value of self inductance.
More is the slope, more is the self inductance.
Since, line A has more slope, thus inductor A has larger self inductance.
2. Relation between Self inductance, Emf and rate of change in current:
Magnetic flux is proportional to current. ϕ α I
or Magnetic flux ϕ = L I
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
𝑑𝜑
Induced emf = 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝜀
or 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡 Self inductance 𝐿 = 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡
If current is not changing or current across the coil is constant, Emf across the coil is zero.
𝜇 𝑁2 𝐴
Self-Inductance of solenoid: Formula: 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴 𝑙 = 0 𝑙
where N = No. of turns, A = Area of cross section, l = Length of solenoid
n = No. of turns /length = N/l
μ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space or air = 4π x 10-7Amp/meter
Factors on which Self inductance of a solenoid depends:
1. Nature of medium 2. No. of turns 3. Area of cross section
4. Length 5. Geometry of the coil
1. Nature of medium:
If medium is other than air or free space, 𝐿 = 𝜇 𝑛2 𝐴 𝑙 or 𝐿 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 = 𝜇𝑟 𝐿0
where μ= Magnetic permeability of medium other than air
For air L0 = μ0n2A l where μ0 = Magnetic permeability of air
𝐿 𝜇
= Since μ˃μ0 , Self inductance increases.
𝐿
0 𝜇
0
(a) Iron rod is inserted or a ferromagnetic substance is inserted, Self inductance increases.
2. No. of turns: Self inductance L α N2
If no. of turns increase, Self-Inductance increases.
If no. of turns are doubled, self inductance becomes four times.
3. Area of cross section: Self inductance L α A
If area of cross section increases, self inductance increases.
𝛍𝐎 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀
4. Length of the solenoid Self inductance L α 1/l L= 𝐥
If length of the solenoid increases, self inductance of the coil decreases.
5. Radius of the coil Self inductance L α r2
 129

Self inductance L = μn2Al or Self inductance L α A

Area A = πr2
Self inductance L α r2
If radius is doubled. self inductance becomes four times.
Derivation of self inductance of a solenoid:
Consider a solenoid of cross sectional area A having N as the no. of turns and length is l.
Let n be the no. of turns per unit length.
Let I be the current flowing through it.
Magnetic field inside the solenoid = B = μ0 n I --------------------------------(1)
Total flux linked in N turns of the solenoid = ϕtotal = N φ= N B A
= n l μ0 n I A
2
= μ0 n I A l
Self Inductance = L = Total flux / current = ϕtotal/I
𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴 𝑙
Magnetic Energy in the inductor:
Consider a coil of inductance L is connected to a source of emf E. Let I be the current across it.
When this current I is changed across it, the induced emf 𝜀 is induced in it.
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf as it opposes any change in the current in a
circuit. Physically, self-inductance plays the role of electrical inertia.
When a current flows through a solenoid, work has to be done against the back emf. This work
done is stored as magnetic potential energy. For the current, I, at any instant in a circuit, the
rate of doing work is power.
𝑑𝐼
Induced emf = 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
Power = Rate of work done = ε I
𝑑𝐼
Power 𝑃 = 𝐿 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
Work done dW = Power x dt = 𝐿 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑑𝑡
= L I dI
Work done = ∫ L I dI
W = ½ L I2
This work is stored in the form of Magnetic energy.
Magnetic Energy = ½ L I2
GROUPING OF INDUCTANCE-SERIES
When any number of coils are connected in series, the same amount of current flows through
them; the potentials across them, differ and add up to the total potential applied across the
combination.
Mathematically: ε = ε1 + ε2
Since the current is same across both inductors in series combination and the emf is divided
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
across inductors 𝜀 = −𝐿1 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐿2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
If L is the equivalent inductance in series, then emf, 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
by combining above two equations, L = L1 + L2
Therefore, combined net self inductance of n coils, connected in series, is equal to the sum of
the inductances of individual coils. In a series combination the total inductance increases.
 130

PARALLEL COMBINAITON:
When coils are connected in parallel, the potential across all of them, has the value same.
The current gets divided; the total current drawn from the ‘source’ equals the sum of the
currents through the individual coils.
Mathematically: I = I1 + I2
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼1 𝑑𝐼2
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Since the potential difference across both inductors is same in parallel combination and the
potential difference across each inductor is same as the source emf.
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼1 𝜀
𝜀 = −𝐿1 𝑑𝑡1 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝐼2 𝑑𝐼2 𝜀
The emf across second inductor 𝜀 = −𝐿2 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝐼 𝜀 𝜀 1 𝑑𝐼 1 1
By using above equations, 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐿 − 𝐿 − 𝜀 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 + 𝐿
1 2 1 2
𝑑𝐼 1 𝑑𝐼 1
since, 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡 or − 𝜀 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
− =− −
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2
1 1 1
= +
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2
So, in parallel connection the reciprocal of the combined inductance, of a number of coils is
equal to sum of the reciprocals of inductances of individual coils.
Thus , in parallel combination the total inductance is less than the minimum value of
inductance of any coil.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE: When the current flows through the first coi, the flux is linked from
first coil to second coil. Due the linkage of the flkux in the second coil, there is an induced emf
in the second coil This property ic called Mutul Inductance.
MUTUAL INDUCTION: Mutual Induction is a phenomenon in which a changing current in coil 1
produces a changing magnetic flux for coil 2 (placed in its field); this induces an emf in coil 2
.This emf is induced in a way so as to oppose the cause of its production.
COEFFICIENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTION: Coefficient of mutual induction can also be defined as
the emf induced in one coil when rate of change of current through the other is unity.
SI unit of mutual induction is henry (H).
Coefficient of mutual induction is said to be one henry when a rate of change of current of one
ampere/sec through one coil, induces an emf of one volt in the other coil
The induced current will be induced in a direction which will oppose the increasing magnetic
flux associated with the coil 2.
ϕ2 α I 1 ϕ2= MI1
M is the constant of proportionality, called Coefficient of mutual induction.
This is numerically equal to magnetic flux linked with one of the coil when a unit current flows
through the neighbouring (second) coil. So, ϕ2 = M when I1 =1
COEFFICENT OF MUTUAL INDUTANCE: The ratio of the flux in second coil to the current in first
coil Is called Mutual Inductance.
 131

Consider two solenoid of length L each. Let N1 and N2 be the no. of turns in each coil. Let
r1 and r2 be the radii of each coil. Let A1 and A2 be the area of each coil. Let I1 and I2 be the
currents in each coil. Let ϕ1 be the flux linked in the each turn of the first coil and
M12 be the mutual inductance of the first soilenoid S1 with respect to second Solenoid S2.
N1 ϕ1 α I1 N1 ϕ1 = M12 I1
Unit : Henry.
It is defined as the ratio of Magnetic flux linked to the second coil wne one ampere curent
flows through first coil. Formula: M = μ0 n1 n2 A l
where n1 = No. of turns in the first coil per unit lengh, N2 = No. of turns in the second coil per
unit lengh
FACTORS ON WHICH MUTUAL INDUCTANCE DEPENDS:
01. No. of turns in each coil.
02. The Distance between the coil.
03. Geometry of the coils: Size, Shape and no. of turns of the coils
04. Relative orientation of the coils.
05. Natue of the medium on which two coils are wound
06. Area of cross section.
07. Nature of the material of which the coils are made up of.
08. Length of each coil.

DERIVATION:
Consider the above figure which shows two long co-axial solenoids each of length L. We denote
the radius of the inner solenoid S1 by r1 and the number of turns per unit length by n1 . The
corresponding quantities for the outer solenoid S2 are r2 and n2 , respectively. Let N1 and N2
be the total number of turns of coils S1 and S2, respectively.

When a current I2 is set up through S2 , it in turn sets

up a magnetic flux through S1 . Let us denote it by ϕ1 .
The corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S1 =N1
ϕ1 = M12 I2 -----------(1)
M12 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S1
with respect to solenoid S2 . It is also referred to as
the coefficient of mutual induction.
Eq. [1] clearly indicates that a current in coil 2 induces a magnetic flux in coil 1 and M12 is the
linkage between them.
To calculate M12 : N1 ϕ1 = N1 B2 A1
= (n1 L) (μ0 n2 I2) (𝜋r12) ----------(2)
Compare eq.[1] and eq.[2] we get
M12 = μ0 n1 n2 𝜋r12 L ----(3)
It is also important to know that the mutual inductance of a pair of coils, solenoids, etc.,
depends on their separation as well as their relative orientation.
M12 = μ0 n1 n2 A L
 132

𝝁𝟎 𝑵𝟏 𝑵𝟐 𝑨
𝑴𝟏𝟐 =
𝑳

Inductors in Series combination:

If two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series comibination.
Resultant Inductance L = L1 + L2
Inductors in Parallel Combination:
If two coils of inductances L1 and L2 are connected in parallel comibination.
1 1 1
Resultant Inductance = +
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2
Relatiobn between Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance
For Air Gap: 𝑀 = 𝑘 √𝐿1 𝐿2 where k = coupling factor.
For air gap k: 0 ˂ k ˂ 1
For soft Iron k = 1
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Can we have an inductance without a resistance? How about a resistance with an
inductance?
Answer: No, as every material has some resistance. Yes, we simply have to coil a wire to have
resistance with an inductor.
2. What will a change in magnetic flux induce? An emf or a current?
Answer. The change in magnetic flux will induce an emf always. A current will flow only when
the loop or circuit is complete.
3. when is the magnetic flux linked with the coil held in a magnetic field zero?
Answer. When the plane of the coil, is along the field, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
held in such a magnetic field will be zero.
Two concentric coilf or radii r1 and r2 such that r1 ≪ r2 are placed co-axially such theat their
centres coinciding. Find the Mutual inductance of theuir arrangement.
μ0 I2
B2 =
2 r2
𝜑1 = 𝜋 𝑟12 𝐵2
𝜇0 𝜋 𝑟12
𝜑1 = 𝐼2
2 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝜋 𝑟12
ϕ1 = M12 I2 Then 𝑀12 = 2 𝑟2
Coefficient of coupling K, of two coils, is a measure of the magnetic coupling of the two coils.
It is given by 𝑘
𝑀
Coefficient of coupling 𝐾 = 𝐿 𝐿
√ 1 2
where M is the coefficient of mutual inductance of the coils and L1 and L2 are the
coefficients of self inductance of the two coils.
K is always< 1. It can equal one only in the ideal case of perfect magnetic coupling i.e.,
in the case where all the field lines, of the magnetic field, produced by the current flowing in
one coil, get linked with, or pass through, the second coil.
 133

If Ka, Kb and Kc are Coefficient of coupling K, of two coils in three arrangements,

then Ka ˃ Kb ˃ Kc
A.C. GENERATOR:
It is a machine which is used to convert Mechanical Energy into Electric energy.
PRINCIPLE: The principle of ac generator working is electromagnetic induction, i.e. whenever
the magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil which lasts only as
long as the magnetic flux changes. The direction of the induced alternating current is given by
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule following Lenz’s law.

It works on the basis of elctromagnetic induction. When a coil is rotated in uniform magnetic
field, an induced emf is produced in it.

CONSTRUCTION: The components are as follows.

01. ARMATURE OR RECTANGULAR COIL: A rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire
of several turns. It can be rotated about a central axis perpendicular to a uniform
magentic field.
02. SOFT IRON LAMINATED CORE: It wound over a soft iron core is placed between two
poles of the magnet. A soft iron laminated core over which the armature coil is wound,
to increase the magnetic flux. The core is laminated to reduce the eddy currents.
03. STRONG FIELD MAGNET: A strong permanent magnet
or electromagnet whose poles are cylinderical in
shape are used. The coil is rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
04. SLIP RINGS: Two ends of the armnature coil are
connected to two brass slip rings R1 and R2. These
rings rotate along with the armature coil. These two
rings are connected to the two ends of armature coil,
which rotate along the coil.
05. BRUSHES: Two carbon brushes B1 and B2are pressed against the slip rings. The brushes
remain fixed while slip rings rotate along with the armature. These brushes carry the
 134

current from the coil to the circuit load resitance R. The brushes are connected to the
load through which the output is obtained.
06. LOAD RESISTANCE: In the external circuit, across which the outpout AC is obtained.

WORKING:
When the armature coil ABCD rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with the
coil changes due to the rotation of the coil and hence an induced emf is set up in the coil. The
direction of the emf is explained by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
The current flows out through the brush B1 in one direction of hald of the revolution and
through the brush B2 in the next half revolution in the revese direction. This process is
repeated.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

Stretch the First Finger, Middle Finger and the Thumb of Right Hand in such a
way that all three are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Fore finger points in the direction of Magnetic field,
Thumb points in the direction of motion of conductor,
then Middle Finger points along the direction of Induced Conventional Current

MATHEMATICAL TREATMENT:

Let A be the area of the rectangular coil and B be the magnetic field. Let N be the no. of turns of
the coil.
Assume that the coil is rotated with a constant angular
velocity w. The angle between the normal to the coil and
the magnetic field B at any instant is given by 𝜃 = wt
When the coil is rotated with a constant angular speed ω,
the angle θ between the magnetic field vector B and the
area vector A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt.
(assuming θ = 0º at t = 0).
The magnetic field component normal to the plane of the coil = B cos wt
The magnetic flux linked with one turn of the coil = (B cos wt) A
As a result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes with time,
the flux at any time t is
ϕ = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt
The total magnetic flux linked with the coil ϕ = N B A cos ωt ---------------------(1)
𝐝𝛗
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Induced Emf 𝛆 = − 𝐝𝐭
Hence ε = N B A ω sin ωt ---------------------------------------------(2)
Where N B A ω is the maximum value of emf, which occurs when sin ω t is +1 or -1
𝛆
Current = I = 𝐑
 135

Variation of induced emf with the different positions of the coil with respect to the magnetic
field:

(i) If 𝜃 = 00, The plane of the coil is

perpendicular to the magnetic
field, Then 𝜀 = 0.
(ii) If 𝜃 =900, The plane of the coil is
along the direction of the magnetic
field, Then 𝜀 = 𝜀0 .
(iii) If 𝜃 =1800, The plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the magnetic
field, Then 𝜀 = 0.
(iv) If 𝜃 =2700, The plane of the coil is
along the direction of the magnetic
field, Then 𝜀 = − 𝜀0
(v) If 𝜃 = 3600, The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, Then 𝜀 = 0.

It's not possible to generate Emf if the coil is not rotated. This is because when
a coil is rotated in a magnetic field about a line which is not the axis of the coil, the
magnetic coil with a link going through the coil will change and thus an EMF will be produced.

IMPORTANT POINTS:

1. STRONG FIELD MAGNET:

A strong permanent magnet or electromagnet whose poles are cylinderical in shape are used.
The uniform magnetic field is produced by the magnet is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
the coil
2. The total magnetic flux linked with the coil = 𝛗 = 𝐍 𝐁 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭
Induced emf 𝛆 = 𝐍𝐀𝐁𝛚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
The Amplitude of the induced emf = N B A ω = 𝛆𝟎
General equation of AC Voltage 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin 𝜔𝑡
General equation of AC Current I = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡
3. Frequency of AC Voltage = 50 Hz
4. Time taken to complete one revolution = T = 0.02 second
 136

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT:

SL. POINT OF DIFFERENCE ALTERNATING CURRENT DIRECT CURRENT
NO.
1 AMOUNT OF ENERGY Can be transferred over longer DC transmission, over long
CAN BE TRANSMITTED distances with very much reduced distances, will cause high
‘transmission’ related energy losses ‘energy losses’ during
transmission
2 CAUSE OF THE Change in magnetic flux linked with A steady ‘electric field’ along
DIRECTION OF THE a rotating coil the wire
FLOW OF ELECTRONS
3 FREQEUNCY The frequency of the transmitted The frequency of direct current
alternating current is usually 50Hz is zero.
or 60Hz depending upon the
country
4 DIRECTION It keeps on reversing its direction, It flows in one direction in the
periodically while flowing in a circuit. conventionally from
circuit. high to a low potential
5 CURRENT The magnitude of current keeps on It is usually a current of
varying with time constant magnitude, in a given
circuital set-up.
6 FLOW OF ELECTRONS Electrons keep switching their Electrons 'drift’ move steadily
direction of motion forward and in one direction 'forward', only
backward
7 OBTAINED FROM A.C Generators which ‘feed’ the Cell or Battery
mains.
8 PASSIVE PARAMETERS Impedance Resistance only
9 POWER FACTOR It lies between 0 & 1 It is always 1
10 TYPES Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Triangular, Steady; uni-directional
Square.

DISADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT

SL.NO. ALTERNATING CURRENT DIRECT CURRENT
1 One negative side of AC power is that many If you need to connect the HVDC
different standards have developed around the (high voltage DC) to an AC grid, it
world. AC power can run at various frequencies.. becomes really complex
The "standard" type to use is 230V/50Hz, which is becoming more and more
more efficient but more dangerous than the 110 V efficient and inexpensive
60 Hz used in the USA. Caution is always needed
with electricity, and the higher the voltage, the
more important are safety measures
2 Delivering electrical current as alternating current For smaller networks, HVDC
(AC) is that any electrical equipment which needs becomes really expensive
direct current (DC) cannot run on it. In order to compared to HV AC.
run such equipment, the AC has to be rectified to
convert it to DC
 137

3 DC is not easily transmitted far

distances. It was for this reason
that the entire electrical grid was
built with AC because it can be
transformed up and then down
so sending it long distances is
easy.

ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT CURRENT

SL.NO. ALTERNATING CURRENT DIRECTI CURRENT
1 It loses far less power over long electrical Capacitance and Inductance are not used
lines as resistive devices, so capacitive leakage
and inductive impedance will be absent.
2 Given that it's the standard system used in Due to tremendous progress in DC-DC
electrical mains power, it is the most practical converters, it's economical to go for High
system to adopt in the domestic electricity Voltage DC and heat losses can be
system as well drastically reduced
3 Although power can be generated completely The advantages are that DC voltage can be
off-grid, there is an advantage to created directly onsite with solar panels. If
transferring/sell off surplus electricity to the you are generating DC power for use in
national power companies; i.e. via net your home you can use DC directly as it
metering. Adopting AC power as the standard, is. You can use DC motors for all the
allows the use of less equipment (i.e. power appliances like refrigerators etc.
inverter), also there is no 10% power loss due
to the use of this inverter.
4 Power lines can be thinner to than comparable Most of electric power consumed in DC.
DC lines. In practice, i.e. 12 gauge AC wire Electric Motor, heating element,
can be used, while 10 gauge DC wire would electronics, Electric Car and virtually all
be required. When extrapolating the wiring electrical machineries consumes electricity
problem into practice i.e. in a lightening in DC. Even some highly efficient 3 phase
situation, we see that on AC, 8 lights can be AC electric motor cannot compete with
powered, and only 3 on DC (Brushed or even brush-less) DC Motor in
terms of efficiency and simplicity
TRANSFORMER:
A device used to convert higher alternating voltage at low current to lower alternating voltage
at high current and vice versa.
PRINCIPLE: It works on the principle of Mutual Induction. An emf is induced in a coil when a
changing current flows through it nearby coil.
CONSTRUCTION:
It consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other.
They are called Primary and Secondary coils. Primary coil
has turns Np and secondary coil has turns of Ns. The
primary coil is connected to an ac source and Secondary is
connected to a load or output.
Primary and secondary are wound on a soft-iron core.
 138

THEORY:

When an altenating emf is applied to Primary, the resulting current produces an alternating
magnetic flux which links the secondary and induces an emf in it. The value of this emf depends
on the no. of turns in the secondary coil.
For ideal transformer, the flux produced in the primary is completed transferred to the
seondary coil.
Let Φ be the flux in each turn in the core at tiem t due to the current in the primary when a
voltage Vp is applied to it.
𝐝𝚽
The induced emf in the secondary with Ns turns = 𝛆𝐬 = −𝐍𝐬 𝐝𝐭 ----------(1)
The alternating flux also induces an emf, called back emf in the Primary coil.
𝐝𝚽
The induced emf in the Primary with Np turns = 𝛆𝐩 = −𝐍𝐩 𝐝𝐭 --------------(2)
𝛆𝐬 𝐍𝐬
From (1) and (2), = ---------------(3)
𝛆𝐩 𝐍𝐩
For idealtransformer, Input Power = Output Power
𝛆𝐩 𝐈𝐩 =𝛆𝐬 𝐈𝐩 ----------------------------------------(4)
𝛆𝐬 𝐍𝐬 𝐈𝐩
From (3) and (4), = =
𝛆𝐩 𝐍𝐩 𝐈𝐬
𝐍𝐬
The ratio𝐍 is called Transformation ratio.
𝐩
STEP – UP TRANSFORMER: If 𝐍𝐬 > 𝐍𝐩 , the transformer is called Step-Up transformer. The
secondary voltage is higher than the Primary voltage. The current is decreased at the Primary
coil.
STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER: If 𝐍𝐬 < 𝐍𝐩 , the transformer is called Step-down transformer. The
Primary voltage is higher than the Secondary voltage. The current is increased at the secondary
coil.

TRANSFORMER LOSSES
The insulation used to prevent the conductors shorting together in a transformer is usually a
thin layer of varnish or enamel in air cooled transformers. This thin varnish or enamel paint is
painted onto the wire before it is wound around the core.
In larger power and distribution transformers the conductors are insulated from each other
using oil impregnated paper or cloth. The whole core and windings is immersed and sealed in a
protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil acts as an insulator and also as a
coolant.
Thus in brief actual transformers have small energy losses occur due to the following reasons:
 139

ENERGY LOSSES:

Sl.no. Reason Remedy

1 Flux leakage: If the core of the Primary or It is reduced by the winding the
secondary is not proper, or due to the air gaps Primary and secondary coils one
in the core, the flux is leaked. Due to poor over the other.
design of the core
2 Eddy currents: The magnetic flux induces eddy This is reduced by a laminated
currents in the iron core abd causes heating iron core.

3 Resistance lost or Copper loss: Due to the It is reduced by using thick

resistance of the wire, electric energy is lost in copper wire of less resistance.
the form of heat energy.
4 Hysterisis: The magnetisation of the core is It is minimised by a transformer
repeatedly reversed y an alternating magnetic core material which has a
field. This leads to a loss of energy in the form of narrow low hysterisis loop.
heat in the core.
USES: A device used to convert higher alternating voltage at low current to lower alternating
voltage at high current and vice versa at costant power or without losing the power.
PRINCIPLE: It works on the principle of Mutual Induction.
The current or emf induced in the first coil induces current or emf in nearby coil.
IDEAL TRANSOFMER:
1. Input power = Output power 𝛆𝐩 𝐈𝐩 =𝛆𝐬 𝐈𝐩
2. The flux produced in the primary is completely transferred to the secondary coil.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
𝜺 𝑵 𝑰𝒑 Ns
1. 𝜺 𝒔 = 𝑵 𝒔 = 2. = Transformationa ratio
𝒑 𝒑 𝑰𝒔 Np
3. STEP – UP TRANSFORMER: If 𝐍𝐬 > 𝐍𝐩 , the transformer is called Step-Up transformer. The
secondary voltage is higher than the Primary voltage. The current is decreased at the Primary
coil.
4. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER: If𝐍𝐬 < 𝐍𝐩 , the transformer is called Step-down transformer.
The Primary voltage is higher than the Secondary voltage. The current is increased at the
secondary coil.
5. The frequency of Input voltage = The frequency of output voltage = 50 Hz
 140

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:

1. Give reasons why?
a) A transformer cannot be used with DC
As there will be no mutual inductance as the steady current will produce steady magnetic flux
around the secondary.
b) A transformer only changes the amplitude of the alternating voltage , it does not change
the frequency of the alternating voltage
The rate of change of flux is the primary is the same for the secondary coil
c) An ideal transformer is not possible
An ideal transformer should have no power loss 𝑽p Ip = 𝑽S IS
But the wire making up the coil will have some resistance and heat would be produced.
d) A step down transformer cannot be used as step up transformer merely by interchanging
the primary and secondary coils
In order to keep the power losses to a minimum, the two coils have different resistances .in a
step down transformer primary current is lower than the secondary coil current, the primary
coil is made of thinner wire (higher resistance) than the secondary. The wires may burn out if
primary coil is made the secondary coil.
e) When current flows in the transformer coils the core becomes hot
Eddy currents are produced in the core. A laminated core made up of plates instead of bulk
reduces the heat produced in the core.
f) Primary and secondary coils do not have any electrical contact but current flows in the
secondary coil whenever alternating current is supplied to the primary coil
mutual inductance
g) The primary and secondary coils are mounted on a fixed frame core
For better coupling between the primary and secondary coils
2. A closed loop is held stationary in the magnetic field between the north and south poles of a
horse-shoe permanent magnet . Can we hope to generate a current in the loop by using very
strong magnet?
Answer: As there is no change in magnetic flux associated with the loop there will be any
current generated in the loop. Even if a strong magnet is used there will be no changing
magnetic field hence magnetic flux will be constant and no induced emf will be there.
3. A closed loop moves normal to constant electric field between the plates of a large
capacitor. Is a current induced in the loop:
(i) When it is wholly inside the region between the capacitor plates
(ii) When it is partially outside the plates of the capacitor? The electric field is normal to the
plane of the loop.
Answer: In both the cases:
(i) and (ii) there will be no emf that will be induced as induction does not takes place due to
changing electric field , it takes place due to changing magnetic field.
 141

4. A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform magnetic field region to a
field-free region with a constant velocity v. In which loop do you expect the induced emf to be
constant during the passage out of the field region? The field is normal to the loops.
Answer : The induced emf will be constant in the rectangular loop and not in circular loop. This
is so because the rate of change of area is constant for rectangular loop and not for circular
loop.
5. Out of the two arrangements given below for windings of primary and secondary coils in a
transformer.

a) Which arrangement do you think arrangement do you think will have higher efficiency and
why?
b) show in an ideal transformer when a voltage is stepped up by a certain factor the current
in the secondary is stepped down by the same factor
c) Give reasons why it is not possible to make an ideal transformer.
a) Arrangement (a ) will have higher efficiency because leakage of flux will be the least
b) Hint for an ideal transformer 𝑽p Ip = Vs Is
𝑉 𝐼 𝑁
so if the voltage is stepped up by a factor 𝑉𝑃 = 𝐼𝑆 = 𝑁𝑃
𝑆 𝑃 𝑆
𝑁𝑃
𝐼𝑆 = ( ) 𝐼𝑃
𝑁𝑆
c)it is difficult to have perfect coupling between primary and secondary coils, the coil wire will
have some résistance, hysteresis will occur ,some loss will take place as the laminated core will
heat up.

PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMIANTION QUESITONS-EMI

1. Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the situation described below :
 142

[ Ans. A – positive B- negative

2. A bar magnet is moved in the direction indicated by the arrow between two coils PQ and CD.
Predict the direction of the induced current in each coil.

[ Ans. Q to P through ammeter and D to C through ammeter

(Alternatively: Anticlockwise as seen from left in coil PQ clockwise as seen from left in coil CD
3. The electric current flowing in a wire in the direction from B
to A is decreasing. Find out the direction of the induced
current in the metallic loop kept above the wire as shown.

[Ans. Clockwise

4. A conducting loop is held above a current carrying wire PQ as

shown in the figure. Depict the direction of the current induced
in the loop when the current in the wire PQ is constantly
increasing.

[Ans. Clockwise
5. A conducting loop is held below a current carrying wire PQ as
shown in the figure. Predict the direction of the induced current in
the loop when the current in the wire PQ is constantly increasing.

[Ans. Anticlockwise
6. What is the direction of induced currents in metal rings 1 and 2
when current I in the wire is increasing steadily ?

[ Ans. Clockwise in loop 1, anticlockwise in loop 2

7. The closed loop (PQRS) of wire is moved in to a uniform

magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the paper as shown in
figure. Predict the direction of the induced current in the loop.

[Ans. Anticlockwise
8. What are eddy currents ? How are they produced ?
[ Ans. Eddy currents : The induced circulating currents produced in the bulk piece of a
conductor, when it is subjected to a changing magnetic flux, are known as eddy currents
 143

Eddy currents are produced when a bulk conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field
9. Give two uses of eddy currents.
Ans. (i) magnetic braking in electric trains (ii) to produce heat in induction furnaces
(iii) electro magnetic damping
10. Why eddy currents are considered undesirable ?
Because (i) they heat up the metallic core and dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.
(ii) they always oppose the motion.
11. How are eddy currents minimized ?
Ans. (i) using laminating iron core (ii) using slotted iron blocks
12. Describe briefly any two energy losses, giving the reason of their occurrence in actual
transformer. How are these reduced ?
[ Ans. Energy losses in a transformer :
(i) Copper loss : Energy loss as heat due to resistance of primary and secondary is called copper
loss and can be minimized by using thick copper wires
(ii) Iron loss : Energy loss as heat due to eddy currents in the iron core is called Iron loss and can
be reduced by using a laminated iron core
(iii) Hysteresis loss: Magnetisation of iron core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field and
energy is lost in the form of heat in the core. This is called hysteresis loss and can be minimized
by using a core of a material having low hysteresis loop.
(iv) Flux leakage : There is always some flux leakage; i,e, all of the flux due to primary does not
passes through the secondary. It can be minimized by winding primary and secondary coils one
over the other
13. Draw the diagrams og step-down and step-up transformer.
14 Give the direction in which the individual current flows in the wire loop ,when the magnet
moves towards it as shown in fig.
According to Lenz's law, induced E.M.F. is produced in the wire loop
with s pole at the face of the loop towards the magnet. Therefore the
direction of induced
Current is clockwise in the loop when run from the side of a magnet.
15. Why is self induction called inertia of electricity?
Because it opposes the growth of electric current
16. A rectangular loop of wire is pulled to right away from the long straight wire through which
a steady current I flows. Give the direction of individual current?

According to thumb rule magnetic field inside the loop is directed

into the plan of the paper. When the loop is pulled away the from
direction. But according to Lenz's law, the magnetic field produced
by the loop must oppose the direction of magnetic field. So current in
the loop must flow in the clockwise direction.
17. An induced e.m.f. has no direction of its own. Comment.
 144

Ans. The direction of induced e.m.f. is always opposite to the cause which produces it (Lenz's
law). So the direction of the induced e.m.f. is determined by the cause of it. Hence, an induced
e.m.f. has no direction of its own.
18. No induced e.m.f. is produced in the conductor when it is moved parallel to the magnetic
field. Explain why?
Ans. Induced e.m.f. is produced only when magnetic flux linked with it changes. Since there is
no change in the magnetic flux linked
With a conductor moving parallel to the magnetic field, hence no induced e.m.f. is produced in
it.
19. Two identical magnets are moved towards a closed coil one by one. One of the magnets is
moved faster and the other is moved slowly. In which case more induced e.m.f. will be
produced in the coil? Explain.
Ans. We know, induced e.m.f. produced is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes. When the magnet is moved faster towards the coil, the rate of
change of magnetic flux will be more and hence large induced e.m.f. is produced in the coil.
20. Spark is produced in switch when the light is put off. Explain why?
Ans. When the light is put off, a large e.m.f. is produced which opposes the decay of current in
the circuit. Consequently the large current flows momentarily which causes sparking in the
switch.
21. Two identical loops, one of copper and another of aluminum are rotated with the same
speed in the same magnetic field. In which case the induced (a) e.m.f. and (b) current will be
more? Explain.
Ans. The change in magnetic flux linked with both the loops will be same. So the induced e.m.f.
produced in both the loops is same.
Since the resistance of copper loop is less than that of the aluminium loop, so more current will
e
flow through the copper loop than that in the aluminium loop. I 
R
22. Three identical coils A, B and C are placed with their planes parallel to one another as
shown in the figure. Coil A and C carry equal current in opposite directions. The coil B and C are
fixed and the coil A is moved towards B with uniform speed. Is e.m.f. induced in B ? If yes, what
is its direction?
Ans. When coil A is moved towards coil B, magnetic flux linked
with B increases. As a result of this induced e.m.f. will be produced
in the coil B. Hence the current in B will flow. The direction of
current in B be such that it opposes the increase in magnetic flux
linked with it. The direction of current in B is opposite to that in coil A, so that the magnetic
field produced by it is opposite to that of produced by the coil A. Hence direction of current in B
is same as that in C.
23. A conducting loop is held stationary normal to the field between the NS poles of a fixed
permanent magnet. By choosing a magnet sufficiently strong, can we hope to generate current
in the loop?
Ans. Induced e.m.f. and hence current in the loop is generated only when the
magnetic flux linked with it changes. As the loop is stationary, so magnetic flux
 145

linked with it (weak or strong) does not change. Hence we can not hope to generate current in
the loop.
24. An electron moves in a circle with uniform speed in a stationary magnetic field normal to
the plane of the circle. If the field magnitude is made to increase with time, what will be the
effect on the speed of the electron? Will it remain in the same circle?
Ans. Energy spent to increase B by increasing current results into increase in electron's energy.
The electron will not stay in the same circle in general as v and B may not
mv
Increase in a ratio in the relation R = As such, R keeps on changing with time. It is however
eB
possible in a machine called Betatron used to accelerate charged particles. In this machine a
non- uniform B has controlled increase such that R remains constant with change in time also.
25.A magnet is dropped in a very long copper tube. Even in the absence of air resistance it
acquires a constant terminal velocity. Explain why?
Ans. When the magnet is dropped in a copper tube, eddy currents are produced in the tube.
These eddy currents produce the magnetic field which opposes the motion of the magnet. After
some time, the opposing force becomes equal to the gravitational pull on the magnet. Thus the
net force acting on the magnet is zero and hence the magnet acquires a constant velocity.
26.A coin is dropped between the pole pieces of a strong magnet. It falls as if moving through a
highly viscous fluid. Why?
Ans. When the coin is dropped, eddy currents are produced in it. These eddy currents oppose
the motion of the coin.
27. A bar falling vertically through the hollow region of a thick cylindrical shell made of copper
experiences retarding force. What’s special about the bar?
Ans. Retarding force experienced by the iron bar clearly shows that the iron bar is a magnet. As
this magnet falls through the hollow region of thick cylindrical shell, the change in flux linked
with the shell causes eddy currents in the shell. According to Lenz's law the induced e.m.f. must
oppose the cause i.e. oppose the motion of the magnet.
28.Two identical bulbs are connected as shown in the figure.
Which of the bulbs lights up earlier when key K is closed?
Will the bulbs be equally bright after sometime?
Ans. (a) When key (K) is closed, current begins to flow through both the
arms. Induced e.m.f. is produced across the inductor which opposes the
growth of current in the circuit. So current through B1is delayed. Hence
bulb B2 lights up earlier than that of bulb B1 (b) When current becomes
constant after some time in both the arms; no induced e.m.f. is produced in L. So both the
bulbs will be equally bright.
29. An electric bulb connected in parallel with an inductor glows brilliantly for a moment when
the current is switched off. Explain why?
Ans. When current is switched off, induced e.m.f. is produced in the inductor which opposes
the decay of current through it. Hence large current flows through the bulb for a moment and
hence it glows brilliantly for a moment.
30.An electric bulb connected in series with an inductor does not light up to full brilliance
immediately when the current is switched on. Explain why?
 146

Ans. When current flows through the circuit, induced, e.m.f. is produced in the inductor due to
self induction. This induced e.m.f. opposes the growth of the current and hence the bulb does
not light up to full brilliance at once.
31.A coil is wound on an iron core and looped back on itself so that the core has two sets of
closely wound wires in series carrying current in the opposite senses. What will be the effective
self inductance?
Ans. The coil is equivalent to two inductors connected in series but in opposition. The induced
e.m.f. in such a coil will be cancelled and as such the self inductance will be small. The
equivalent inductance will be given by the relation Leq = L1 + L2 - 2M = L + L -2L = 0
32. Why a small resistor is usually in parallel to the current carrying coil of an electromagnet?

Ans. The above arrangement is usually used in large

electromagnets. When switch K is switched off, the current in the
circuit is interrupted causing change in flux from a large value to
zero in a short duration. It will induce large e.m.f. across the open
switch causing sparks and damage. But if a resistance is provided
across the inductor, the induced e.m.f. is across this resistor which
allows a conducting path thus avoiding sparks and risks of high voltages.

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

Sl. Name of the SYMBOL NAME UNIT

No. Component
1 Resistance R Resistance R Ohm
2 Inductor L Inductive Reactance XL = ωL = 2 πν L Ohm
1 1
3 Capacitance C Capacitative Reactance 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔 𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜈 𝐶 Ohm
4 LR series Z Impedence 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ohm
Circuit
 147

5 RC series Z Impedence 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 Ohm

Circuit
6 LCR series Z Impedence 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 where X = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 Ohm
Circuit

The Voltage or current which varies sinusoidally with time periodically is called AC Voltage or
AC current.
General Form of AC Voltage = V =Vm sin ωt
Where V = Instantaneous Voltage at time t
Vm = Amplitude of Voltage or Maximum or Peak Voltage
ω = Angular Frequency t = time
The frequency of A C Voltage = ϑ= 50 Hz.
Angular Frequency = ω = 2 π ν = 314 rad/sec ω2 = 4 π2ϑ2 = 104 (rad/sec)2
Average or Mean value of Alternating Voltage:

Mean value of ac current is that value of the steady current which sends the same amount of
charge through a circuit in a certain time interval as is sent by an alternating current through
the same circuit in half cycle. Iav = 2I0 / 𝝅 = 0.637 I0
DERIVATION: Let an current is given by I = I0 sin ωt
The charge send by ac current in time dt = dq= I dt = I0 sin ωt dt
𝑇 ⁄2 𝐼
charge = 𝑞 = ∫0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜋0 𝑇
If Iave be the mean value of the ac over positive half cycle, the charge sent in time T/2
q = Iave x T/2
𝐈
= 𝛑𝟎 𝐓
𝟐𝐈
IAVE = 𝛑𝐨 = 0.637 I0
The mean or average value of a c over a complete cycle = 0.
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT IRMS:
IEFF = IRMS = I0 / √𝟐 = 0.707 iO
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF ALTERNATING VLOTAGE V RMS
Veff = VRMS = V0 / √𝟐 = 0.707 VO
Root mean square value of ac is defined as the steady current which produces the same
amount of heat in a conductor in a certain time as it is produced by ac in the same conductor
during time period T (ie full cycle).
DERIVATION:
Let an alternating current I = I0 sin wt flow through a conductor of resistance r for a time dt.
Heat produced in time dt = dQ= I2 R dt = I02 sin2 wt R dt
T 𝐈𝟐
Q = I02 R∫0 sin2 wt dt = 𝟐𝟎 𝐑 𝐓
Let Irms be the value of ac flows through the conductor of resistance in time t.
2 I20
Heat Energy Q = IRMS RT = RT
2
IRMS = I0 / √2 = 0.707 I0
 148

PHASE: The position of the current or voltage at aa particular instant is called Phase. It is
measured in radians. It is a sinusoidal relation between the voltage and current.
PHASOR DIAGRAM: The relation between Voltage and current is explained in terms of vectors.
The diagram which represents the vectorial relation between the voltage and the current is
called Phasor Diagram.
AN AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE RESISTOR OF RESISTANCE R ONLY:

Consider a circuit containing a resistor of resistance R connected to an ac source V = Vm sin ωt.

Let I be the current across it.

𝑉 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐼=
= = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
From the values of V and I, Voltage and current are in phase. Phase angle θ= 00
Power factor = cos θ = cos 00 = 1
POWER DELIVERED ACROSS RESISTOR:
V = Vm sin ωt I = Im sin ωt
Power delivered across resistor = P = V I =Vm Im sin2 ωt
𝑉 𝐼
𝑃 = 𝑚2 𝑚 (1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡
Work done in time dt = 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
2 2
𝑇𝑉 𝐼 𝑇𝑉 𝐼
Work done in full cycle in a time T = 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑚2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 − ∫0 𝑚2 𝑚 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑊= 𝑇
2
𝑊 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Power 𝑃 = = = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑇 √2 √2

AN AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTOR ONLY:

Consider a circuit containing a inductor of inductance L connected to an ac source V = V m sin ωt.

Let I be the current across it.
 149

𝑑𝐼
Self Induced emf 𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑑𝐼 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑇
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼=∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝜔𝑡
0 𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝐼 = − 𝜔𝐿 sin(900 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 900 )
XL = Inductive reactance = ωL = 2 π ν L
Inductive reactance is the property of inductor to oppose the flow of current across inductor in
circuit. V = Vm sin ωt I = Im sin ( ωt - 900)
Current lags the voltage by 900 or Voltage leads the voltage by 900
Power factor = Cos θ = cos (-900) = cos 900 = 0
POWER DELIVERED ACROSS INDUCTOR: V = Vm sin ωt , I = Im cos ωt
Power P = VI
Work done in time dt = dW = VI dt
dW =Vm sin ωt (- Im cos ωt) dt
= - VmIm sin ωt cos ωt dt
𝑉 𝐼
𝑑𝑊 = − 𝑚2 𝑚 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝐼 𝑇
Work done in inductor = 𝑊 = − 𝑚2 𝑚 ∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
Power delivered across inductor over full cycle = 0
AN AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITOR ONLY: Consider a circuit containing a capacitor of
capacitance C connected to an ac source V = Vm sin ωt.

Let I be the current across it.

 150

Potential difference across C = V = q/C

q = C Vm sin ωt
𝒅𝒒
current = 𝑰 = 𝒅𝒕 = 𝝎 𝑪 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
𝑉
𝐼 = 1⁄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐶
I = Im cos ωt
1/(ωC) = Capacitative reactance = Xc.
It is the property of capacitor to oppose the flow of the current across capacitor of capacitance
C. I = Im cos ωt
I= Im sin( ωt + 900)
Current leads the voltage by 900 or voltage lags the current by 900. θ = 900
Power factor = cos θ = cos 900 = 0
POWER DELIVERED ACROSS THE CAPACITOR:
Power delivered P = VI
Work done in time dt = dW = VI dt
𝑉 𝐼 𝑇
𝑊 = 𝑚2 𝑚 ∫0 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
Power delivered over full cycle = P = W/t = 0

. RESISTANCE INDUCTOR CAPACOITOR

Component Resistance Inductive Reactance XL =ωL Capacitative Reactance
1
𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶
Phase Voltage and current Voltage leads the current Voltage lags the current
difference are inphase by 900 by 900
Power factor 1 0 0
 151

Graph
between
current and
voltage
graph

Phasor
diagram

ACTIVE POWER, REACTIVE POWER AND APPARENT POWER

Power in an electric circuit is the rate of flow of energy past a given point of the circuit.
In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors may
result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power that, averaged
over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is
known as active power (sometimes also called real power).
ACTIV E POWER: If the load is purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their polarity at the
same time. At every instant the product of voltage and current is positive or zero, with the
result that the direction of energy flow does not reverse. In this case, only active power is
transferred.
REACTIVE POWER: The portion of power due to stored energy, which returns to the source in
each cycle, is known as reactive power.
If the loads are purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase. For
half of each cycle, the product of voltage and current is positive, but on the other half of the
cycle, the product is negative, indicating that on average, exactly as much energy flows toward
the load as flows back. There is no net energy flow over one cycle. In this case, only reactive
power flows—there is no net transfer of energy to the load.
APPARENT POWER: Apparent power is the product of the root-mean-square of voltage and
current
Power Factor: In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is
defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and
is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of -1 to 1.
Choke Coil: In electronics, a choke is an inductor used to block higher-frequency alternating
current (AC) in an electrical circuit, while passing lower-frequency or direct current (DC).
Watt-less current: Watt-less current is AC component, whereby the power consumed in the
circuit is zero.
1. A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observations for dc and ac
connections. What happens in each case if the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced?
 152

When a dc source is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged and after charging no
current flows in the circuit and the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even if C is
reduced. With ac source, the capacitor offers capacitive reactance (1/ωC) and the current flows
in the circuit. Consequently, the lamp will shine.
Reducing C will increase reactance and the lamp will shine less brightly than before.
2. A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source through a key as
shown in Fig
The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is
inserted into the interior of the inductor. The glow of the light
bulb
(a) increases;
(b) decreases;
(c) is unchanged,
As the iron rod is inserted. Give your answer with reasons.
As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes the iron increasing the
magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil increases. Consequently, the inductive
reactance of the coil increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears
across the inductor, leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
decreases
3. At an airport, a person is made to walk through the doorway of a metal detector, for
security reasons. If she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the metal detector emits a
sound. On what principle does this detector work?
The metal detector works on the principle of resonance in ac circuits. When you walk through a
metal detector, you are, in fact, walking through a coil of many turns. The coil is connected to
capacitor tuned so that the circuit is in resonance. When you walk through with metal, in your
pocket, the impedance of the circuit changes; resulting in significant change in current in the
circuit. This change in current is detected and the electronic circuitry causes a sound to be
emitted as an alarm.
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO LR SERIES CIRCUIT:
Consider an ac circuit containing Inductor L and Resistor R connected in series to a source of
emf E = Em sin ωt. Let I be the current across the circuit. I = Im sin(ωt + ϕ)
The source Voltage is the sum of the potential differences across L and R.
E = EL + IR
𝑑𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑑𝑡
By substituting I in the above equation,
Em sin ωt = ωL Im cos (ωt + ϕ) + R Im sin (ωt + ϕ)
= XL Im cos (ωt + φ) + RIm sin( ωt+φ)
𝑋 𝑅
Let Impedence 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 sin 𝜃 = 𝑍𝐿 cos 𝜃 = 𝑍
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑍 [ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)]
𝑍 𝑍
Em sin ωt = Im Z ( cos θ sin (ωt+ϕ) + sin θ cos (ωt + ϕ) )
Em sin ωt = Em sin (ωt + ϕ +θ)
ωt = ωt + ϕ + θ
 153

ϕ+θ=0
ϕ=-θ
Voltage E = Em sin wt, current I = I = I m sin (wt – θ)
Voltage leads the current by an angle θ.

The current I and the potential difference across R are always in phase,
but the potential difference E L across inductance leads the current I by an angle 900
Therefore, resultant voltage is given by
𝐸 = √𝐸𝐿2 + 𝐸𝑅2 ER = IR EL = I X l
𝐸
So, impedance of RL circuit, 𝑍 = 𝐼 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
From phasor diagram, voltage £ leads current by 900.
𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅
AC THROUGH A SERIES RC CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit contain resistance R and capacitance C in series.

Let I be the current flowing in the circuit,
ER (=IR) the potential difference across resistance and
Ec (= IXC) the potential difference across capacitance.
E = ER + EC
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐸=𝑅 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Charge = q = qm sin (ωt + ϕ)
𝑞𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝐸 = 𝑅 𝜔 𝑞𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) +
𝐶
𝜔𝑞𝑚
𝐸 = 𝑅 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝜔𝐶
E = RIm cos (ωt + ϕ) + Im XC sin (ωt +ϕ)
𝑅 𝑋𝐶
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 { cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}
𝑍 𝑍
𝑅 𝑋
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑍 sin 𝜃 = 𝑍𝐶
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑚 {cos 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + sin 𝜃 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)}
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 − 𝜃)
𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸𝑚 sin(900 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 − 𝜃)
ω t = ω t + 900 + ϕ - θ
ϕ = θ - 900
 154

I = Im sin (ωt + θ - 900)

𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 sin{−[900 − (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]}
𝑞 = −𝑞𝑚 sin [900 − (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]
q = - qm cos (ωt + θ)
𝑑𝑞
𝐼 = = 𝜔𝑞𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑑𝑡
I = Im sin(ωt + ϕ)
V = Vm sin ωt
Current leads Voltage by angle ϕ
The potential difference E R and current I are in same phase and the potential difference Ec
lags behind the current I (and hence E R ) by phase angle 90 0.
The resultant e.m.f 𝐸 2 = 𝐸𝑅2 + 𝐸𝐶2
E2 = I2 R2 + I2 XC2 E2 = I2( R2 + XC2)
2 2
Z = R + XC 2

The current leads the applied e.m.f by phase angle  given by

AC THROUGH A SERIES LC CIRCUIT
Let a circuit contain inductance L and capacitance C in series.
Let I be the current flowing in circuit,
The potential difference across inductance L = EL = IXL
The potential difference across capacitor = Ec = IXC .
The potential difference Ec lags behind the current by angle 900
and the Potential difference EL leads the current by angle 900 .
So, resultant applied e.m.f, E = Ec - EL = IXC - IXL

Impedance of circuit, Z = XL - XC

The leading of current over applied e.m.f is ± 900

1
If Xc = XL , then Z = 0 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶

The two-element LC circuit described above is the simplest type of inductor-capacitor network
(or LC network).
It is also referred to as a second order LC circuit to distinguish it from more complicated (higher
order) LC networks with more inductors and capacitors. Such LC networks with more than two
reactance may have more than one resonant frequency.
Notice the circuit given below has no power source, obviously the capacitor must have been
first charged, the charging battery removed and the stored electrical energy in the capacitor
being converted into magnetic energy around the coil due to changing current in it
 155

To understand this further, if an inductor is connected across a charged capacitor; current will
start to flow through the inductor, building up a magnetic field around it and reducing the
voltage on the capacitor. Eventually all the charge on the capacitor will be gone and the voltage
across it will reach zero.
However, the current will continue, because inductors resist changes in current. The current
will begin to charge the capacitor with a voltage of opposite polarity to its original charge. Due
to Faraday's law, the EMF which drives the current is caused by a decrease in the magnetic
field, thus the energy required to charge the capacitor is extracted from the magnetic field.
When the magnetic field is completely dissipated the current will stop and the charge will again
be stored in the capacitor, with the opposite polarity as before.
Then the cycle will begin again, with the current flowing in the opposite direction through the
inductor
The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the capacitor, through the inductor. The
energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor until (if not
replenished from an external circuit) internal resistance makes the oscillations die out
AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO LCR SERIES CIRCUIT

Consider an ac circuit containing L, C and R in series with an ac

source of emf V = Vm sin wt

Let I be the current, the charge I = dq/dt, dI/dt = d/dt (dq/dt)

=d2q/dt2

Let q = qm sin(ωt+ϕ) where ϕ is phase

𝑑𝑞
Current 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜔𝑞𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
I = Im cos(ωt+ϕ)
𝑑𝐼
= −𝜔2 𝑞𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑑𝑡
The source voltage V is divided across L, C, and R respectively as VL, VC , and VR such that
V = Vl + VC + VR
𝑑𝐼 𝑞
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐿 +
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞 2
𝑑 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐶
𝑞𝑚
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅 𝜔 𝑞𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝐿𝜔2 𝑞𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝐶
𝜔 𝑞𝑚
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅 𝜔 𝑞𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − (𝐿 𝜔)(𝑞𝑚 𝜔) sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜑) + sin(𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑅 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) − 𝑋𝐿 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐶 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑅 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑅 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑍 { cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) + [ ] sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)}
𝑍 𝑍
𝑅 𝑋 −𝑋
Three constants are taken. 𝑍 = cos 𝜃, 𝐶 𝑍 𝐿 = sin 𝜃 , 𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 , Vm = Im Z
By substituting , Vm sin ωt = Vm cos θ cos (ωt+ ϕ) + Vm sin θ sin (ωt + ϕ)
Vm sin ωt = Vm cos (ωt + ϕ - θ)
 156

Vm sin ω t = Vm sin ( 900 + ω t + ϕ - θ)

By comparing both sides, ω t = 900 + ω t + ϕ - θ
ϕ = θ - 900
Now current becomes q = qm sin (ωt + θ - 900)
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚 sin{−[900 − (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]}
𝑞 = − 𝑞𝑚 sin[900 − (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)]
q = - qm cos ( ωt + θ)
𝑑𝑞
Current = 𝐼 = = 𝜔𝑞𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
𝑑𝑡
I = Im sin (ωt + θ)
Voltage V = Vm sin ωt
Current leads the voltage by an angle θ
CAPACITATIVE CIRCUIT:
When the current leads the voltage, the Capacitative reactance ˃ Inductive reactance
Voltage across Capacitor ˃ Voltage across inductor
XC > X L OR VC> VL
2
IMPEDENCE Z = √R + (XC − X L ) 2

Phase angle is positive.

INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT:
When the current lags the voltage, the capacitative reactance < 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Voltage across Capacitor ˂ Voltage across Inductor
XC < X L OR VC< VL
2
IMPEDENCE Z = √R + (XL − X C ) 2

Phase angle is negative.

RESISTIVE CIRCUIT OR RESONANCE CIRCUIT:
When the current and the voltage are in phase, θ = 00
the capacitative reactance = Inductive Reatance
Voltage across Capacitor = Voltage across Inductor
XC =XL OR VC =VL
2
IMPEDENCE Z = √R + (XC − X L ) = R 2
1
XC =X L That means ωL = 1/(ωC) or 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶
CONDITIONS FOR RESONANCE:
01. Capacitative reactance = Inductive Reactance XC =𝑋𝐿
02. Voltage across capacitor = Voltage across Inductor VC =𝑉𝐿
03. Impedence Z = R
04. Current is maximum
1
05. Resonance Frequency 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶
06. Current and Voltage are in Phase
07. Power delivered across circuit is maximum.
08. Phase angle is Zero ( 00) and Power factor = cos θ = cos 0 = 1 = Maximum

PHASOR DIAGRAM: IMPEDENCE DIAGRAM

 157

For Resistor, Current and Voltage are in Phase VR = IR -----(1)

For Inductor, Voltage leads current by 900. VL = I XL----(2)
For capacitor, current leads the voltage by 900, VC = I XC ----(3)
For LCR series circuit, V =I Z where Z is impedance
From the figure,
V2 = VR2 + (VC- VL)2
By substituting above, 𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅2 + 𝐼 2 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑉2
= 𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝐼2
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
Variation of Current with Frequency:
Impedance = 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
1
where 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 XL = ω L
Current I = V/ Z
At low frequencies ν, Capacitative reactance becomes infinity
Inductive reactance becomes zero. Impedance becomes Infinity. Current = 0
At higher frequencies ν ,Capacitative reactance becomes zero
Inductive reactance becomes infinity. Impedance becomes Infinity. Current = 0
At Resonance frequency, XC = XL Impedance = R.
Current = Maximum
So, at Resonance Frequency, the peak of the curve is more for lower value of R.
Current is maximum. The peak of the curve is less for higher value of R. Current is minimum.

Q- FACTOR OR QUALITY FACTOR:

A parameter of an oscillatory system or device, such as a laser, expressing the relationship
between stored energy and energy dissipation.
The Q-factor of an LCR series circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage across inductor or
capacitor at resonance to the voltage across the resistor.
So, It is an indicator of the sharpness of the current peak, higher the value of Q ,
sharper is the current peak.
𝜔 𝐿
Q- Factor indicates the sharpness of the resonance of the circuit. Q - Factor = 𝑄. 𝐹. = 𝑅0
𝝎
It is also given by formula 𝑸. 𝑭. = 𝟐 ∆𝟎𝝎 where Δ ω = Band width
 158

𝟏 𝐋
Q- Factor 𝑸. 𝑭. = 𝐑 √𝐂
Tuning is good, if resonance is very sharp, the current is maximum.

Band width For values of ω other than ω0 , the amplitude of the current is less than the
maximum value. Suppose we choose a value of ω for which the current amplitude is 1/ 2 times
its maximum value.( ω0 + Δω) and .( ω0 - Δω) At this value, the power dissipated by the circuit
becomes half ,.the difference between the two values of ω which will give half the maximum
current is called band width
𝜔0
Band Width 𝑄 = 2 ∆𝜔
POWER DELIVERED ACROSS AC CIRCUIT:
Consider a circuit in which voltage and current are given by V = Vm sin ω t, I = Im sin (ωt + θ)
where θ is the phase angle between voltage and current.
Power = P = VI
Work done in a time dt = dW = VI dt
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
Work done = 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∫0 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑊= cos 𝜃 𝑇
2
𝑊 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=𝑃 = cos 𝜃
𝑇 √2 √2
P = Vrms Irms cos θ
For Pure resistor, The angle between voltage and current is 00. Power = P = Vrms Irms
For Inductor or capacitor, the angle between voltage and current is 900. Power = 0
WATTLESS CURRENT: Across the inductor or capacitor, the power delivered is zero, even
though the current is flowing across it. This current is called Wattless Current.
LC OSCILLATIONS:
Consider an inductor and a charged capacitor are connected in the series circuit.
The charge on the capacitor decrease, and the current is rised in the circuit.
Voltage across capacitor + Voltage across Inductor = zero.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐼 𝑑2 𝑞
𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
q d2 q
+L 2 =0
C dt
𝑑2𝑞 1
2
+ 𝑞=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶
When it is compared with a simple harmonic oscillator, the frequency ω2 = 1/(LC)
If q = qm sin ( ωt + θ)
1 𝑞2
The energy associated with the capacitor = 𝑈𝐸 = 2 𝐶
1 2
Energy associated with inductor = 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿 𝐼
2
𝑞𝑚
Then Total energy 𝑈 = 2𝐶
 159

LC OSCILLATIONS ANALOGY TO THE SIMPLE OSCILLATOR

PREVIOUS YEAR BOARD EXAMINATION QUESTIONS- AC CIRCUITS

1. Ordinary ammeters and voltmeters are used to measure D.C. and not A.C. But the
hot wire ammeter and voltmeters can be used to measure the current and voltage for
D.C. and A.C. both. Explain why?
Ans. Average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero so we can not measure a.c. with
ordinary meters. On the other hand, hot wire meters are used to measure a.c. and d.c.
both as they depend on the heating effect of current which is independent of the
direction of the flow of current. When a.c. flows through a resistance, then equal
amount of heat is produced during both the halves. Thus, a.c. can be defined in terms
of d.c. which produces the same heating effect as the given a.c.
2. Which is more dangerous in use, a.c. or D.C.? Explain why?
Ans. A.C. is more dangerous than d.c. because the peak value of A.C. is more than the
indicated value. Suppose we have 200 V a.c. and 200 V d.c. Then the peak value of
V0 = √2 Vrms = 282.8 V While that of d.c. is only 220 V.
3. Capacitor blocks d.c. Why?
Ans. The capacitive reactance for DC = XC = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2πνC) = Infinity.
Since capacitor offers infinite resistance to the flow of d.c, so d.c. cannot pass through
the capacitor.
4.D.C. can flow easily through inductor, but a.c. cannot pass easily. Explain.
Ans. For DC, The inductive reactance XL = ω L = 2 π ν L = 0
Since inductor offers no resistance to the flow of d.c, hence it can flow easily through
the inductor.
For AC, Frequency is not zero, X L is finite. since inductor offers resistance to the flow of
a.c, so it cannot flow easily through inductor .
5. Draw the graphs showing the variation of reactance of (a) a capacitor and (b) an
inductor with the frequency of an a.c. circuit.
Reactance of capacitor, Capacitative reactance is inversely proportional to frequency
1 1
and Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency, 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔 𝐶 = 2 𝜋𝜈 𝐶 ,
1
𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝜈
Inductive reactance XL = ω L = 2πνL or XL α ν
 160

6. When an alternating voltage of 200 V is applied across a device X, a current of 0-5 A

flows through the circuit and is in phase with the applied voltage. When the same
voltage is applied across another device Y, the same current again flows through the
circuit but it leads the applied voltage by π/2 radians. Identify the devices.
Ans. The current and voltage are in phase in a.c. circuit containing resistor only.
So the device X is a resistor.
The current leads the voltage by an angle of π/2 in a.c. circuit containing capacitor only.
So the device Y is a capacitor.
7.An ideal inductor when connected in a.c. circuit does not produce heating effect yet
reduces the current in the circuit. Explain why?
Ans. An ideal inductor is a coil having inductance (L) but no ohmic resistance.
Heating effect of current appears in the form of heat (I 2 R t) produced in the circuit.
Since R = 0 in case of an ideal inductor, so there is no heating effect.
On the other hand, resistance offered by inductor is X :L = ωL, so current is reduced.
9.Voltage across L and C in series are 180°out of phase but for L and C in parallel,
currents in L and C are 180° out of phase. How?
Ans. When L and C are in series, voltage across L leads the current by an angle of π/2
and across C, voltage lags behind the current by π/2. So the voltage across L and C
In series are π/2 + π/2 = π out of phase.
When L and C are in parallel, current in L lags behinds the voltage by an angle of
π/2.whereas current through C leads the voltage by an angle of π/2 . Hence currents in

L and C are 180° out of phase.

11. A bulb connected in series with a solenoid is lit by a.c. source. If the soft iron core is
introduced in the solenoid, will the bulb glow brighter?
Ans. Inductive reactance, XL = ωL = 2πνL.
When soft iron core is introduced in the solenoid, the value of L increases. Hence
inductive reactance will also increase. Since the effective opposition (reactance) offered
by the solenoid increases, so the current through it will decrease. Therefore the bulb
will glow dimmer.
12.An a.c. source is connected to two circuits as shown in Figure. What is the current
through R at resonance in both the circuits?
 161

Ans. The circuit is a series LCR circuit. At resonance, impedance Z = R, Impedence =

Minimum. current is maximum.

The other circuit is a parallel resonant circuit. So impedance (Z) of the circuit is
maximum and hence current through R is zero.
13.For circuits used for transporting electric power, a low power factor implies a large
power loss in transmission.
Ans.The average power in a.c. is given by
Pav = Erms Irms COS Ф°
If the power factor (cos Ф) is low, then large value of E rms current (Irms) flows in the
transmission line for a given value of Erms.
Large power loss I rms 2
R  occurs in the line.
14. Figure shows an inductor L and a resistor R connected in parallel to a battery through a
switch. The resistance is same as that of coil that makes . Two identical bulbs are put in each
arm of the circuit.
(i) Which of the bulbs lights up earlier when S is closed ?
(ii) Will the two bulbs be equally bright after some time ?
Give reason for your answer.
[Ans. (i) Bulb B2 lights up earlier
Reason : induced emf across L opposes growth of current in B1
(ii) yes, after some time both bulbs will be equally bright
Reason : after some time current reached its maximum value in L and self-induction plays no
role
15.A lamp is connected in series with an inductor L and an a.c. source. What happens to the
brightness of the lamp when the key is plugged in and an iron rod is inserted inside the inductor
? Explain.

[Ans. Brightness decreases

Reason : When iron rod is inserted, inductance increases XL = ωL increases
 162

𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 increases, current I = V/Z decreases

Hence brightness decreases
16. A bulb is connected in series with a variable capacitor C and an a.c. source as shown. How
the brightness of bulb changes on reducing the (a) capacitance and (b) frequency ? Justify your
answer.

[Ans. (a) Brightness will decreases

Reason : When capacitance is reduced, capcitative reactance XC = 1/(ωC) increases
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 increases and current decreases
Hence brightness decreases.
(b) Brightness will decreases
Reason : When frequency is reduced, capacitative reactance XC = 1/(ωC) increase.
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 increases and current decreases
Hence brightness decreases.
17. Define quality factor (Q-factor) and give its significance. What is its S.I. unit ?
[Ans. Quality factor: It is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to the frequency band
width of the resonant curve
1 𝐿 𝜔 𝜔 𝐿
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑄. 𝐹. ) = √ = 0 = 0
𝑅 𝐶 2 ∆𝜔 𝑅
Significance : It gives the sharpness of resonance. For larger value of Q, resonance will be
sharper and consequently the circuit will be more selective.
Unit : It has no unit
18. Name the factors on which Quality factors depends.
[Ans. Resonating frequency ω0 and band width 2 Δ ω
19. Why should the quality factor have high value in receiving circuits ?
[Ans. For high value of Q, resonance will be sharper and consequently the circuit will be more
selective
20. Define the term ‘sharpness of resonance’. Under what condition, does a circuit become
more selective ?
[Ans. Sharpness of resonance : The ratio of resonant frequency to the frequency band width of
the resonant curve is the measure of sharpness of resonance (called Q-factor) and is given by
For high value of Q, resonance will be sharper and consequently the circuit will be more
selective
𝜔0 𝜔0 𝐿
𝑄. 𝐹. = =
2∆𝜔 𝑅
21. Define the term power factor. State the condition under which it is (i) maximum and (ii)
minimum.
[ Ans. Power factor : It is the ratio of resistance to the impedance of an a.c. circuit. cos θ = R/Z
(i) when Resistance = Impendence, R = Z, cos θ = 1, θ = 00, Power factor = 1 , maximum
i,e, when the circuit is purely resistive, power factor is maximum
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(ii) when Resistance = 0, cos θ = 0, θ = 900 Power factor = 0 , minimum

i,e, when the circuit is purely inductive or capacitive, power factor is minimum ]
22. Define the term ‘Wattless current’.
[ Ans. Wattless current : The current which flows in a circuit without consuming any electrical
power is called Watt less current.
In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cos θ =0 = R/z P = Vrms Irms cos θ = 0
23. The power factor of an a.c. circuit is 0.5. What is the phase difference between the voltage
and current in the circuit ?
[Ans. cos θ = 0.5 = cos 600 θ = 600
24. In a series LCR circuit, VL = VC = VR , What is the value of power factor ?
[Ans. In a series LCR circuit, VL = VC = VR XL = XC = R Z = R, Power factor = cos θ = R/Z = 1
25. In an a.c. circuit, the instantaneous voltage and current are V = 200 sin 314t Volt and
I = 8 cos 314t Ampere respectively. Is the nature of the circuit is capacitive or inductive ? Give
reason.
V = 200 sin 314t I = 8 cos 314t = 8 sin (314t + 900)
Current leads Voltage by 900, It is capacitative circuit.
26. Can the voltage drop across the inductor or the capacitor in a series LCR circuit be greater
than the applied voltage of the a.c. source ? Justify your answer.
[ Ans. Yes, because in series LCR circuit, VL or VC are not in same phase, hence cannot be added
like ordinary numbers
27. How is the transformer used in large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy
over long distances ?
[ Ans. (a) output voltage of the power generator is stepped-up so that current is reduced and as
a result, line loss I2 R is also reduced
(b) It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station, where voltage is stepped
down.
(c) It is further stepped down at local sub-stations and poles before a power supply of 220 V
reaches our homes
28. A voltage V = V0 sin ωt is applied to a series LCR circuit. Under what condition is -
(i) no power is dissipated even though the current flows through the circuit,
(ii) maximum power dissipated in the circuit.
P = Vrms Irms cos θ
a. Power = 0, P = Vrms Irms cos θ = 0, cos θ = 0, θ = 900. If the voltage leads or lags current by 900,
the power is zero.
b. Power = Maximum, cos θ = 1, θ = 00, If the voltage and current are inphase with each other, power is
maximum.

HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS

1. Electricity from power substation comes by two wires, live wire and neutral wire.
The transformers at the substation reduce the high voltage from the power station to 220V-
240V. The three wires may be connected to household by underground or overhead connection
for safety and ease of repair.
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2. Household circuit consists of three wires: live wire (red in color), neutral wire (black), and
earth wire (green).
3. The green wire is embedded in the earth for earthing
4. Earth wire is used for safety purposes, any current leaked into or from the appliances flows
harmlessly to the earth.
5. All appliances are connected in parallel to each other. This ensures independent operation
for each device with the help of dedicated switches and connecting wires.
NEED OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS:
Each appliance has a separate switch, separate connecting wires for individual appliance circuit
providing same potential difference
i) In parallel circuit, if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all other
appliances keeps working normally.
ii) In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be turned
on or turned off independently.
iii) In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance gets the same voltage (220V) as that of the
power supply line.
iv) In the parallel connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the household
circuit is reduced due to which the current from the power supply is high.
A fuse or an MCB to break or switch off the circuit whenever there is overloading is placed in
series with the devices. It is possible that two or more devices use the same fuse.
FUSE
A device that switches off the circuit the instant current exceeds a certain value.
Fuse is an application of Joule’s heating effect of current. It protects circuits and appliances by
stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current.
The fuse is placed in series with the device.
It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for
example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc.
If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the
fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.
The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal ends.

For an electric iron/ electric press which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220
V, a current of (1000/220) A, that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A wire must
be used with the electric iron
Current can rise in circuits due to following reasons:
1. Overloading (too many higher power appliances turned on)
2. Short circuiting (live wire and neutral wire joined together )
3. Fluctuation in supply voltage
ADVANTAGES OF MCB:
All fuse wires need to be replaced manually when they have operated which is not desirable,
because both location of fuse circuit and its replacement has to be done by pulling out the plug
and checking the fuse wire.
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Unlike a fuse, an MCB operates as automatic switch that opens in case of excessive current
flowing through the circuit and once the circuit returns to normal, it can be closed without any
manual replacement.
MCB MEANING:
MCBs are used primarily as an alternative to the fuse switch in most of the circuits. A wide
variety of MCBs have been in use nowadays with breaking capacity of 10KA to 16 KA, in all
areas of domestic, commercial and industrial applications as a reliable means of protection.
MCB – Magnetic circuit breaker MCB -Miniature circuit breaker
PARTS OF MCB
The points shown in figure (a) are depicted as:
1: operating lever
2: operating mechanism
3. Above one is fixed contact and below one is
moving contact
4: Upper terminal (incoming supply) and lower
terminal (outgoing supply or load)
5. Bi-metallic strip
6: Latch point
7: Electro-magnetic protection (solenoid or magnetic
coil)
8: Arc chamber
HOW does an MCB work?
If circuit is overloaded for long time, the bi - metallic strip becomes over heated and deformed
Construction of MCB
This deformation of bi metallic strip causes displacement of latch point.
The moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of a spring, with this latch point, that a
little displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes the moving contact to move for
opening the MCB.
An MCB embodies complete enclosure in a moulded insulating material. This provides
mechanically strong and insulated housing. The switching system consists of a fixed and a
moving contact to which incoming and outgoing wires are connected. The metal or current
carrying parts are made up of electrolytic copper or silver alloy depending on the rating of the
circuit breaker. carrying parts are made up of electrolytic copper or silver alloy depending on
the rating of the circuit breaker.
MCBs are used to perform many functions such as local control switches, isolating switches
against faults and overload protection for equipments or appliances

A device ‘X’ is connected to an ac source V = V0 sin ωt. The variation of

voltage, current and power in one cycle is shown in the following graph

(a) Identify the device ‘X’.

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(b) Which of the curves A, B and C represent the voltage, current and
the power consumed in the circuit ? Justify your answer.
a) The device X is a capacitor
b) Curve B voltage
Curve C current
Curve A power
Reason: The current leads the voltage in phase, by 900 for a capacitor.